FORENSIC CHEMISTRY & TOXICOLOGY

Remember The Following:

1. Edmond Locard - Considered the father of the crime laboratory.

2. Walker Mc Crone - Considered the father of microscopic
forensics.
3. Hans Gross - Considered the father of forensic publications.
4. Albert Osborne - The Father of Document Examination.
5. Leone Lattes - The Father of Bloodstain Identification.
6. Alphonse Bertillon - The Father of Anthropometry.
7. Francis Galton - The Father of Fingerprinting.
8. Mathiew Orfila - The father of Toxicology.
9. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - Popularized Scientific Crime Detection
methods through his fictional character Sherlocke Holmes.
10.Criminalistics - The Application of Scientific Techniques in
collecting and analyzing physical evidence in criminal cases.

Remember the Following:

1.Semen - Is an organic fluid that may contain spermatozoa.

- the male reproductive fluid containing spermatozoa in
suspension.

2. Spermatozoa - The mature motile male sex cell of a male organism

by which the ovum is fertilized, typically having a compact head and
one or more long flagella for swimming.

3. Plagella - A slender thread like structure especially a microscopic

whip-like appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria,
spermatozoa to swim.

4. Protozoa - A phylum or group of phyla that comprises the single

celled microscopic animals which includes amebas,
flagellates,ciliates,spocozoans and many other forms.

5. Sperm cell - The haploid cell that is the male gamete.

- the male reproductive cell.
6. Embryo - An unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of
development.
- An unborn human baby especially in the first 8 weeks
from conception, after implantation but before all organs are
developed.

7. Zygote - A single cell with a complete set of chromosomes that

normally develops into an embryo.

8. X chromosome - The sex chromosome that is present in both

sexes.Singly in males and doubly in females.Human females normally
have two X chromosomes.

9.Y chromosome - The sex chromosome that is carried by men.Human

males normally have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.

10.Antonie Philips Van Leeuwenhoek - Father of micro biology and

considered to be the first microbiologists.
IMPORTANT TERMS

Forensic chemistry - is the application of chemistry to criminal investigation. Focuses on the chemical
analysis of substances connected to a crime.

Forensic Science - is the use of science and technology to enforce civil and criminal laws.

Blood - a specialized body fluid that circulates in the arteries and veins of vertebrate animals, carrying
oxygen to and carbon dioxide from the tissues.

Semen - the male reproductive fluid containing spermatozoa in suspension.

Moulage - is the art of applying mock injuries for the purpose of training emergency response teams and
other medical and military personnel.

Methods of Identifying Unknown Substance

1. Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer - useful
method for the simultaneous separation,
identification and quantization of one or more
individual components of an unknown substance or
mixture.
2. Spectroscopy - is the study of the interaction
between matter and radiated energy.

Spectrophotometer - instrument used to aide in the identification of compound.

Gas Chromatograph - a chemical analyzer and instrument for separating chemicals in a complex sample.

Mass Spectrometry - is the analytical technique that measures the mass to charge ratio of charged
particles. It is used for determining masses of particles.

Amino Acid - the building blocks of protein coded by triplets of bases of DNA blue print.

Ammonia - a colorless gaseous alkaline compound that is very soluble in water, has characteristics of
pungent odor, is lighter than air and is formed as a result of the decomposition of most nitrogenous organic
material such as tissue from dead bodies.

Anemia - any condition in which the number of red blood cells, the amount of hemoglobin and the volume
of packed red blood cells per 100 ml of blood are less than normal. It may result from increased destruction
of red cells, excessive blood loss or decreased production of red cells.

Aplasia - failure of an organ or tissue to develop normally.

Autolysis - the destruction of cells after death due to lack of ability to metabolize oxygen needed by
enzymes for cell activity.

Hair - any of the fine threadlike strands growing from the skin of humans,mammals, and some other
animals.

What are the 3 stages of hair growth?

1. Anagen phase - the growth phase.It begins in
the papilla and can last up to 8 years.The span at
which the hair remains in this stage is determined by
genetics.The longer the hair stays in the anagen
phase,the faster and longer it will grow.About 85%
 of the hair on one's head are in this stage at any
given time.The hair has a follicular tag.The root bulb
is flamed shaped.
2. Catagen Phase - also known as the transitional
phase,allows the follicle to renew itself.During this
time which last about 2 week,the hair follicle shrinks
due to disintegration and the papilla detaches and
rests,cutting the hair strand off from its nourishing
blood supply while hair is not growing during this
phase.The length of the terminal fibers increase
when the follicle pushes them upward.The root is
elongated.
3. Telogen phase - or resting phase,the hair and
follicle remain dormant anywhere from 1 to 4
months,10% to 15% of the hairs in one's head are
in these phase in any given time.The anagen phase
begins again when this phase is complete.The root
is club shaped.

Shedding - the process of normal hair loss.

Alopecia - a hair loss disease that causes the hair to spontaneously fall out.It is mainly characterized by
bald patches on the scalp or other parts of the body and can ultimately cause baldness across the entire
body.

Medulla - inner most layer of the hair shaft.

From which part of the body are most often used for hair comparison? Either head or pubic.

How to determine the likely race of the person from which a hair originated?
1. Caucasian - evenly distributed,fine pigmentation
Wavy with round cross section.
2. Mongoloid - Continuous medullation.
3. Negroid - dense,uneven pigmentation.

Rate of speed of hair growth - 1.25 cm or .05 inches per month or about 6 inches or 15 cm. per year.

What aspect of the hair is the criminalist interested in matching?

1. matching color
2. Length
3. Diameter
4. presence or absence of medulla
5. distribution,shape,and color intensity of the
pigment granules in the cortex.

What types of evidence found at the crime scene are most likely to provide evidence? Forcible
removed hair are most likely to provide useful DNA evidence because they often bear follicular tags that
are sources of nuclear DNA.

Hair from different parts of the body vary significantly in its physical characteristics.
Forensic Toxicology - deals with the medical and legal aspects of the harmful effects of chemicals on
human beings.

Forensic - comes from the Latin word "forensis" meaning forum.

Toxicology - from the Greek word toxicos - "poisonous" and "logos".

- it is the study of the symptoms, mechanisms and treatments and
 detection of poisoning.

Poison - a substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism causes death or injury.

Toxin - an antigenic poison or venom of plant or animal origin especially one produced by or derived from
micro organisms and causing disease when present at low concentration in the body.
- poisonous substance produced during the metabolism and growth of certain micro organism and
some higher plant and animal species.

Venom - poisonous fluid secreted by animals and typically injected into prey by biting or stinging or other
sharp body feature.

Acute Poisoning - is exposure to poison on one occasion or during a short period of time.

Chronic Poisoning - is long term repeated or continuous exposure to a poison where symptoms do not
occur immediately or after each exposure.

Antidote - a medicine taken or given to counter act a particular poison.

- a substance which can counteract poisoning.

Mathieu Orfila - is considered to be the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal
treatment in 1813 in his "traite des poisons" also called toxicologie generali.

Dioscorides - a Greek physician in the court of Roman emperor Nero, made the first attempt to classify
plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect.

Jean Stas - a belgian analytical chemist who in 1850 gave the evidence that the Belgian count Hypolite
Visart de Bocarme killed his brother in law by poisoning with nicotine.

Celsus - a roman physician from the first century, considered the father of toxicology. He is credited with
the toxicology maxim "all things are poison and nothing is without poison. This is often condensed to "the
dose makes the poison" or in latin "sola dosis facit venenum".

Paracelsus - "Theophrastus Phillipus Aureleus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541) - believe that his
studies were above and beyond the work of celsus.

LD50 - is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration.

Dose - a quantity of medicine or drug taken or recommended to be taken at a particular time.

Overdose - the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities greater than are
recommended.

Carcinogen - any substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue.

Corrosive substance - is one that will destroy or irreversibly damage another surface or substance with
which it comes into contact.
CRIMINALISTICS

-is the forensic science of analyzing and interpreting evidence using the natural sciences.
Forensic science pertains to all sciences applied to legal problems.
-application of scientific techniques in collecting and analyzing physical evidence
in criminal cases.

Goals of Forensic Science - to determine the cause, location, and time of death.

WHAT ARE THE SCIENCES THAT BELONGS TO CRIMINALISTICS?

• Forensic Photography
• Question Documents Examination
• Forensic Ballistics
• Polygraphy
• Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
• Legal Medicine

Personalities in Criminalistics:

1. Dr. Hans Gross (1847-1915) - Father of forensic publications/ Father of

Criminalistics. An Austrian criminalist who in 1891 first used the term criminalistics..
Wrote the book on applying all the different science disciplines to the field of criminal
investigation.
2. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - sci-fi author in late 1800. Popularized scientific crime
detection methods through his fictional character "Sherlock Holmes"
3. Mathiew Orfila (1787-1853)- Father of Toxicology. Wrote about the detection of
poisons and their effects on animals.
4. Alphonse Bertillon - (1853-1914) Father of Anthropometry/ Father of Identification.
Developed a system to distinguish one individual person from another based on certain
body requirements.
5. Francis Galton - (1822-1911) Father of Fingerprinting. Developed fingerprinting as a
way to uniquely identify individuals.
6. Leone Lattes - (1887-1954) father of blood stain identification. He developed a
procedure for determining the blood type (A,B,AB or O) of a dried stain.
7. Calvin H. Goddard – (1891-1955) Father of Ballistics. Developed the technique to
examine bullets using a comparison microscope to determine whether or not a particular
gun fired the bullets.
8. Albert Osborn - (1858-1946) father of document examination. His work led to the
acceptance of documents as scientific evidence by the courts.
9. Walter McCrone - (1916-1915) father of microscopic forensics. He developed and
applied his microscopic techniques to examine evidence in countless court cases.
10. Edmond Locard - (1877-1966) father of the crime lab. In 1910, he started the first
crime lab in an attic of a police station. Founded the institute of criminalistics in France.
His most important contribution was the "Locards Exchange Principle".

LOCARD EXCHANGE PRINCIPLE:

1. Every contact leaves a trace
2. Every criminal can be connected to a crime by particles carried from the crime scene
3. When a criminal comes in contact with an object or person, a cross transfer of evidence
occurs.

FORENSIC

Comes from the Latin word “Forum” which means market place or public gathering.
Relating to or dealing with the application of scientific knowledge to legal problems.
CHEMISTRY

A science that deals with the composition, structure and properties of substances and with
the transformations that they undergo.

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

That branch of chemistry, which deals with the application of chemical principles in the
solution of problems that arise in connection with the administration of justice. It is chemistry
applied in the elucidation of legal problems. It is chemistry used in courts of law. Chemistry
belonging to the court of law.

A Forensic Chemist is one who practices forensic chemistry.

EVIDENCE
is the means, sanctioned by the Revised Rules of Court, of ascertaining to a
judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact (Sec. 1, Rule 128). (LEGAL
DEFINITION).
Statements, information and things that are used to prove or disprove an alleged fact.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Are articles and materials which are found in connection with an investigation and which
aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator of the circumstances under which the crime was
committed or which in general assist in the prosecution of the criminal. Encompasses any and all
objects that can establish that crime has been committed or can provide a link between a crime
and its victims or a crime and its perpetrator.

SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:

1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation

2. It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal
proceeding.
3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings.
4. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine, ballistics,
questioned documents, dactyloscopy, and photography.

ROLES OF THE FORENSIC CHEMIST IN THE SCIENTIFIC CRIMINAL

INVESTIGATION:
The forensic chemist plays an important role in the scientific criminal investigation. He
may be called upon to aid an investigation in:

a. Determining whether or not a place / location is a clandestine laboratory

b. Examination of marked bills / suspects during entrapment (extortion case)
c. Taking Paraffin Test

ROLE OF THE CHEMIST IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

Four stages of work of a forensic chemist:
 1. Collection and reception of specimen for lab. Examination
a. sufficiency of sample
b. standard for comparison
c. maintenance of individuality
d. labeling and scaling

2. The actual examination of specimen

3. Communication of the result of examine
4. Court Apparatus

WITNESS

One who personally sees or perceives a thing; one who testifies as to what he has seen,
heard or otherwise observed.

ORDINARY WITNESS

State facts and may not express his opinions or conclusions. He may testify to
impressions of common experiments such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a voice was that of a
man, woman or child. Beyond this he is closely limited.

EXPERT WITNESS

One who posses a special skill, be it in art, trade or science or one who has special
knowledge in waters not generally known to men or ordinary education and experiments. A
person skilled in some art, trade or science to the extent that he possesses information not within
the common knowledge of man.

EYE WITNESS

Person who saw the fatal act.

QUALIFICATION OF AN ORDINARY WITNESS:

1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.

2. The perception gathered by his organ of sense can be imparted to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for Sec. 26, Rule 123, Rules of
Court.

Take Note: In the collection of evidence, “partial person” to collect evidence are those
who are capable of applying knowledge or theory to practice. They maybe referred to as
“Person by Practice”. The ideal person to collect evidence is the Forensic Chemist.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORDINARY & EXPERT WITNESS:

1. An ordinary witness can only state what is senses has perceived while an expert
witness may state what he has perceived and also give his opinions, deduction or
conclusion to his perception.
2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he his testifying while an expert
witness be skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying.
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he has not perceived except
those provided for any law while an expert witness must testify on things which he
has seen giving his opinions, deductions or conclusion on the statements of facts.
FOUR STAGES OF WORK OF A FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:

1. Collection or reception of this specimen/evidence to be examined.

a. Sufficiency of samples
b. Standard specimen for comparison
c. Maintenance of individuality
d. Labeling and sealing
2. The actual examination of the specimen
3. Communication of results of the examinations
4. Court appearance

STANDARD SPECIMEN

Are known specimens to compare with the questioned needed to aid in establishing a
suspect’s relationship to the crime under investigation.

SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

1. Go slowly- in able to collect all the possible evidence, it may be big, minute or
perishable.
2. Be thorough- to be careful about the details.
3. Take note consult others
4. Use imagination
5. Avoid complicated theories

PRIMARY REASON WHICH MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE DISASTER OF

EVIDENCE/SPECIMEN

1. Improper packing of specimen

2. Failure of identification of specimen
3. Improper, precaution use in transmitting the specimen.
4. Lack of precautions to prevent tampering of the specimen.

SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:

1. Examination of Petroleum products: ex: diesel, petrol and kerosene

2. Analysis of various narcotic, designer and abused drugs like bhang, opium ganja, LSD
etc. as well as illicit liquors
3. Determination of alcohol in blood and urine
4. Examination of low standard construction material like cement, bricks etc.
5. Examination of metal alloys and metal fragments
6. Examination of inflammable material in suspected cases of arson, dowry deaths etc.
7. Analysis of explosives, firearms and ammunition
8. Analysis of dyes, paints, inks, fibers, binders and various other chemicals like capsaicin
spray, tear gas
9. Drug screening of athletes
10. Trap cases
11. Analysis of fermented wash, varnish, etc. in prohibition and excise wash
12. Analysis of pesticides and insecticides
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON EVIDENCE

CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL PHYSICAL

Drugs and Toxic Substances Blood Fingerprints
 Pigments Body Fluids Striations
Solvents Tissue Glass pieces
Explosives/Ballistics Plant derived materials Indentations (Tire
Impressions)
Gunshot Residue Saliva Tool marks
Resins, fibers, soil, Urine Questioned Documents
miscellaneous trace evidence
Alcohol (Ethanol) Feather Plastic pieces

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LABORATORY

The following are the known classification base on the investigations..

➢ CLASS I:
✓ Biology, chemistry, DNA and Toxicology and Drugs Laboratory

➢ CLASS II:
✓ Fingerprints, Trace evidence, striation, materials, Serology

TESTED SAMPLES

There are two main classes of chemical compounds:

- Organic Compounds: This are based on Carbon (anything that contains the
elements of carbon.
: as a structural (backbone) and are found on living things.

- nInorganic Compounds: Are those based on other elements.

From the point of view of forensic science, both organic and inorganic compounds are
found in the items of evidence.

The techniques used for determination of chemical composition of such evidence often
depends upon whether the component compounds are organic (derived from the living tissue or
material) or inorganic.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

• All methods are standard methods

• The selected methods will be suitable for laboratory samples
• Reference for all methods.
INSTRUMENTS

All are the required instruments chosen to test methods:

❖ GC/MS/RTL- Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy with Retention Time

Locking
- GC/MS targets small and volatile molecules
- GC/MS is the analysis method of choice for smaller and volatile molecules such as
benzenes, alcohols and aromatics, and simple molecules such as steroids, fatty acids,
and hormones. It can also be applied towards the study of liquid, gaseous and solid
samples.
- GC/MS begins with the gas chromatograph, where the sample is volatized. This
effectively vaporizes the sample (the gas phase) and separates its various
components using a capillary column packed with a stationary (solid) phase. The
compounds are propelled by an inert carrier gas such as argon, helium or nitrogen.
As the components become separated, they elute from the column at different times,
which is generally referred to as their retention times.

- Once the components leave the GC column, they are ionized by the mass
spectrometer using electron or chemical ionization sources. Ionized molecules are
then accelerated through the instrument’s mass analyzer, which quite often is a
quadrupole or ion trap. It is here that ions are separated based on their different
mass-to-charge (m/z) ratios.

- The final steps of the process involve ion detection and analysis, with compound
peaks appearing as a function of their m/z ratios. Peak heights, meanwhile, are
proportional to the quantity of the corresponding compound. A complex sample will
produce several different peaks, and the final readout will be a mass spectrum. Using
computer libraries of mass spectra for different compounds, researchers can identify
and quantitate unknown compounds and analytes.

❖ LC/MS/TOF- Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy Time of Flight

- Offers versatility and resolution
- Liquid chromatography (LC) is a widely used method of sample ionization prior to
analysis and is frequently coupled with mass spectrometry. With LC-MS, solubilized
compounds (the mobile phase) are passed through a column packed with a stationary
(solid) phase. This effectively separates the compounds based on their weight and affinity
for the mobile and stationary phases of the column. This also leads to fragmentation of
the sample and its anionization through loss of H+ ions.

- Following this step, the sample passes into the vacuum chamber of the mass
spectrometer.

- LC is the separation technique of choice for larger and non-volatile molecules such as
proteins and complex peptides. When combined with MS, LC-MS offers broad sample
coverage because different column chemistries, such as reversed phase liquid
chromatography, can be used.

- LC is also an ideal method for separating isomers, which have the same mass and will
otherwise not be differentiated (i.e., resolved) by a mass spectrometer. In fact, due to its
superior resolving power and broad mass range, LC has largely replaced gel
electrophoresis for molecular separation. Finally, LC helps reduce ion suppression, which
occurs when molecules interact with one another and impede the process of complete
ionization.
❖ mtDNA- Electrophoretic Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA

- Mitochondrial DNA is the small circular chromosome found inside mitochondria.

The mitochondria are organelles found in cells that are the sites of energy
production. The mitochondria, and thus mitochondrial DNA, are passed from
mother to offspring.

❖ LA/ICP/MS- Laser Ablation- Inductively coupled plasma-Mass Spectroscopy

- Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) is
an analytical technique that uses direct micro-scale sampling to provide high
precision elemental and stable isotope analyses of solid materials.
- LA-ICP-MS uses a powerful nanosecond-pulsed laser beam to remove material
from the surface of a sample. The interaction of the laser and the sample surface
causes heating, evaporation and ionization of sample material, in a process called
“laser ablation”. A plume of particles and ions are generated, and then carried via
a constant flow of argon and/or helium gas to an ICP-MS. The sample material is
subsequently ionized in an inductively coupled plasma, and its atomic species are
transported as ions, and are separated and analyzed based on their mass-to-charge
ratio over time. LA-ICP-MS can therefore provide major and trace element
compositions in a sample down to detection limits of 10’s of parts-per-billion
(ppb).

- LA-ICP-MS is considered extremely versatile, as the analyses can be performed

on many solid materials without any preparation. Depending on the analytical
measurement system, very small sample quantities (picograms to femtograms)
may be sufficient for highly sensitive (parts per billion) survey analysis.
Traditional liquid approaches for ICP-MS require milligrams of sample mass in
order to be achieve this sensitivity. A range of laser spot diameters (5-200 µm) is
available, allowing for spot and line sampling arrays over a maximum surface
area of 10 cm2.

❖ microCT- Micro-Computer X-ray Tomography

- Micro-CT is a 3D imaging technique utilizing X-rays to see inside an object, slice by

slice. Micro-CT, also called microtomography or micro computed tomography, is
similar to hospital CT or “CAT” scan imaging but on a small scale with greatly
increased resolution. Samples can be imaged with pixel sizes as small as 100
nanometers and objects can be scanned as large as 200 millimeters in diameter.
- Micro-CT scanners capture a series of 2D planar X-ray images and reconstruct the
data into 2D cross-sectional slices. These slices can be further processed into 3D
models and even printed as 3D physical objects for analysis. With 2D X-ray systems
you can see through an object, but with the power of 3D micro- CT systems you can
see inside the object and reveal its internal features. It provides volumetric
information about the microstructure, nondestructively.
- X-rays are generated in an X-ray source, transmitted through the sample, and
recorded by the X-ray detector as a 2D projection image. The sample is then rotated a
fraction of a degree on the rotational stage, and another X-ray projection image is
taken. This step is repeated through a 180-degree turn (or sometimes 360 degrees,
depending on sample type). The series of X-ray projection images is then computed
 into cross-sectional images through the computational process called
“reconstruction”. These slices can be analyzed, further processed into 3D models,
made into movies, printed into 3D physical objects, and more.

❖ LIBS- Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

- A rapid chemical analysis technology that uses a short laser pulse to create a micro-
plasma on the sample surface. This analytical technique offers many compelling
advantages compared to other elemental analysis techniques. These include:
✓ A sample preparation-free measurement experience
✓ Extremely fast measurement time, usually a few seconds, for a single spot
analysis
✓ Broad elemental coverage, including lighter elements, such as H, Be, Li,
C, N, O, Na, and Mg
✓ Versatile sampling protocols that include fast raster of the sample surface
and depth profiling
✓ Thin-sample analysis without the worry of the substrate interference
- A typical detection limit of LIBS for heavy metallic elements is in the low-PPM
range. LIBS is applicable to a wide range of sample matrices that include metals,
semiconductors, glasses, biological tissues, insulators, plastics, soils, plants, soils,
thin-paint coating, and electronic materials.
-

CHAPTER ONE
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD:

1. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of the

crime.
2. As evidence in case of disputed percentage
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of time the
victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

THE CONSTITUTION OF BLOOD

BLOOD

- Has been called the circulating tissue of the body.

