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How is Self-Esteem Manipulated by Social Media?

A Review of the Social Psychological Influences of Social Media on Self-Esteem

Kennedy Sutton

Calvin University

PSYC 310: Social Psychology

Dr. Blake Riek

April 13, 2022

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Abstract

This review looks into the effects of the increasing presence of social media and the

effects that it has on self-esteem. Social media manipulates the self-esteem of adolescents and

adults. There are many factors that influence self-esteem- mental health, body image, peer

pressure, and age. Overall, it is concluded that there is a negative correlation between social

media use and self-esteem. This is seen in adolescents, as there is a negative correlation between

access to social media and mental health, as well as body satisfaction. These correlations are also

reflected in the evidence pertaining to adults. The studies also support the claim that females are

more influenced by presence on social media sites than males.

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Introduction

As social media has become more prevalent in today’s society, many questions are

brought up concerning the effects, both long term and short term, that it will have on adolescents

and adults. For many adolescents today, there has never been a world without social media;

however, for most adults, there has been a progressive introduction throughout their lifetime. It is

important to acknowledge the different influences that social media has on each age group, as

research suggests a correlation between age and social media usage relating to the development

of an individual’s self-esteem. According to the American Psychological Association (APA),

self-esteem is one's own perception of the self based on different characteristics and qualities

they withhold. Thus, the more positive a perception, the higher one’s self esteem tends to be

(APA, n.d.). Psychologists have conducted numerous studies to predict the overall level of

self-esteem experienced by both adolescents and adults, which is often reflected by their mental

health and other environmental factors.

The Impact on Adolescents

The majority of studies conducted by psychologists on the topic of social media and how

it manipulates self-esteem is focused on adolescents. This may be due to the fact that it is easier

to identify trends in development as they have been in constant exposure. Psychologists have

pinpointed peer pressure, self-satisfaction, and mental health as factors in the development of

self-esteem in adolescents.

Puberty may be a factor to blame in the amount of influence an adolescent allows social

media to have on their self-esteem. While it is normal for adolescents to gain weight during

puberty, it is just as acceptable for them to make their social media debut. Based on the results

from questionnaires, it was concluded that adolescents with a higher BMI experience more
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pressure from peers and parents, including but not limited to, pressure to conform to beauty

standards, social norms, and groups among many other things (Helfert & Warschburger, 2013).

In a 2013 study by Helfert and Warschburger, many factors were established that lead to the

development of adolescent self-esteem. This study focuses on the aspect of media as well as peer

and parental pressure, which can be presented in the form of isolation, teasing, and enhancement

of norms (i.e. appropriate self-presentation) (Helfert & Warschburger, 2013). Influence and

acceptance from peers and parents is a crucial factor in the improvement of adolescent

self-esteem. There is a positive correlation between peer pressure and negative self-esteem in

both male and female adolescents, which shows that both genders are affected by the social

pressure online as well as at home (Jones, Vigfusdottir, & Lee, 2004; Helfert & Warschburger,

2013). Adolescents experience peer pressure on social media sites through the exposure to

images and other content that include judgemental language and the support of norms- such as

body weight and shape (Herfelt & Warschburger, 2013).

Emotional response plays a role in the development of an adolescent’s self esteem. This

is often measured in psychological studies through the focus of self-satisfaction. Social media

usage allows for emotions to be influenced by what is being seen; whether it be cyberbullying,

amount of likes and followers, or the ability to fit in though an updated “trendy” feed. It has been

found that there is a positive correlation between peer appearance criticism and body

dissatisfaction in adolescents. (Jones et al., 2004). Though this correlation is present when

looking at the self-satisfaction of males, there is a significantly higher correlation in females,

especially in the presence of media (Jones et al., 2004). The Social Media Appearance

Preoccupation Scale (SMAPS) was developed during a study by Zimmer-Gembeck, Hawes, and

Pariz (2021) to interpret the emotional impact that self-presentation, appearance-related activity
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online, and appearance comparison had on highschool students. These three factors lead to

different levels of emotional maturation in adolescents.

