Genes and Genomes

Created @August 27, 2022 3:28 PM

Class Biotechnology law

Materials

Cell Structure 🔋
Cells are the structural and functional units of life. Organisms such as bacteria
consist of a single cell, whereas humans have approximately 75 trillion, including
over 200 different types that vary in appearance and function. Cells vary greatly in
size and complexity, from tiny bacterial cells to human neurons that may stretch for
more than 3 feet from the spinal cord to muscles in the toes.
Virtually all cells share a common component, genetic information in the form of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
Genes control numerous activities in cells by directing the synthesis of proteins.
Genes influence our behavior; determine our physical appearance, such as skin,
hair, and eye color; and affect our susceptibility to genetic disease conditions.

Prokaryotic Cells 🧫
Cells are complex entities with specialized structures that determine cell function.

Generally, every cell has a plasma (cell) membrane, a double-layered structure

of primarily lipids and proteins that surrounds its outer surface

Cytoplasm, the inner contents of the cell between the nucleus and the plasma
membrane

organelles (“little organs”), structures in the cell that perform specific functions.

Bacteria are referred to as prokaryotic cells, or simply prokaryotes, from the Greek
words meaning “before nucleus,” because they do not have a nucleus, an organelle
that contains DNA in animal and plant cells.
Prokaryotes include true bacteria (eubacteria) and cyanobacteria, a type of blue-
green algae (Table 1), and members of the domain Archaea (ancient bacteria with

Genes and Genomes 1

 some eukaryotic characteristics). Bacteria have a relatively simple structure -

Their outer boundary is defined by the plasma membrane, which is surrounded by a

rigid cell wall that protects the cell. Except for ribosomes, which are used for protein
synthesis, bacteria have few organelles.

The cytoplasm contains DNA, usually in the form of a single circular molecule, which
is attached to the plasma membrane and located in an area called the nucleoid
region (Figure 1). Some bacteria also have a tail-like structure called a flagellum,
which is used for locomotion

Eukaryotic Cells 🦠
Plant and animal cells are considered eukaryotic cells, from the Greek words
meaning “true nucleus,” because they contain a membrane-enclosed nucleus and
many organelles. Eukaryotes also include fungi and single celled organisms called
protists, which include most algae.

Detailed information (not required)

The plasma membrane is a fluid, highly dynamic, complex double-layered barrier

composed of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. The membrane performs
essential roles in cell adhesion, cell-to-cell communication, and cell shape, and it
is essential for transporting molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane

Genes and Genomes 2

 also serves an important role as a selectively permeable barrier, because it
contains proteins involved in complex transport processes that control which
molecules can enter and leave the cell. For example, hormones such as insulin
are released from the cell in a process called secretion; other molecules, such
as glucose, can be taken into the cell and, within mitochondria, be converted into
energy in the form of a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Membranes also enclose or comprise many organelles.

The cytoplasm of eukaryotes consists of cytosol, a nutrient-rich, gel-like fluid,

and many organelles. The cytoplasm of prokaryotes also contains cytosol, but
few organelles. Think of the organelle as the compartment in which chemical
reactions and cellular processes occur. Organelles allow cells to carry out
thousands of different complex reactions simultaneously. Each organelle is
responsible for specific biochemical reactions. For instance, lysosomes break
down foreign materials and old organelles; organelles such as the endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus synthesize proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates
(sugars). By compartmentalizing reactions, cells can carry out a multitude of
reactions in a highly coordinated fashion simultaneously without interference. Be
sure to familiarize yourself with the functions of organelles presented in Figure 2
and Table 2.

DNA 🧬🧬
Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA) is the molecule
that carries genetic information for the development and
functioning of an organism.

DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each

other to resemble a twisted ladder — a shape known as a
double helix.

Each strand has a backbone (nucleotide) made of alternating

sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. Attached to each
sugar is one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), cytosine
(C), guanine (G) or thymine (T).

The two strands are connected by chemical bonds between

the bases: adenine bonds with thymine, and cytosine bonds

Genes and Genomes 3

 with guanine.
A with T

C with G
The sequence of the bases along DNA’s backbone encodes
biological information, such as the instructions for making a
protein or RNA molecule.