- It is referred to as a highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic
substances.
- It is the red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is opaque. On the treatment with either,
water or other reagents becomes transparent lake color. It is finally alkaline. Normally
pH is 7.35 – 7.45.
 COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

1. (45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells namely:
a. Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES) around 4 – 5 millions of red cell per
cc. of blood.
b. White Blood Cells or WBC (LEUKOCYTES)
c. Blood Platelets (THROMBOCYTES)

2. (55%) PLASMA – The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is
principally composed of:
a. Water ---- 90%
b. Solid ----- 10% ( largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulin’s
and fibrinogen.
In the forensic aspect of blood identification, that is blood grouping, our discussion will
concentrate on the RBC and blood serum. Serum is pale yellowish liquid just like the plasma.

PLASMA

- The yellowish fluid of blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended.
- A straw-yellow liquid formed when blood to which oxalate has been added to
prevent clotting is allowed to strand.

SERUM

A straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime and
the clot contracts.

PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD:

1. where has to be searched for

2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to contain
blood.
 Blood offers little resistance to decomposition. It undergoes a rapid charge in its character
with the passage of time as process of clotting and drying commences almost immediately on
exposure to air. Sodium fluoride maybe added to blood to preserve it for a week at room
temperature or indefinitely in a refrigerator. Between 40 – 50 degrees centigrade is the ideal
preserving temperature for blood and other perishable specimens. Collection of blood stains
should be done as soon as possible, mere washing of garments/clotting removes the blood.

FLUID BLOOD:
Collect from:

1. Victims of crimes of violence

2. Parent and child in case of disputed parentage.

DRIED BLOOD OR BLOOD STAINS:

Collect from:

1. Smooth surface like walls, finished floors, table tops

2. Hard surface like axe, hammer, knives, stones, crowbars
3. Glazed surface like glass, tiles, automobiles
4. Bulky objects like blackboard, linoleum sheets, doors, window frames
5. Clothing
6. Blood absorbed by the soil
3. Does the stain contains blood or another substance

THE EXAMINATION OF BLOOD

THE FOUR TEST FOR BLOOD:

1. PRELIMINARY TEST

Determine whether the stain contains blood or another substance. Determines whether
visible stains do or do not contain blood. It is used to demonstrate the presence of blood.

2. CONFIRMATORY TEST

Determines whether bloodstain really contains blood. Test that positively identifies
blood.

3. PRECIPITIN TEST

Determines whether blood is a human or non-human origin, and if non human, the
specific animal family from which it originated.

4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST

Determines the blood group of human

I. THE PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD ( PRELIMINARY COLOR TEST)

FOLLOWING ARE PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD:

1. Benzidine Test or Benzidine Color Test

2. Phenolphthalein Test ( also known as Kastle – Meyer Test)
3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen Test, Day’s or Schonbein’s Test)
4. Leucomalachite Green Test
5. Luminol Test
BENZIDINE TEST

An extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For many years the most
commonly used preliminary test for blood. The Benzidine test never fails to detect blood even
when very old, decomposed stain with all shorts of contamination is examined. The positive
result is only indicative that the blood maybe present.

REAGENT: Benzidine solution ( small amount of powdered benzidine dissolved in

glacial acetic acid) and 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper.

Add a drop of benzidine solution and then drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Intense blue color produced immediately

Limitation: Benzidine test is not a specific test for blood. Positive results maybe obtained
from substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay, gun. The reaction is
weaker and produce faint coloration.

PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST

An alternative test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000,000

parts. A positive results with this test is highly indicative of blood. The negative result is,
therefore, valuable and is conclusive as to the absence of blood.

REAGENTS: Phenolphthalein solution (1 – 2 grams phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25%

KOH in water added with one gram zinc powder heated until colorless) and 3% solution of
hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper.

Add a drop of phenolphthalein solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.

POSITIVE RESULT: Rose color develops or deep pink color or permanganate color.

LIMITATION: Test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.

GUAIACUM TEST

A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000
dilution. It may not react to very old stains.

REAGENTS: Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (Few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then
filter) and 3% of hydrogen peroxide or few drops of turpentine.

PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on porcelain dish. Soak with
fresh tincture of guaiac. Add a few drops of hydrogen peroxide.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Beautiful blue color that appears immediately.

LIMITATION: The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese,
gluten, potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing substances.

LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST:

 Not as sensitive as the benzidine test

REAGENT: Leucomalachite Green solution ( 1 gram leucomalachite green dissolved in

48 ml. glacial acetic acid and diluted to 250ml. water) and 3% hydrogen peroxide.

PROCEDURE: A small piece of the stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of
leucomalachite green solution and after a few seconds add drop of 3% hydrogen peroxide.

POSITIVE RESULTS: Malachite green or bluish green

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE FOUR PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD

(BENZIDINE TEST, PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST, GUAIACUM TEST AND
LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST)

The peroxidase present in hemoglobin acts as carrier of oxygen from the hydrogen
peroxide to the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and
leucomalachite) and produces the characteristic colored compounds by OXIDATION.

PEROXIDASE

Enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic compounds by peroxide.

HEMOGLOBIN

The red coloring matter of the red blood cells of the blood.

LUMINOUS TEST

An important presumptive identification test for blood. The reaction of luminol with
blood result in the production of light rather than color. By spraying luminol reagent onto a
suspect item, large areas can be quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains. The sprayed
object must be located in a darkened area while being viewed for the emission of light.
(LUMINESCENCE). Luminol test is extremely sensitive test. It is capable of detecting
bloodstains diluted up to 10,000X. Luminol is known to destroy many important blood factors
necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited only to seeking
out blood invisible to the naked eye.

II. THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD

The actual proof that stain is blood consists of establishing the presense of the
characteristic of the red blood cells of the blood.

THE THREE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD (OR THE THREE TEST TO
DETERMINE IF STAIN IS REALLY BLOOD)

1. Microscopic Test
2. Microchemical Test
3. Spectroscope Test

MICROSCOPIC TEST

Useful for the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for making the
distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian blood and for the investigation of
menstrual, lochial and nasal charges. In short it differentiates mammalian, avian, piscine and
reptilian blood.
MAMMALIAN RED BLOOD CELLS
Circular, biconcave disc without nucleus birds, fish and reptiles red blood cells larger,
oval and nucleated Amphibians-animal living on land breeding in water. Red blood cells are
larger than mammals, oval and nucleated.

MICROCHEMICAL TEST OR MOCROCRYSTALLINE TEST:

a. Teichmann Hemin Reaction/Teichman Test/Haemin Crystal Test
b. Haemochromogen crystal Test or Takayama Test
c. Acetone-Haemin Test

HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OR TAKAYAMA TEST

One of the two popular microchemical test. A delicate test for the presence of
hemoglobin.

PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of suspected material on a glass slide. Add 2 – 3

drops of Takayama reagent. Cover with glass slip.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Large rhombic crystals of a salmon pink color arranged in
clusters, sheaves and other forms that appear within to 6 minutes when viewed under the low
power objectives. To hasten result heat maybe applied.
REAGENT: Takeyama reagent (3 cc. of 10% NaOH, 33 cc. pyridine, 3 cc. of saturated
glucose solution and diluted with 7 ml. of water.

SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
The almost delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in
both old recent stains. tHis is performed by means of an optical instrument known as
SPECTROSCOPE.
III. PRECIPITIN TEST

PRECIPITIN TEST
Is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal
origin
REAGENT: Precipitin/antiserum

PROCEDURE: Scrape off blood stain if on hard material. Powder the scrapings and
exact with saline solution. if the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and
then place in a test tube and add extract with saline solution. allow mixture to stand overnight.
Centrifuge to clean the solution. Dilute with saline solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on
top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.
POSITIVE RESULT: A white cloudy line or ring or band at the contact points of the
fluid that appears immediately or within one or two minutes.
LIMITATION OF PRECIPITIN TEST; The precipitin reacts not only with blood
proteins but also with other body proteins as those as saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids.
IV. BLOOD GROUPING AND BLOOD TESTING

BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD (Direct Technique Method) USING THE
A-B-O SYSTEM

THE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS:

1. Group “O”
2. Group “A”
3. Group “B”
 4. Group “AB”

AGGLUTINOGEN OR ANTIGEN

These are characteristic chemical structrs or “principles” that the found on the surface of
each red blood cells which stimulates the production of agglutinins or antibodies. There are two
different agglutinogens or antigens classified as AGGLUTINOGEN A OR ANTIGEN A AND
AGGLUTINOGEN B OR ANTIGEN B.

ANTIBODY OR AGGLUTININ
These are properties or “principles” contained in the serum which cause agglutination or
clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxic substances within the body which
reacts when confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system. There are two different
agglutinins classified as Anti-A and Anti-B. Agglutinins are demonstrable in about 50% of
newly born infants.
We have the four groups because of the presence of absence of two antigens A and B in
the RBC and two agglutinins Anti-A and Anti-B in the serum.
BLOOD GROUP ANTIGEN/AGGLUTINO ANTIBODIES/AGGLUTI
GEN PRESENT IN THE NIES PRESENT IN THE
RBC SERUM
A
A ANTI-B
B
B ANTI-A
AB
A&B NO A & NO B or NONE

NO A & NO B or NONE ANTI-A & ANTI-B

(+) Means agglutination or clumping of RBC

(−) Means absence of agglutination or no clumping of RBC

THE BLOOD TYPING (M-N SYSTEM) OF BLOOD

There are two agglutinogens in human red cells which defines three types of blood.
Namely: Type M, Type N, and Type MN, Till date International Society for blood transfusion
(ISBT) recognized 32 blood group systems. The MN blood group system was discovered by
Landsteiner and Levine. These antigens present on outer end of Glycophorin - A Major protein
in RBC Membrane. They are easily destroyed or removed by routine blood bank enzyme ficin,
papain etc. ISBT number for MNS blood group system is 002. M and N antigens absent on other
cells like leukocytes, lymphocytes. The antibodies against these antigens may cause
incompatibility during cross matching in some patients. thus:

THE THREE BLOOD TYPES ARE:

1. Type M
2. Type N
3. Type MN

(+) Means agglutination

(−) Means absence of agglutination
INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUPS

Knowledge of the gas of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved
in the inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of blood groups are predetermined by the
presence and absence of two facts or GENES called Gene A and Gene B. Before we understand
the inheritance of blood groups following are definition of items:

1. GENES

Any of the complex chemical units in the chromosomes by which hereditary

characters are transmitted. Responsible for the transmission of hereditary
characteristics. They occurs in pair. There are two genes or factors called gene A
and gene B. these are found in the chromosomes. Since chromosomes go in pair,
each of which carries or fails to carry one of these genes. An individual’s called
genotypes, where O represents the absence in the chromosomes of either the A or
B gene.