Most people find themselves not feeling their best when they haven’t had a night of

restful sleep- whether it be in the classroom or out. In a study done by Woods and Scott (2016),

adolescent night time social media use was correlated with poor sleep quality. This in turn was

correlated with poorer self-esteem due to the emotional attachment placed on social media,

especially late at night. This emotional attachment was not only related to lower self-esteem but

also higher levels of depression and anxiety. When time is spent off of social media, adolescents

feel a sense of disconnect from others as well as isolation due to the emotional attachment which

increases the chances of lower self-esteem (Woods & Scott, 2016).

Overall, it was concluded from multiple studies that age and grade-level didn’t offer

significant variability when looking at the relation of social media usage to self-esteem (Helfert

& Warschburger, 2013; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021). In two studies, students of different

grade-levels were asked the same questions to determine if grade level was a contributing factor

to the self-esteem level of students that are active on social media. It was determined from the

data that grade-level did not play a significant role in the development of an adolescent’s

self-esteem when relating to activity on social networking sites (Helfert & Warschburger, 2013;

Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021). Since these individuals are experiencing puberty, this often

means an imbalance of hormones. This results in difficulty predicting the emotional response of

the pressures presented by social media. However, adolescents active on social media sites often

form upward comparisons to their peers which has been suggested as harmful to their mood and

attitude towards their peers (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015). These upwards comparisons can stem from
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the presence of others online that may be of higher financial standing or of those that are more

conforming to current beauty standards.

The presence of upward comparisons present questions concerning the impact of social

media on adolescent mental health, and has become an extensive area of research for

psychologists. Many disorders such as anxiety, depression, obsessive compulsive disorder

(OCD), and eating disorders have been correlated to the effects of social media usage

(Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021; Nesi & Prinstein, 2015; Fontes-Perryman & Spina, 2021; Woods

& Scott, 2016). An increase in social media use has resulted in a stronger correlation between

appearance anxiety and self-esteem (Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021). The content that

adolescents are exposed to on social networking sites opens the gates to the dangers of society’s

perceived standards of beauty, for both males and females. These standards of beauty often

impact female users more than males and often hurt their mental health more often, too, due to

the encouragement of appearance comparison to those online. There is a strong positive

correlation between appearance comparison and appearance anxiety (Zimmer-Gembeck et al.,

2021).

Anxiety is a disorder that is oftentimes associated with depression. Depression diagnoses

are continuing to increase among adolescents, and the usage of social media appears to be

associated with that. In a study done by Nesi and Prinstein (2015) used two sets of questionnaires

answered one year apart by students in search of finding the correlation between social media

usage and depressive symptoms in adolescents. The study concluded that there is a positive

correlation between the amount of technology and social media use and the presence of

depressive symptoms. Appearance comparison is one of the leading factors that leads to the

development of mental health issues that affect the development of an adolescent’s self-esteem,
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and consistent exposure to social media encourages appearance comparison (Helftert &

Warschburger, 2013). Due to the fact that bodies look different during this stage in an

individuals’ life, it is highly likely that there is discrepancy between what is praised on social

media and the current state of development that an adolescent is experiencing. The presence of

depressive symptoms is higher in female adolescents, who are often more self-conscious than

males during puberty, when comparing the amount of time spent on social media to their mental

well-being (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015). This is due to the fact that those that are engaging in social

comparison as a result of social media usage tend to experience higher frequencies of depressive

symptoms because they have come to the conclusion that other individuals are experiencing

higher rates of stability (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015). The APA relates the presence of depressive

symptoms to lower self-esteem in individuals, and highlights the importance of high self-esteem

resulting in increased mental health (APA, n.d.). Those that reported depressive symptoms after

consistent nighttime social media use also reported lower self-esteem and increased symptoms of

anxiety; therefore, this correlation suggests that social media before bed does not provide any

benefits to the adolescent, rather the elimination of use before bed could offer room for increased

self-esteem (Woods & Scott, 2016).

Other increases in mental disorders have been linked to the increase in social media use,

one of which being obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). This has been studied among a

variety of ages, and data has not presented much variation in age being a factor to the presence of

OCD symptoms and behaviors (Fontes-Perryman & Spina, 2021). A study conducted by

Fontes-Perryan and Spina (2021) identified the correlation between OCD, compulsive social

media use, and social media fatigue. By conducting two rounds of questionnaires, the researchers

came to two conclusions: (1) people with OCD symptoms are more compulsive when it comes to
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their social media usage (i.e. amount of times visiting sites or posting) and (2) it can be predicted

that compulsive social media use (CSMU) and social media fatigue (SMF) are the product of the

anxiety caused by the fear of missing out (FoMO) experienced by someone with OCD

tendencies. These findings suggest a negative impact on self-esteem in adolescents due to the

stress induced by these tendencies, which is often triggered by the content seen on social media

of others which causes a sense of loneliness (Fontes-Perryman & Spina, 2021).