The two strands are joined together by hydrogen bonds between complementary
base pairs in opposite strands (Figure 5). Adenine base pairs with thymine, and
guanine base pairs with cytosine. The proportions of A’s and T’s are equivalent in an
organism’s DNA, as are the proportions of G’s and C’s, because they pair with each
other in a DNA molecule.
When there is an abnormal pairing of base pairs - it is a genetic defect.

RNA 🧬
Ribonucleic acid (abbreviated RNA) is a nucleic acid present
in all living cells that has structural similarities to DNA. Unlike
DNA, however,
RNA is most often single-stranded.
An RNA molecule has a backbone made of alternating
phosphate groups and the sugar ribose, rather than the
deoxyribose found in DNA.
Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A),
uracil (U), cytosine (C) or guanine (G).
A with U (thymine is replaced by uracil in RNA)

C with G

Genes and Genomes 4

 Different types of RNA exist in cells: messenger RNA
(mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA). In
addition, some RNAs are involved in regulating gene
expression. Certain viruses use RNA as their genomic
material.

Genes 👖
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides cells with the instructions to
synthesize a specific protein or a particular type of RNA.
For example, genes for transfer RNA (tRNA) are used to make tRNA molecules, and
while tRNAs are required for protein synthesis, they are not translated to produce a
protein. Most genes are approximately 1,000 to 4,000 nucleotides (nt) long, although
many smaller and larger genes have been identified. Largely by controlling the
proteins produced by a cell, genes influence how cells, tissues, and organs appear,
both through the microscope and with the naked eye. These inherited appearances
are called traits.

DNA contains the instructions for life—genes. All of the DNA in an organism’s cells is
called the genome. 💯

Chromosomes ⛓
A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an
organism.
The size and number of chromosomes vary from species to species. Most bacteria
have a single circular chromosome, in the size range of several hundred thousand
base pairs, which contains a few thousand genes.

Eukaryotes typically contain one or more sets of chromosomes, which have a linear
shape, and often these chromosomes are several million base pairs in size.
Most human cells have two sets (pairs) of 23 chromosomes each, for a total of 46
chromosomes. Through the process of fertilization, you inherited 23 chromosomes
from your mother (maternal chromosomes) and 23 chromosomes from your father
(paternal chromosomes). These chromosome pairs are called homologous pairs, or

Genes and Genomes 5

 homologues. Chromosomes 1 through 22 are known as the autosomes; the 23rd
pair are called the sex chromosomes— consisting of X and Y chromosomes.
Human egg and sperm cells, called the sex cells or gametes, contain a single set of
23 chromosomes, called the haploid number (n) of chromosomes. All other cells of
the body—such as skin cells, muscle cells, and liver cells—are known as somatic
cells. Somatic cells from many organisms have two sets of chromosomes, called the
diploid number (2n) of chromosomes. Human somatic cells contain 46
chromosomes. Somatic cells of a normal human male have 22 pairs of autosomes
and an X and Y chromosome; cells of a normal female have 22 pairs of autosomes
and two X chromosomes.

DNA Replication ➗✖
When a cell divides, it is essential that the newly created cells contain equal copies
of replicated DNA. Somatic cells divide by a process called mitosis, wherein one
cell divides to produce daughter cells, each of which contains an identical copy of
💔
the DNA of the original (parent) cell.

For instance, a human skin cell divides to produce two daughter cells, each
containing 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Gametes are formed by a process called meiosis, wherein a parent cell divides to
create up to four daughter cells, which can be either sperm or egg cells. During
meiosis, the chromosome number in daughter cells is cut in half to the haploid
number. Sperm and egg cells each contain a single set of 23 chromosomes. 🍀
Through sexual reproduction, a fertilized egg, called the zygote, is formed. The
zygote, which divides by mitosis to form an embryo and eventually a complete
human, contains 46 chromosomes: 23 paternal chromosomes and 23 maternal
chromosomes.

Genes and Genomes 6