2. PHENOTYPES

Term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristic as found in the
individual. Actually the blood groups

3. GENOTYPES
Are paired genes.

IMPORTANT APPLICATION OF BLOOD GROUP DATA

I. Questions of illegitimacy and relationships in may cause maybe solved by means of the
blood groups as determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M, and N.

1. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of wedlock could or

could not be its parent.
2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not have
been fathered by her legal spouse.
3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of parents
in the case of accidental interchange of infants in a hospital.
4. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a long
interval could or could not belong to a given set of parents.

CHAPTER TWO
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS

SEMEN AND SEMINAL FLUID

Is a viscid whitish fluid of the male reproductive track containing spermatozoa suspended
in scissions of accessory glands.

PARTS OF SEMEN

1. seminal fluid
2. formed Elements Cellular
a. spermatozoa
b. epithelial cells
c. crystal and choline
LOCATION OF SEMEN AND SEMEN STAIN AS EVIDENCE

1. Under clotting
2. Clothing
3. Skin
4. Air
5. Vagina
6. Rectal contains of the victim
7. Around the genitals

SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS EXAMINATION

There are four examination for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of stains namely:
1. Physical Examination
2. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test
b. Barberio’s Test
c. Acid-phospahtase Test
3. Microscopic Examination
4. Biological Examination

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, PACKING AND TRANSIT OF SPECIMEN:

1. Seizure of apparel must be done as soon as possible.

2. In packaging of wearing apparel there should be no friction between the apparel and
the stain.
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
5. Specimen should be thoroughly dried before packing.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It maybe preserved by a few drops of
10% solution of formalin during hot weather.
DETERMINATION OF SPERMATOZOA IN FRESH SEMEN:

1. Transfers a drop of specimen to a glass slide.

2. Add a drop of water or saline solution and cover with cover slip
3. Examine under the microscope
4. Observe for the presence of spermatozoa

ELEMENTS WHICH MAY OBSTRUCT DETECTION OF SPERMATOZOA:

1. Nature of fabric
2. Age of stain
3. Condition to which the stain was exposed reaching the laboratory
4. Handling of the specimen

CHAPTER THREE
GUN POWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three most important problems may
arise, the problems of:

1. Determination of whether or not a person fired a gun with bare hands within pertinent period
of time
2. Determination of the probable gunshot range that is the distance the firearm was held from
the body of the victim at the time of discharge.
3. Determination of the approximate time of firing of the gun on the approximate date of last
discharge.

TWO KINDS OF GUN POWDER

1. Black powder -which is consist of or made of 15% of C (Charcoal), 10% of S (Sulfur) and
75% of KNO3 or NaNO3 (Potassium Nitrate). When block powder explode

KNO3 + c + S K2S + N2 CO2

2. Smokeless powder -which consist of cellulose nitrate or glyceryl nitrate combined with
cellulose nitrate and some stabilizers. When exploded the following reaction occurs:

C12H14O4(NO3)6 9CO + 3N2 + 7H2O + 3CO2

Cellulose nitrate

4C3H5(NO3)3 12CO2 + 10H2O + 6N2 + O2

Glyceryl Nitrate

POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF NITRATES WHEN BLACKPOWDER AND SMOKELESS

POWDER EXPLODE

1. Residue of the barrel of the gun.

2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun

DIPHENYLAMINE-PARAFFIN TEST -test to be determine the presence of nitrates, a test to

determine whether a person fired a gun or not.

1. Paraffin test ( Test performed to extract the nitrates embedded in the skin.
 2. Diphenylamine Test or DPA Test ( test that determines the presence and location
of nitrate chemical needed diphenylamine reagent . procedure to be taken up in the
laboratory V.S. blue specks if nitrates are present.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE INTERPRETATION OF DPA TEST

RESULT:

1. Time of reaction
2. Number of blue specks
3. Location of specks
4. Character of specks

POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON MAYBE FOUND NEGATIVE FOR NITRATES

EVEN IF HE ACTUALLY FIRED A GUN

1. Use if automatic pistol

2. Direction of wind
3. Wind velocity
4. Excessive perspiration
5. Use of gloves
6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the nitrates

POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON MAYBE FOUND POSITIVE FOR NITRATES

EVEN IF HE DID NOT ACTUALLY FIRED A GUN

1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly
from the barrel of the gun being fired by another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by arising the hand in some instances result in the
implanting of powder particles on the hands of a person close to one firing a gun..

HOW TO DETERMINE THE PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE

The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residues, singeing,

burning, smudging and powder tattooing.

DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABLE TIME THE GUN HAS BEEN FIRED

In the examination / determination of the approximate time of last discharge we need the
specimen firearm in the examination. The barrel is swabbed with cotton and the residues
examined under the microscope.

1. Rust

❖ Formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun has been fired is a good
indication of the determination of the approximate time the gun has been
fired.
❖ If a gun has not fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the gun.
❖ If a gun has been fired, iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel.
This iron salts are soon oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.
 2. NITRATE

Presence of nitrate (NO2) is determined by addition of diphenylamine (DPA) reagent. If

the color becomes blue nitrates are present, and we may say that the firearm could have been
fired recently.

3. NITRATES

Presence of nitrates (NO3) is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the

color turned yellow green, nitrates are present, and we may say that the firearms could have been
fired but not recently.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESENCE AND AMOUNT OF GUNPOWDER

RESIDUE
1. Length of the barrel of the gun
2. Type and cal. Of ammunition
3. Wind velocity
4. Direction of firing
5. Distance of firing
6. Nature of firing
7. Humidity

EXPLOSIVES

Explosive

Is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion.
A material either a pure single substance or mixture of substances which is capable of producing
an explosion by its own energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVE WITH RESPECT TO FUNCTIONING

CHARACTERISTICS

1. PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES

Are combustible materials containing within themselves all oxygen needed for their
combustion that burn but do not explode and function by producing gas that produces explosion.

Examples: Black powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers, and pyrotechnics

2. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS

Explode or donate when they are heated or subjected to shock. They do not burn.
Sometimes they do not even contain the elements necessary for combustion. The materials
themselves explode and the explosion results whether they are confined or not.

Examples: Mercury fulminate, lead azide

3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES

Explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of primary explosive. They do
not function by burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in small
amount generally burn tranquilly and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a high
temperature by external heat or by their own combustion, they sometimes explode.
 Examples: Ammonium nitrate, TNT, dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid,
plastic
explosives.

CHAPTER FOUR
HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBERS

Hair

Is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the human
body except on the palm of the hands and the soles of the feet. Hair is not completely round but
maybe oval flattened. Its width is not always the same along its length. It start out pointed and
narrow and then strays more or less the same.

TWO KINDS OF HAIR (AMONG MAMMALS INCLUDING HUMAN BEING)

1. Real hair ( generally along and stiff)

2. Fuzz hair ( generally short, fine at times curly and wooly)

PARTS OF HAIR

1. Roots - portion embedded in the skin

2. Shaft - portion above the surface of the skin. The most DISTINCTIVE part of the
hair.
3. Tip - sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair.

PARTS OF SHAFT

1. Cuticle - outermost covering of the hair. It is consist of one layer of non-nucleated

polygonal cells, which overlaps like the scales on a fish.
2. Cortex - the intermediate and the THICKEST layer of the and is composed of
elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules in
varying proportion depending on the type of hair.
3. Medulla or Core - the most characteristics portion of the hair. It is the central canal
of the hair that maybe empty or may contain various sots of cells more or less
pigmented and begins more and less near the root.

Certain hair has no medulla. Therefore hair can be classified into two categories namely:

1. hair without medulla

2. hair with medulla
 HUMAN HAIR

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HUMAN HAIR

1. Color

a. With naked eye

b. Under the microscope

Melanin - brownish-black pigment in hair, skin, etc. it is the chemical responsible for the
color of the hair. Black and brown hair differs only to the amount of melanin.

2. Length by actual measurement

3. Character of hair - whether stiff, wiry or soft
4. Width (breadth)
5. Character of hair tip if present
6. Manner by which hair had been cut
7. Condition of root or base or bulb of hair

TWO KINDS OF ROOTS

a. Living Root – often found on hair in full growth

b. Dry Roots – dead roots

8. Character of cuticle - the size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scale
9. Character of cortex - structural features are studied under the microscope.
Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules the impart hair with color. It is the color,
shape and distribution of these granules that provides the chemist with important points of
comparison between the hairs of the different individuals.
10. presence of dye in hair

Dye hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a
dull appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural hair is not and the individual
pigment granules stand more sharply.

11. Determination of whether naturally or artificially curled

12. Character of medulla

THE MEDULLA

The medulla and cortex are the most characteristic portion of the hair. Have more
distinguishing qualities, thus they yield the most reliable criteria in the diagnosis of hair.

Cuticle Medulla

Cortex

Medulla or core or the central canal of th hair can be continuous or interrupted. It is

continuous in large number of animals, very often interrupted in human, monkey, horses.
Medulla’s diameter can be absolutely constant. At times alternately narrow and broader. The
diameter of the medulla if very little importance but the relationship between the diameter of the
medulla and the diameter of the whole hair his of great importance.

MEDULLARY INDEX or M.I ( is the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the
diameter of the whole hair. Its determination is performed under a microscope with micrometer
eyepiece.

HAIR WITH NARROW MEDULLA (less the 0.5) - belongs to human

HAIR WITH MEDIUM MEDULLA (approximate 0.5) - belongs to hair of cow, horse,
others
HAIR WITH THICK MEDULLA (greater than 0.5) - almost all animals belong to this

COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN AND ANIMAL HAIR

HUMAN

1. M.I. is less than 0.5

2. Medulla may not be present
3. Scale pattern is fine and each one overlaps the other more than 4/5
4. Pigment granules are fine

ANIMAL

1. M.I more than 0.5

2. Medulla always present
3. Scale is coarse and overlaps less than ½
4. Pigment granules are coarse

OTHER ASPECTS OF HAIR EXAMINATION

DETERMINATION OF:

1. Characteristic by race
2. Characteristic by sex
3. The religion of the body from which the human hair has been removed
4. The approximate age of individuals

NEGROID RACE HAIR:

1. contains heavy pigment distributed unevenly

2. a thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape
3. hair is usually kinky with marked variation in the diameter along the shaft

MONGOLOID RACE:
1. hair contains dense pigment distributed more or evenly the Negroid race hair
2. cross section of the hair will around to oval in shape
3. hair is coarse and straight with very little variation in diameter along the shaft of the
hair
4. usually contains a heavy black medulla or core.

CAUCASIAN RACE:

1. Hair contains very fine to coarse pigment, and more evenly distributed than is found
in Negro or Mongolian.
2. Cross section will be oval to around in shape
 3. Usually straight or wavy and not kinky

CHARACTERISTICS BY SEX

1. Male hair is generally larger in diameter, shorter in length, more wiry in texture than t
hat of a female
2. Male hair averages approximately 1 / 350 of an inch in diameter, female hair averages
approximately 1 / 450 of an inch in diameter.