Social media’s impact on adolescent self-esteem is an area of research that continues to

grow. More and more factors in the development of self-esteem are constantly emerging,

prompting psychologists to conduct more research as the world of social media continues to

expand.

The Impact on Adults

For most adults, social media was something that was introduced later on in life, unlike

adolescents which have had exposure for almost all of their lives. There are still many

similarities in the research questions and findings due to the nature of social media and the

psychological effects it has on individuals. Facebook is among one of the most popular social

media sites, and among adults, the usage of the site leads to upward comparisons (Vogel, Rose,

Roberts & Eckles, 2014). Women are often most affected and make the most upward

comparisons due to appearance anxiety that is the result of appearance comparisons (Fardouly,

Diedrichs, Vartanian & Halliwell, 2014). An increase in the amount of time spent on a social

media site, such as Facebook, is positively correlated with an increase in upwards comparisons,

and consequently, leads to a decrease in self-esteem levels (Vogel et al., 2014). Frequent

exposure to beauty standards represented by posts on social networking sites leads most
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regularly to appearance comparison and anxiety about skin and body dissatisfaction (Fardouly et

al., 2014).

In a study conducted by Stronge, Greaves, Milojev, West-Newman, Barlow, and Sibley

(2015), it was found that women have higher rates of body dissatisfaction due to social media

exposure, and there is a correlation between age and level of body dissatisfaction, which later

reflects self-esteem. Younger women tend to experience increased levels of body dissatisfaction

compared to older women.

The relationship between body image, self-objectification, and self-esteem is strong

among young women. Higher levels of engagement of self-objectification as a result of upward

comparisons leads to higher engagement in selfies and the behaviors associated with them

(Veldhuis, Alleva, Bij de Vaate, Keijer & Konijn, 2020). Women around the age of 38 tend to

have the lowest level of body satisfaction among facebook users; however, as age increases,

body satisfaction levels reach similar levels as non-user women (Stronge, Greaves, Milojev,

West-newman, Barlow & Sibley, 2015). This means that younger women are the most at-risk for

low levels of body satisfaction and self-esteem. When selecting a selfie to post, there was a

positive correlation between body appreciation and selfie selection in terms of deliberately

choosing which selfies to post or edit using platforms, such as Photoshop (Veldhuis et al., 2020).

Female college students are among the largest group influenced by social media, and it is

evident based on their level of self-esteem, body satisfaction, and the amount of social

comparison they participate in. Using scales such as the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale,

Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale, and Media & Technology Usage and

Attitudes Scale, Strubel, Petrie, and Pookulangara (2018) were able to find a correlation between

social media usage, body satisfaction, and purchasing trends. The increase in purchases among
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this group could be attributed to the influence that social media has on an individual’s

self-esteem: the purchase of trendy clothing and accessories will result in higher self-satisfaction

which in turn will be reflected through higher self-esteem, but this is false (Strubel, Petrie &

Pookulangara, 2018).

Discussion

Social media has left its mark on many people, and for some, the effects will be

irreversible. There is an extremely strong correlation between an increase in social media usage

and a decrease in self-esteem among both adolescents and adults (Veldhuis et al., 2020; Vogel et

al., 2014; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021; Woods & Scott, 2016). For adolescents, they have

been exposed to the world of social media for the majority of their life, and this has presented

many different concerns for the impacts that it will have on the development of self-esteem.

Social pressure has the ability to manipulate self-esteem in adolescents significantly.

Whether it be through teasing, isolation, the encouragement of social norms, or even the

presence of parental pressure, adolescent’s development of positive self-esteem is severely

jeopardized (Helfert & Warschburger, 2013). During this stage in development, peer criticism

plays a significant role in the development of the self. Having exposure to other forms of media

besides social media, such as magazines, also influences an adolescents understanding of beauty

standards, which consequently reflects in the underdevelopment of their self-esteem (Jones et al.,

2004). Future areas of research could focus on the impact of group activity on social media and

its influences on self-esteem. When someone is active in a group chat or as a member of a group

(i.e. sports team, school organization, social club) how does the presence of this group on social

media influence its member's self-esteem?