THE REGION OF THE BODY FROM WHICH THE HUMAN HAIR HAS BEEN
REMOVED:
1. Scalp hair - they are more mature than any other kind of human hair
2. Beard Hair - coarse, curved, very stiff, and often triangular in cross section
3. Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ears- short, stubby, and have wide medulla.
Eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp and has a sharp tip.
4. Trunk hair - very in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat
similar to head hairs. They have fine, long tip ends.
5. Limb hair - similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and usually
contain less pigment.
6. Axillary Hair - is fairly long unevenly distributed pigment. They vary considerably in
diameter along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance. It has an
irregular shape and structure. Looks like public hair but the ends are shaper and the
hair is not so curly.
7. Public hair- similar to axillary hair but are coarser, and do not appear bleached. More
wiry, have more constriction and twist and usually have continuous broad medulla.
Has many broken ends the clotting rubs.

THE APPROXIMATE AGE OF AN INDIVIDUAL THOUGH HAIR EXAMINATION

Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have fine pigment and are rudimentary in chapter.
Children’s hair through adolescence is generally finer and more immature than and hair but
cannot be definitely differentiated with certainly.

If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to disappear in the hair, it can be
stated that the hair is from adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have prematurely
gray or white hair (head hair) but not body hairs.

The root of hair from an aged person may show a distinctive degeneration

TEXTILE FIBERS

Textile fibers-fibers that can be converted into yarns.

Yarn-made of fibers which have been twisted together, linked thread.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBERS

TWO DIVISIONS OF FIBER:

1. Natural fiber
2. Synthetic or artificial fiber

THREE SUBDIVISIONS OF NATURAL FIBERS:

1. Vegetable fibers - made of CELLULOSE. Examples are seed. Stem barks or bast
fibers, leaf fibers, cotton, woody fibers, fruit or nut fibers.
2. Animal fibers - made of PROTEIN. Examples are wool, silk, hair.
3. Mineral fiber - example is asbestos
TWO KINDS OF SYNTHETIC FIBERS

1. organic fiber
a. Cellulosic ( example rayon
b. Non-cellulosic ( examples nylon, casein fiber, resin fiber

2. Inorganic fiber
a. mineral fiber ( examples glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag wools
b. metallic fiber ( examples finewire filament, steel wool, tinsel threads.

TEST FOR FIBERS:

1. Burning test or ignition test

2. Fluorescence test
3. Microscopic test
4. Chemical test
a. staining test
b. dissolution test

DISCUSSION OF TEST

BURNING OR IGNITION TEST ( A simple preliminary macroscopic examination. A test that

determines whether fiber is mineral, animal or vegetable. A single fiber is applied with flame at
one end and the following are noted:
a. manner of burning
b. odor of fumes
c. appearance of burnt end
d. color of ash
e. action of fumes on moistened red and blue litmus paper
f. effect of fumes on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate

FLUORESCENCE TEST – frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber
belongs. It is not reliable for positive identification of fiber.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – the fiber is placed on a slide teased and covered. In

general it is the most reliable and best means of identifying fibers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON TEXTILE FIBERS

1. Cotton – unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to right or left on its axis;
central canal is uniform in diameter. Cell wall thick, covered by a thick, structureless, waxy
cuticle. Fibers taper gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end.
2. Mercerized Cotton – straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; unevenly lustrous, smooth
except for occasional transverse fold or wrinkles; cuticle mostly lacking.
3. Linen – multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to
a sharp point. Cell walls thick, the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the
fiber to appear jointed resembling bamboo.
4. Cultivated silk-smooth, cylinder, lustrous threads, usually single but often double, the twin
filament held together by an envelope of gum. More or less transparent, without definite
structure.
5. Wild silk-similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline. Marked by very
fine longitudinal striations with infrequent diagonal cross markings.
6. Artificial silk-cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod.
7. Wool-easily distinguished by presence of flattened, overlapping epidermal scales not found
on silk or any of the vegetable fibers.

CHEMICAL TEST

A. Staining Test – the fiber is stained with picric acid, Million’s reagent, stannic chloride or
iodine solution.

Picric acid + silk ---------- dyed

Picric acid + wool -------- dyed
Picric acid + cellulosic fiber ---------------- unchanged
Silk + million’s reagent --------------------- brown
Wool + million’s reagent ------------------- brown
Cellulosic fiber + million’s reagent -------- no reaction
Stannic chloride + cellulose ---------------- black
B. Dissolution Test – if the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with the following
chemicals. If dyed, the fiber is first decolorized by boiling in either 1% hydrochloric acid,
acetic acid or dilute potassium hydroxide. The fiber is then treated with the following and
reaction observed.

1. 10% NaOH
2. 5% oxalic acid
3. Half saturated oxalic acid
4. Concentrated sulfuric acid
5. Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide
6. Concentrated nitric acid

CHAPTER FIVE
CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

DOCUMENT
An original or official written or printed paper furnishing information or used as proof of
something else.

PACKING, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF

EVIDENCE/DOCUMENTS

1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.

2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along old lines.
Place it in a Manila paper envelope or brown envelope or it can be placed in a transparent
plastic envelope.
3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plane white paper in folder.
4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could possibly mark
them.
 THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

EXAMINATION AND COMPARISON OF PAPER

The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or
pencil or writings. The examination of paper maybe necessary if we want to know the age of the
document, the presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION / ANALYSIS OF

PAPER

1. Whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source.

2. Determine of probable age of paper.
3. Determination of the composition of paper.

COMPOSITION OF PAPER

Paper is made of three components namely:

1. Fiber Composition
2. Sizing Material – to improve quality of paper
3. Loading Material – to add weight to the paper

EGYPTIAN PAPYRUS - one of the earliest substance used for writing. It is form the name
papyrus, that the word paper was derived.

FIBER COMPOSITION: practically all papers maybe classified form the standpoint of their
basic fiber composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:

a. mechanical pulp-ground wood sulfite mixture.

b. Soda-sulfite mixture
c. Rag sulfite
SIZING MATERIAL – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing materials are
rosin, casein, gelatin, starch.

LOADING MATERIAL – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between
the fibers of the paper. Examples are calcium sulfate and barium sulfate.

THE EXAMINATION OF PAPER

The four test for paper:

1. Preliminary Examination
2. Physical test causing no perceptible change
3. Physical test causing a perceptible change
4. Chemical Test
I. PRELIMINARY TEST FOR PAPER

The test deals with the appearance of the document and the following are observed:

a. folds and creases

b. odor
c. impressions caused by transmitted light
d. presence of discoloration and daylight and under ultraviolet light.

WATERMARKS – it is a distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its
manufacture by a roll usually a dandy roll.

WIREMARKS – marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to the surface of the
dandy roll that carries the watermark.

PHYSICAL TEST CAUSING NO PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE

A test applied on paper without perceptibly changing or altering the original appearance
of the document.

a. Measurement of length and width

b. Measurement of thickness
c. Measurement of weight/unit area
d. Color of the paper
e. Texture
f. Gloss
g. Opacity
h. Microscopic Examination

OPACITY – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which prevents
dark objects from being seen through the paper.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION CAUSING A PERCEPTIBLE CHANGE

This is done only if sufficient samples are available and if proper authorization from the
court is acquired this can be done.

a. bursting strength test or “POP” test

b. folding endurance test
c. accelerated aging test
d. absorption test

CHEMICAL TEST - This test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing
material used in the paper.

FIBER COMPOSITION – examination is purely microscopic and it determines the material

used and nature of processing.

LOADING MATERIALS – is determined by burning and ashing a portion of the paper and
then the ash examined.
SIZING MATERIAL – gelatin is extracted by boiling the paper in water and the solution
treated with tannic acid; rosin is extracted by heating the paper with 95% alcohol. The alcohol
evaporated and the residue treated with acetic anhydride and strong sulfuric acid; starch is
determined by addition of dilute iodine solution; case in is determined by addition Millon’s
reagent.

INK

Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of inks are:

1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on other parts of the same
documents or other document.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with the identical ink,
or inks of different qualities or in different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries
show the natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one
continuous writing at one time under identical conditions.

TYPES OF INK

1. Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink – the type of ink where age maybe determined. Today
the most frequently used ink for making entries in record books and for business
purposes. Gallotannic ink is made of a solution off iron salt and nutgall. This ink can
penetrate into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the surface, thus making its
removal more difficult to accomplish.
2. Logwood ink – made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount of
potassium dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of
precipitate. Phenol is added as preservative. This ink is inexpensive and does not
corrode steel pen. Will not wash off the paper even fresh, flows freely.
3. Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink – made of coal tar product called nigrosine dissolved in
water. It easily smudge, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from the paper with
little difficulty. It is best determined by spectrographic method.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink – the oldest ink material known. Made of carbon
in the form of lampblack. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it
may easily be washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
5. Colored writing ink – today, almost all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline
dyestuffs dissolved in water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to
render the writing more permanent.
6. Ball Point Pen ink – made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type solvents as carbitol,
glycol or oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is the best way of determine this type of ink.

TEST FOR INK

1. Physical Test
2. Chemical Test or Spot Test
3. Paper Chromatography Test
DISCUSSION OF TEST

1. Physical Test – applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures,
destruction of sizes with the use of stereoscope, handlens or microscope.

2. Chemical Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on the
ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color reactions or other changes in
the ink is observed. Reagents used: 5% HCI, 10% oxalic acid, tartaric acid, 2% NaOH,
10% NaOC1, C12, H2O, KCNS, water.

3. Paper Chromatography – a reliable procedure that can be adopted to identify and

compare ballpoint pen ink.

DETERMINATION OF APPROXIMATE AGE OF DOCUMENT

1. Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination except when
the color is black, because on the observation that within a few hours, the color of ink
writings becomes darker because the dye contain therein is influenced by the light of the
room, oxygen of the air, acidity or alkalinity of the paper.

There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of the ink writing and
apparently these methods depend upon:

1. Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the ink writing with the standard colors
of with itself over a period of time.

2. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length of time the
ink has been on the paper.

2. Age of paper

a. through watermarks
b. in certain case from the composition of paper

OTHER ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS – unnecessary writings that are not capable of being read usually
made on checks, birth certificate, passport and transcript of record.

SOME ILLIGIBLE WRITINGS

1. Erasure – means removal of writing from the paper. Can be made chemically or
mechanically.
2. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking
material.
3. Sympathetic Ink or Invisible ink – substances used for invisible writing.
4. Indented Writing – term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on a sheet of
paper underneath the one that the visible writing appears.
5. Writings on Carbon Paper – used sheets of carbon paper can be made readable.
6. Contact Writing – black paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact with
some writings.
 CHAPTER SIX
GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES

GLASS

A supercooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-crystalline

inorganic substance.

COMPOSITION OF GLASS

Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO2 (silica), B2O3 (boric oxide), phosphorus
pentoxide (P2O5). For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of
commercial glasses. It is made of silica sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing,
durability and reduction of viscosity. Glass like window and plate that are made in mass
production is fairly uniform in composition. These may contain incidental impurities and the
presence of these substances in invaluable for the identification and comparison of glass by
spectrographic analysis. Glass has also presence of trace elements which maybe sufficient to
establish or negate the fact of a common source of two samples of glass.

ANALYSIS / TEST FOR GLASS

1. Spectrographic analysis/test
2. X-ray diffraction analysis/test
3. Physical properties examination
4. Ultraviolet light examination
5. Polish marks examination

DISCUSSION OF TEST

SPECTROGRAPHIC TEST – an instrumental method of analysis that determines the presence

of trace element. Shows the constituent elements of a glass. It will not give sufficient
information to establish the origin of the samples examined. A rapid examination and an
adequate method for glass analysis since it requires only a small amount of sample.

X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS – not as effective as the spectrographic analysis.

Determines the type of pattern of glass. The type of pattern depends upon the composition of
glass.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION – the most sensitive method of determining

differences of composition in glass samples and it depends upon the study of the physical
properties of glass. Properties like specific gravity or density, refractive index.

ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION – determines the differences in the appearance of

their fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical differences.

POLISH MARKS – optical glass and other fine glassware are usually polished. In the polishing
of glass fine marks are often left on the surface that can sometimes serve as a basis of
comparison.
 GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME

In the field of Forensic Chemistry emphasis is placed on:

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.

2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of assault or other crimes of
violence.

Note: SEE TOPIC ON “HOW GLASS BREAKS”

ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES

Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an automobile or any
vehicle for that matter is discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a comparison
maybe made with the fragments found at the scene of accident employing the methods of
analysis for glass.

HOW GLASS BREAKS (HOW GLASS FORMS CRACKS WHEN A BLOW OR

PRESSURE IS APPLIED ON ONE OF ITS SURFACE)

When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example. The glass
first bends a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity if reached the glass breaks
along radial lines starting from the point where the destroying force is applied originating form
the opposite surface of the glass, because this is the portion or surface which is more subjected to
stretching by bending. The front surface is only pushed. While the radial fractures are taking
place the newly created glass triangle between the radial rays also bend away from the direction
of the destroying force. By this bending the glass is stretched along the front surface and when
the limit of elasticity is reached the glass breaks in concentric cracks. These originate on the
front of the glass because of stretching.

ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS

BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY BULLET HOLES

1. On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown
away giving the hole the appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that the
bullet was fired from the opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.
If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake marks are evenly distributed
around the hole.
2. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than the
right.
3. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a shot fired at an angle
from the left.
 BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY FIST OR STONE or HURLING PROJECTILE

The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but
the principles of radial cracks and concentric cracks or fractures will apply.

THE PRINCIPLE OF 3Rs RULE FOR RADIAL CRACK

3Rs Rule – “Stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to the rear side of the glass.”
The front side is referred to as the side that was struck.

THE PRINCIPLE OF RFC RULE FOR CONCENTRIC CRACK

RFC Rule – “Stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side” that is the
side from which the blow came, rather than the rear side.
PROCEDURE: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as possible.
Select a triangular piece bounded by two radial cracks and one concentric crack. The triangular
piece must be adjacent to the point of impact, it this is not a available select a piece as close as
possible to the point of impact.

WHERE THERE ARE TWO BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW PANE

(ONE FROM EACH SIDE)
The problem of which one was fired first becomes important to determine who the
aggressor is. It will be found that the fractures caused by the first bullet will be complete,
especially the radial cracks, whereas the fractures from the second will be interrupted and end-
stopped at points where they intersect those from the first.

FRACTURES ON SAFETY GLASS

Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does not shatter when struck
sharply. Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not complete; the radial cracks do not extend
to the side of impact and the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.

MOULAGE AND OTHER CASTING TECHNICS

Casting material – is any material w/c can be changed from plastic or liquid state to the solid
condition is capable of use as casting material.

The following are the criteria on which the value of casting material is assessed.

1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied.

2. Must harder rapidly to a rigid mass
3. must not be deformable nor shrink
4. must be easy to apply
5. must have no tendency to adhere to the impression
6. should have of fine composition and surface
7. should not inquire the impression
8. should be easily obtainable
9. should be cheap.

CLARAS -- recommend the following formulas

1. Hastening – add one half teaspoonful of the table salt to the plaster.
 2. retarding – add one part of a saturated solution of borax to ten part water to be used
in making the plaster.
3. Hardening – to give a cast a greater durability it can be place on a saturated solution
of sodium carbonate, and allowed to remain in the solution for
sometime. It is then removed and dried.

TOOLS IMPRESSIONS MAY BE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO GENERAL CLASSES:

1. These produced by such instruments like an Axe-hammer, pliers and cutters which
touch the area only once in producing the impression.
a. Compression Marks – which produced by a single application of tool is the
area of contact, for example: the impression of a single blow of a hammer.
b. Friction Marks – which are series of scratches or striations produced by
pushing a tool across the surface such as those produced by cutters jimmy or
axe.

2. Those produced by such instrument like saw or file which is applied in a repeated
strokes over the same area.

Cost of Human Body it is important that the temperature of the negative material should
be below 110OF (43.3OC) a temperature higher than this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to
the subject.

Casting Materials

Cost of the human body is made by the use of Negocoll and Hominit or Celert.

a. Degocoll – is a rubbery gelatinous material consisting essentially of colloidal

magnesium scaps.
b. Hominit – is a resinous material used for making positives from Negocoll
negatives. It is a flesh color and is used for external surfaces.
c. Celerit – is brown and is used for backing and strengthening the hominid.

DENTAL COMPOSITION AND WOOD METAL

Negroid race:

1. Hair is usually kinky with marked variations in the diameter along the shaft.
2. Contain heavy pigment distributed an eely.
3. A thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape.

CHAPTER SEVEN
METALLURGY (AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)

METALLURGY – the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of chemical
and physical knowledge.

METALLOGRAPHY – branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the microstructures of

metals and alloys.

APPLICATION OF METALLURGY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

1. Robbery
2. Theft
3. Hit and run
4. Bomb and explosion
5. Nail Examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial numbers

COUNTERFEIT COINS
COUNTERFEIT COINS – coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.

TWO KINDS OF COUNTERFEIT COINS:

a. CAST COINS – coins made in molds or coins made by casting method. An impression
of genuine coin is taken by use of plaster of Paris, clay, or bronze. The plaster molds
bearing the image of a good coin are filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead
or tin. Sand molds are used for high temperature metals such as copper or silver alloys.
Cast coin has poor imitation. It can be easily detected. The surface is usually pitted and
uneven. The edges of lettering and designs are rounded instead of sharp.

b. STRUCK COINS – made by striking or stamping method or these are coins made by
means of dies. Consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal blank by pressure.
Stamping is done by way of steel dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy
since weight, specific gravity, composition may all be good. Careful comparison of
smaller details of the designs with those of the genuine should be made.

Note: Examination of counterfeit coins is not wholly chemical.

RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid.

ETCHING FLUID – fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching fluid
depends on the structure of the metal bearing the original number.

ETCHING FLUIDS

1. For cast iron and cast steel – 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate
2. For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1 : hydrochloric acid + water + cupric chloride +
alcohol and Solution 2:15% nitric acid
3. For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid + nitric acid
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol for copper, brass,
silver, and other copper alloys-ferric chloride + hydrochloric acid + water
6. For Zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide
7. For Tin – 10% hydrochloric acid
8. For Silver – concentrated nitric acid
9. For Gold and Platinum – 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE RESTORATION AND TAMPERED SERIAL
NUMBER:

When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure of the metal in the
neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This disturbance penetrates to an appreciable distance
into the substance of the metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual indentations
caused by the punch have been removed. When etching fluid are applied to this surface, the
disturbed or strained particles of the metal differ in the rate of solubility than those of the
undisturbed particles and this difference in solubility makes it possible in many cases, to restore
the number to such an extent that they can be read and photographed.

TRACE METAL DETECTION TECHNIQUES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

CAT. NO. TMDT100

INTRODUCTION:

A difficult problem in law enforcement is that of linking weapons ( particularly

undischarged firearms), tools, and like object to specific individuals. The essential need for such
identification in cases involving homicide, suicide, assault, burglary, robbery, and civil disorders
has resulted in the development of a specific technique which shows whether an individual has
been in contact with a particular metallic object. The technique can be conducted by police
officers using simple equipment and the procedures described in this publication. Research has
determined that metal object leave traces on skin and clothing surfaces in characteristic patterns
with intensities proportional to the interaction of weight, friction, or duration of contact with
metal objects. The Trace Metal Detection Technique (TMDT) makes such metal trace patterns
visible when skin or clothing is treated with a test solution and then is illuminated by ultra violet
light. Examination by ultraviolet light of the metal trace patterns which appear as fluorescent
colors on the hands or clothing of the suspect allows a police officer to determine whether a
suspect has been in contact with certain metal objects, the type of metal or metals in the objects,
and also to infer what type of weapon or metal object was probably involved. The patterns
fluorescent colors can be analyzed with refference to the circumstances requiring the use of
TMDT and with other related information to provide an initial source of evidence. Physical
evidence obtained by the use of TMDT, however, should be use as an adjunct to complete
investigation.

SELECTION OF TEST AREAS

The areas to be examined are selected in relation to the circumstances, the suspect item
(handgun, rifle, tools, bludgeon, etc.), and to the normal handling, use, possession, or
concealment of the suspect item. For example, if the suspect item is a handgun, in addition to
the hands those areas of clothing which may have been contact with the weapon and the skin
areas directly beneath should be examined. In the latter case, metal traces and patterns are
sometimes found to have penetrated clothing to the skin area beneath.

APPLICATION OF THE TMDT TEST SOLUTION

The area to be examined is completely coated with the TMDT test solution. a spray
container is generally the most suitable for this purpose. Whenever possible, the surface should
be in a vertical position while being sprayed to prevent the formation of puddles. Although the
TMDT test solution is nontoxic to skin surfaces, it should not be taken internally. Care should be
taken to avoid spraying the solution into the subject’s eyes. If spray does get into the eyes, the
subject should immediately flush his eyes with water for at least ten minutes and obtain medical
acid
 DRYING THE TEST AREA

The test area is allowed to dry for a period of two or three minutes. The drying time of
hands can be shortened by swinging the arms. Sunlight, breeze, and hot air also shorten the
drying process. The areas on clothing and other materials should be allowed to dry thoroughly
before examination.

EXAMINATION OF THE TEST AREA BY ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT

The TMDT solution produces a light yellow fluorescent on those parts of the test are that
have not been in contact with metal object. This pale yellow flourescence provides a background
for metal trace patterns seen on parts of the test area that have been in contact with metal objects.
The metal trace patterns will give off fluorescent colors that are unique to types of metal and
appear as silhouettes against the light yellow fluorescent background of the test area. Examples
of fluorescent colors produced by various metals are: steel/iron (blackish purple),. Brass/copper
(purple), galvanized iron (bright yellow), aluminum (mottled dull yellow), and lead (buff, flesh
tone, or tannish). The officer first should identify the types of metal that have been in contact
with the test area by the fluorescent color that appear under the illumination of the ultraviolet
light. Essential to the officer’s ability to make this identification is his knowledge and experience
of what fluorescent colors are produced by metals such as steel, brass, copper, lead, aluminum,
tin chromium, iron nickel, silver and certain alloys that can be contained in metal objects. After
determining the presence of metal traces in the test area and identifying the metals, the officer
can next determine the pattern of the metal traces revealed by the fluorescent colors. The
location, size, and shape of metal traces on the hand from patterns that are characteristic of the
size and shape and the normal way in which weapons, tools and other metal objects handled and
used. The recognition of these patterns in conjunction with the determination of what metals left
traces on the skin are the basis for identification of metal objects. In this way the officer can
ascertain if the pattern is pertinent to a suspect item to its having been in the possession of a
suspect.

DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF METAL OBJECTS ON THE HANDS

The shape, size and weight of the metals object, the duration of contact, and the use of the
metal object all combine to produce the location and intensity of metal traces and their patterns
on the hands.

SHAPE AND SIZE OF METAL OBJECT

On holding a metal object, metal traces depend on the object’s shape and the size (more
or less) of the hand that comes in contact with the metal surface. The intensity is also
proportional tot he actions and forces involved in using a tol, striking blows with weapons, and
the recoil from the discharge of firearms. In addition, the intensity is incresed when the suspect
resists action to disarm him.

DETECTION OF METAL OBJECTS ON CLOTHING

As noted earlier, metals leave characteristic traces on clothing surfaces. Therefore, the
suspect’s clothing should be examined by TMDT. In particular, the areas to be examined are:
gloves, hats, pocket, lining of coats, shirts, areas used for concealment, and other areas of
clothing where the suspect item may have been carried, concealed, or otherwise been in contact.
The spray is applied to the test areas placed in a vertical p[position whenever possible. Clothing
and other materials vary in their absorbency, therefore some of these test areas may require a
heavier application of spray or two or more spraying to produce the maximum flourescence and
appearance of metal traces and patterns. The maximum appearance is obtained when a repeated
spraying does not produce a brighter fluorescence that the previous spraying and drying of the
test area. Metal traces sometimes penetrate clothing to the skin areas beneath. For example,
metal traces may be found on the hands even though gloves have been worn while metal objects
have been handled. Skin areas directly beneath clothing areas where metal traces have been
found should be examined by TMDT. However, it should be noted the plastic, leather and rubber
materials are impervious to penetration of metal traces.

PROCEDURES FOR THE DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF HANDGUNS BY TMDT

Because of their unique shape and use, handguns leave characteristic pattern and distinct
signatures on the hands that are specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons.
The police officers, with knowledge and experience in identifying the characteristic patterns and
signatures on handguns by TMDT, can determine if a suspect has had a handgun in his
possession and the signature of the handgun by the following procedures.

SPRAYING THE HANDS

The suspect’s hands are extended from the sides of the body with the palms in a vertical
position and the fingers and thumb separated and extended. The officer should make certain that
the entire surface of the front and back of the hands are covered by the spray.

EXAMINATION OF HANDS

The officer can next examine the suspect’s dry hands under ultraviolet light. He should
make a written record of the following observations and analysis of the suspect’s hand:

1. First, note and record the fluorescent colors of the metal traces that make up the
pattern for th purpose of identifying th metallic content of the gun.
2. Look for the appearance of metal traces (fluorescent colors differing from the light
yellow fluorescent color produced by TMDT test solution) on those parts of th hand
that come in contact with the gun: th index finger which rested on the trigger, the
remaining fingers and thumb which enclosed the gun, the palm, and the degree of
protrusion of the gun into the area between and beyond the junction of the thumb and
index finger. (Extensive protrusion of metal traces beyond this area are made by the
overhang at the top of the back edge of the handles of automatics, which is common
to the design of this type of handgun.)
3. Look for any irregularities or distinguishing marks in the pattern which may have
been made by screws, protrusions, ornamentation’s, and other markings of the gun.
4. Look for interruptions in the pattern which may be due to nonmetal parts of the gun.
Compare these observations with the suspect handgun or, if it has not been recovered,
with a Catalog of Handgun “Signatures.” This comparison serves to identify the
signatures of the handgun or possession thereof by the suspect.
5. Take a photograph of the pattern produced on the suspect’s hand under illumination
by ultraviolet light.
6. If the suspect handgun has been recovered before the apprehension of the suspect or
shortly after his arrest (it has been found that detectable metal traces may be found up
to 38 – 48 hours after contact with metal objects), the pattern of the handgun should
be produced on a subject who has not recently handled a gun. The patterns on the
subject’s hands should be examined side-by-side under ultraviolet light to determine
whether or not the handgun has been in the possession of the suspect. Photographs
should be taken as evidence.
 7. If the suspect handgun has not been recovered, the pattern on the suspect’s hand
should be compared with the photographs of handgun patterns entered in a Catalog
of Handgun “Signatures”. A photograph of the pattern on th subject’s hand should
also be taken and compared with those in the catalog to aid in the possible
identification of the type of gun the suspect has had in his position.

CATALOG OF HANDGUN SIGNATURES

It has been noted earlier that handguns leave distinct pattern or “signatures” which are
specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons. It is important that police
officers develop a thorough knowledge and permanent record of these signatures. For this
purpose a catalog of signatures should be prepared of as many types, models, makes, and calibres
of specimen handgun that can possibly be obtained. The signatures of these handguns can be
produced on the hands of subjects and examined under ultraviolet light as described in Section 3
above. A photograph of each signature is then entered ultraviolet light and the type, make and
model of the specimen handgun.

DETECTION OF TOOLS AND METAL OBJECTS

Some tools and other metal objects leave patterns that are characteristics of their shape,
normal handling and use (for example: pliers, wrenches, shears, scissors, etc.) while other tools
and metal objects may leave patterns that are similar because they are alike in shape and
diameter (for example: crowbars, pipes, metal bars, etc.). Accurate analysis and determination of
patterns on suspect’s hands depend upon relating the above factors to circumstances,
information, and evidence of the case upon the technician’s experience and skill in using TMDT.
Again, as an aid in obtaining such experience and skill, the technician should prepare a catalog of
patterns and metal traces produced by tools and other metal objects.

CONTACT WITH NON-SIGNIFICANT METAL OBJECTS

The hands of individual may have metal traces from contact with metal objects such as
handles, doorknobs, keys, etc. The intensities of the traces will be proportional to the force and
duration of contact with these metal objects. In some cases, the metal traces will be faint because
of momentary and light contact with the objects, but in other cases the traces from no significant
metal traces and distort the patterns of significant metal objects.

DISASSEMBLY OR ASSEMBLY OF A HANDGUN

If the suspect has handled a handgun for these purposes, metal traces will be left on the
hands which do not form the pattern ordinarily produced by the weapon. However, if the
suspect held the weapon in the usual way for a period of time, the technician may be able to
detect the specific pattern left by the handgun. ( It should be noted that gun oils give off a
mother-of-pearl appearance under ultraviolet light.)

SIMILAR PATTERNS OF METAL OBJECTS

Some metal objects may leave metal traces and patterns that are similar but not identical
to the metal traces and patterns of the significant object. The officer should be mindful of
such potential “false positives” and learn to discriminate accordingly.
EXPOSURE OF HAND TO SOAP AND WATER

Exposure to water after contact with metal objects does not affect an examination of the
hands. Repeated hand washing with abrasive soap or rubbing with dirt after contact with
metals will reduce the amount of traces deposited on the skin in a deliberate attempt to
remove metal traces. However, it has been found that metal trace patterns may be found on
the hands up to 36-48 hours after when the suspect has followed a normal routine of daily
hand washings.

FLUORESCENCE BRIGHTNESS OF METAL TRACES AND PATTERNS

The maximum fluorescence brightness of metal m traces and patterns that can be
obtained in a TMDT examination depends not only upon the amount of metal that has been
deposited on a skin or clothing surface but also upon the following factors: (1) adequate
application and coverage of the TMDT test solution, (2) a strong source of ultraviolet
illumination, (3) exclusion of all other illumination from the test area, and (4) the proximity
of the ultraviolet light to the test area.

USE OF TMDT IN THE FIELD AND OR GROUP SCREENING

The successful use of TMDT in the field for checking on a suspect or screening a group
of individuals for previous possession of weapons or other significant metal objects depends on
whether the circumstances and conditions are suitable for such examination. The acquiescence or
subjugation of the subject must be obtained to perform the examination. Sources of
environmental light must be greatly reduced or eliminated in order to produce adequate
fluorescence by ultraviolet light. And, finally, field personnel must have sufficient experience
and skill to ascertained whether an individual has been contact with a weapon or significant
metal object and whether an individual should be held for further detailed examination by
TMDT. Studies should be carried out by police officers to determine the conditions and
circumstances that prevent or are conductive to valid use and result of TMDT in the field.

ADDITIONAL USE OF TMDT

Another possible use of TMDT is the determination that a metal object has rested on
another, non-metal object. For example, a research experiment involving the successful
application of this use determined that (1) a pair of scissors no longer present had rested on the
paper lining in a drawer and (2) coins no longer present had rested on a paper document in the
bottom of a storage container. In the latter case, the duration of contact of the undisturbed coins
was sufficient to show which side of each coin had rested on the document. Since friction is not
involved, results depend of the weight and duration of the contact of the metal object with the
surface on which it rests. When consideration is given ot the use of TMDT for this type of
detection, the officer should conduct a test to determine if trace metal deposit can be produced on
the surface in question.

PRECAUTIONS

Shortwave ultraviolet light in injurious to the eyes. Do not look directly into the light or
shine the light into an individual eyes. Protective goggles are commercially available that prevent
passage of shortwave ultraviolet but transmit thew visible fluorescent light which is not injurious
to the eyes.
FLUORESCENCE PHOTOGRAPHY

It is commonly believed that ultraviolet photography is also fluorescence photography.

Actually two types of photography are involved. The main purpose of ultraviolet photography is
to record information about the objects that have the property of either absorbing or reflecting
ultraviolet light or about objects in which two or more of its elements will absorb or reflect
ultraviolet light to different degrees. These effects can be recorded photographically to show
differences between objects or between areas of the same object. Whether or not the objects emit
fluorescence does not enter into the purposes of ultraviolet photography. If a source of ultraviolet
light is used to excite fluorescence in an object, photographing the fluorescent object is known as
fluorescence photography. This type of photography is used for recording fluorescent metal trace
patterns produced by TMDT.

A. PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES

1. Illumination. Efficient sources of ultraviolet light, placed as close to the subject as

practical, should be used to excite the maximum fluorescence brightness of the object.
The incidence of illumination of the object should be at an angle of about 45 degrees.
Two sources (one on each side of the object) will provide twice as much light and prove
more practical in photographing three dimensional objects.
2. Barrier Filter. This filter is placed in front of the camera lens to absorb the ultraviolet
light radiation transmitted by the exciter filter and to transmit only the fluorescent given
off by the object. An efficient barrier filter is the Kodak Wratten Filter No. 2A if th
exciter filter transmits ultraviolet light only.
3. Exposure Determination. Because of the very low brightness of fluorescence, the
proper exposures for photographing fluorescent metal trace pattern will have to tbe
determined by tests. The bigenner should take a number of photographs of subjects at
various exposures. At fixed lens aperture, exposure time should be increased by a factor
of two in successive steps over a wide range of increasing shutter speeds. A record of all
exposure conditions should be made including: subject, ultraviolet source and its distance
from the subject, filter, shutter speed, and lens opening. With a record of such officer can
develop the know-how and skill in estimating the exposures for photographing subjects.

An extremely sensitive exposure meter can be used for determining exposures.