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Because puberty plays such an important part in the development of self-esteem, it is

easy to see the ways that social media impacts the emotional maturation of adolescents

(Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021). Increasing amounts of time spent on social media is correlated

with emotional maladjustment due to the increase in self-dissatisfaction and decrease in

self-esteem (Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021). Adolescents that make upward comparisons based

on what they see on social media experience struggles developing their emotions, often

impacting their emotional and mental health (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015). As a society, there is an

increase in the development of mental illness among adolescents, and it is due to the amount of

social media consumed by adolescents at such an impressionable stage in their lives (Nesi &

Prinstein, 2015). Anxiety and depression are among the most common mental disorders that are

linked to social media use and are due to appearance comparison (Helfert & Warschburger,

2013). This behavior is a result of upward comparison, and often causes individuals to paint a

false image of others and false understanding of their stability (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015). Since

mental illness is often the result of upward comparison, psychologists should expand their

research to test the effects of downward comparison by adolescents on social media and measure

the impact it has on their self-esteem. Does the formation of downward comparisons fuel an

adolescent’s ego or does it result in similar impacts seen with upward comparisons?

When looking into the impacts of social media on adults, many studies focus on the

influence of social media on body satisfaction. Though adulthood covers a far larger age range

than adolescence, there is still plenty of data that supports the negative effects of social media on

self-esteem. The social networking platform, Facebook, was one of the most commonly used

social networking sites in psychological studies- possibly due to the age and popularity of the

site. Women that used Facebook showed a negative correlation between Facebook exposure and
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appearance comparison (Fardouly et al., 2014). In an attempt to increase their self-esteem, many

women deliberately post specific selfies to receive the most positive feedback from those on

social media (Veldhuis et al., 2020). With the hopes of receiving higher engagement with their

posts, women edit and select selfies that make them feel good about themselves, even if it

distorts their true appearance because it lowers the amount of perceived social comparison

(Veldhuis et al., 2020). A study should be conducted measuring the self-esteem of women when

posting edited and unedited selfies. Which selfie receives the highest engagement on social

media and how does this affect the women’s self-esteem?

Women are most commonly the gender most influenced by social media, and this is

evident in their spending patterns, especially among younger women (Strubel et al., 2015).

Influenced by the conclusions they have made based on social comparisons, women increased

their purchasing to make up for the decrease in self-esteem and body satisfaction experienced

due to social media (Strubel et al., 2015). Future research should be done to specifically look into

cases that increase self-esteem among individuals that correlate with increased use of social

media, or how the up and coming career of being a “social media influencer” impacts the

self-esteem of the individual and how it reflects in their content. How does the satisfaction of

being a social media influencer compare to that of other jobs? Does purchasing items

recommended by an influencer affect one’s self-esteem?

As women grew older, it was found that the impact of social media use on self-esteem

decreased to a point that it was similar to that of women that did not use social media (Fardouly

et al., 2014). This may be due to the fact that they find their satisfaction coming from their

family rather than social media. Too frequent use of social media impacts an individual’s

self-esteem negatively (Vogel et al., 2014). As women age, they may spend less time on social
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media due to the fact that they may have a family. Future research should look into the level of

validation that women receive from posting about their family in social media and how it

impacts their self-esteem, as well as their family’s self-esteem.

Even though it seems like there is no chance of returning to a social media-free society,

there is plenty of data that allows individuals to weigh the risks of social media on self-esteem

development, whether for themselves or for their kids. Adolescents that spend less time on social

media will experience less upward comparison, which results in less peer pressure, body

dissatisfaction, and risk for mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression. They may also

experience emotional maturity at an earlier rate compared to their social media using peers.

Adults are able to weigh the risks of social media and its influence on their self-esteem,

especially when they are in a time where it may be fragile, like in the college or dating scene.

They are able to acknowledge the risks of body dissatisfaction and decreased self-esteem in

exchange for validation. Through researching the involvement of social media in relation to

self-esteem, psychologists are able to pinpoint an important variable in the development of both

the adolescent and adult sense of self.

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References

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