However, its cell should be covered with a barrier filter to absorb ultraviolet light
reflected from the subject which, if higher in brightness that the fluorescence of the
subject, will give erroneous exposure settings on the camera. If the use of an exposure
meter is feasible, the tests described above may not be needed to determine exposures.

B. BLACK AND WHITE FILMS

The black and white films used in fluorescence photography should have panchromatic
sensitivity and high speed. Eastman Kodak co., E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., GAF,
and Polaroid Corporation all manufacture film of this type.

C. COLOR FILMS

The advantages of using color films to record fluorescent metal trace patterns ar obvious.
The patterns are produced in fluorescent colors which are examined and analyzed as
such. Photographing the patterns with color film records their actual appearance, whereas
black and white films record the patterns, interruptions in the patterns, and incomplete
coverage by the TMDT solution as varying shades of gray as easily as they can
distinguish different colors.

The advantages of using color films, however, are offset by their lower ASA/ISO
numbers, although some can be pushed to higher speed by special development to allow
 shorter exposure times. Again, as in the case of black and white films, the beginner
should conduct tests to determine exposure using these films.

CHAPTER EIGHT
SOIL
(PETROGRAPHY AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)

PETROGRAPHY – branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and
identification of rocks, rock forming minerals and soil. Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe
insulation, ceramics and other such materials, both natural and artificial.

TYPES OF SOIL

1. Alluvial Soil – formed from soil particles that were washed, blown, or moved by gravity to
the lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc. deposited by moving water.
2. Colluvial Soil – formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks, the decomposed particles moved by gravity.
3. Sedentary Soil – inactive, not migratory soil.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF EVIDENCE

1. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires, tools and
furniture.
2. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole submitted to the
laboratory.
3. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box.
4. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point of reference.

CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL
1. Primary Minerals
2. Clay Mineral
3. Organic Constituents

PRIMARY MINERALS – includes under composed rock fragments ranging from stone down
thru pebbles, sand and silt. Important minerals include quartz (silica), calcite (limestone,
CaCO3), feldspar (silicate of A1, Na, Ba, Ca, K) dolomite, mica.

CLAY MINERAL – a product of decomposition of primary minerals found in nearly all soils
and is the major constituents of most heavy soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity
and becomes hard and adherent on heating.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS – one of the most variable of all soil constituents and is of
peculiar importance in the identification of soil.

ANALYSIS OF SOIL – there are several methods of petrography analysis that are being use in
the laboratories to establish the identify of two or more samples of soil. There is no procedure
that is specially recommended. It all depends on the availability of the apparatus. The
DENSITY GRADIENT APPARATUS is a simple apparatus utilizing simple procedure in
determining the identity or non-identity of soil samples based on the density distribution. The
procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of completion. It is sensitive to small changes in
composition.

OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR SOIL

X-ray diffraction, spectrographic analysis and thermal analysis are methods extensively used in
commercial and private laboratories as general procedure.

APPLICATION OF SOIL ANALYSIS TO SCIENTIFIC CRIME DETECTION

The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils differ in various
characteristics over the surface of the earth. This difference makes it possible to establish the
identity or non-identity of two soil samples.

DUST AND DIRT

DUST AND DIRT – has been described as “matter in the wrong place”. The study of such
piece of evidence may often provide the investigator with clues as to the occupation or previous
whereabouts of a person under investigation.

DUST – matter which is dry and in finely divided form

MUD – dust mixed with water

CRIME (heavy dirt ) – when dust is mixed with the sweat and grease of the human body this is
formed.

COMPOSITION OF DUST

Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found it always contain substances of
plant and animal origin and substances of mineral origin.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE DUST

For purpose of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified from their source.

a. Dust Deposited from the Air −− Extremely fine dust particles present in the air
everywhere. More in thickly populated and industrial region. Settle very slowly and
ultimately deposited on any exposed surface. Its value in crime detection is
significant.

b. Road and Footpath Dust −− produced by the wear and tear of the road surface be
vehicular and pedestrian traffic together with particles of soil carried by the wind or
rain from adjoining regions.

c. Industrial Dust −− Industries ;like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of
Paris factories, flour milling, paint pigment, involves industrial processes like
grinding, milling or beating for the purpose of producing finely powdered ultimate
products which in the process impart a pronounced local character to the dust on the
neighboring roads and buildings.

d. Occupation Dust −− Some of the fi8nely powdered material maybe found on the
clotting and foot wears of employees engaged in such industries. Aside from this for
example, coal miner will have coal dust on his clothes, bricklayer will yield brick
duct, sand and lime on his clothes.
From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of occupational dust is of great
importance. In criminal investigation, the identification of the person through the articles of
clotting left in the scene of crime or in a vehicle may place him in an identifiable class and thus
to distinguish from the great majority of other persons. Such observation does not serve to
distinguish the wearer of the cloth from all other persons.

COLLECTION AND SUBMISSION OF DUST AND DIRT SPECIMEN

1. Dust and dirt present in clotting or objects that can be readily transported should be
left in site. The whole article is packed in a clean box with proper protection and
hipped to the laboratory.

2. If the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano, dresses,
the specimen maybe removed by mechanical means if present in large quantity.

3. Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of vacuum cleaner with paper bags used
in the dust sack to collect the dirt.

ANALYSIS OF DUST AND DIRT

If the sample is very small, micro-chemical test or spectrographic analysis maybe

employed. If the amount of specimen is sufficient the following is employed.

1. Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light

2. Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate.

a. observe of aqueous drop with hand lens

b. Note the proportion of the solid matters that remains in suspension and
proportion that settles rapidly.

c. Reaction with litmus paper (aqueous drop)

3. Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1 NHCl.

a. Note evolution of gas

b. Note formation of precipitate

c. Note changes in color

d. Note materials dissolved by acid

4. Treat a small quantity with ethanol

a. Note color of alcohol drop

b. Note difference between color of an aqueous solution in procedure 2 and that

in alcohol solution.

c. Note other changes

 CHAPTER NINE
ARSON

DEFINITION OF ARSON:

1. UNDER THE OLD COMMON LAW

Arson is the willful and malicious burning of the house or house of another man.
Present laws on arson have extended the scope of the crime and covered all kinds of
buildings and structures even including personal property. Now the crime of arson
includes the burning of one’s own property.

2. UNDER THE REVISED PENAL CODE

Arson is the destruction of property by fire and the extent of liability depends on:

1. Kind and character of the building

2. Its location
3. Extent of damage or value
4. Its state of being inhabitant or not

3. ACCORDING TO WEBSTER:

Arson is the malicious burning of a building or property (as dwelling house)

4. ARSON IS FIRE SET INTERNATIONALLY.

WHAT CONSTITUTE ARSON?

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1. Willfulness −− means intentional and implies that the act was done purposely and
intentionally.
2. Intent −− is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.
An essential element of crime, movie, motive is not.
3. Motive −− is the moving cause which includes the commission of a crime.
Something that leads or influence a person to do something.
4. Malice −− denotes hatred or will or a desire for revenge. Is the intent to do injury to
another.
1. A fire can only be considered as arson if all accidendetal and natural cuase of
fire can be eliminated.

The more burning of a building does not constitute the body of the crime.

2. To prove the body of the crime it is necessary to show:

a. First, that the building in questioned burned.

b. 2nd, it was burned as result of the intentional criminal act of the accused.

5. Burning −− to constitute burning, there must be burning or charring, i.e. the fiber of
the wood must be destroyed, its identify change. It is not necessary that the building
be seriously damaged.
A mere smoking, scorching or discoloration of the wood is not sufficient.
 BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF ARSON

The four (4) basic lines of inquiry in the investigation of arson:

1. origin of fire
2. motive
3. identification of prime suspect
4. identification of the fire setter

ORIGIN OF FIRE

The first step in recognizing arson is the exclusion of all accidental and natural causes of
fire.

CAUSES OF FIRE

Fire may belong to anyone of the following

1. Natural causes without human intervention

a. Lightning
b. Explosion
c. Spontaneous combustion
d. Miscellaneous Cause
2. Accidental cause with or without human intervention
a. Faulty Wiring
b. Careless handling of inflammables
c. Children playing with match
d. Careless smokers
e. Careless handling of electric stoves, candles, cigarettes, butts, mosquito coils.
3. Arson or Touch of fires ( a set fire) −− when all natural and accidental causes have
been eliminated, then the fire is classified as suspicious.

TELL TALE SIGNS −− signs that maybe obvious that the fireman will suspect arson

Some tell tale signs:

1. Burned building −− a type of building may indicate a set fire under some
circumstances.
2. Separate fire −− when two or more separate fires breaks out within a building the
fire is certainly suspicious.
3. Color of smoke −− when fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception.
The observation of the smoke must be made at the fire since once the fire has
assumed a major proportion, the value of smoke is lost because the smoke will not
indicate the materials used by the arsonist.
a. White smoke appears before the water comes in contact with the fire indicates
humid materials burning. Examples: burning hay, vegetable materials,
phosphorus (with garlic odor)
b. Biting smoke; irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and
coughing indicates presence of chlorine.
c. Grayish smoke or black smoke – indicates lack of air but if accompanied by
large flame it indicates petroleum and petroleum products and rubber, tar,
coal, turpentine.
d. Reddish brown smoke − indicates nitrocellulose, S, sulfuric acid. Nitric acid
or hydrochloric acid.
 4. Color of flame − the color of the flame is a good indication oif the intensity of fire
and sometimes of the nature of the combustible substance present.
Ex. Burning alcohol-blue flame
Burning petroleum products – red flame
5. Size of fire −− rapid extension of the fire is indicative of the use of accelerants.
6. Direction of travel −− fire normally sweeps upward, the travel of fire is predictable
from a knowledge of the construction of the building.
7. Intensity −− the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame
oftentimes indicates that some accelerants has been added to the material normally
present in the building.
8. Location of flame −− investigator should not whether there is more than one
apparent point of origin and should try to estimate the approximate location of
turpentine, alcohol, kerosene, and gasoline.
9. Odors −− many accelerants emit characteristic odors especially liquid like turpentine,
alcohol, kerosene, and gasoline.

POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE FIRE

In case of arson, point of origin of the fire is the area that the physical evidence of
criminal design is likely to be discovered. This maybe established by an examination of the
witness and by inspecting the debris at the fire scene or by both. The witness to be interrogated is
the discover of the fire and seconds the person who turned in the alarm and lastly any other
witness that can be found. Inspection of the crime scene must immediately be made to determine
the point of origin and possibly to establish the arsonist’s technique.

FIRE SETTING MECHANISM

An arsonist may use the simplest method in a match and some papers or he may use an elaborate
means to start the fire. He may use mechanical method or chemical method to start the fire.

TWO METHODS TO START THE FIRE

1. Mechanical Method
a. Matches
b. Candles, cigarette
c. Mechanical devices a clock mechanism, animals tied to ignition device like
portable lamp or stove.
d. Electrical system
e. Heating appliances as heaters, sparkers
f. Explosives

2. Chemical Method
a. Hot water or ice bag used a receptacle for phosphorus and water ignition
device
b. Metallic sodium ignited by drops of water
c. Potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid
d. Chemical devices as termite bombs, phosphorus

INCENDIARY MATERIALS −− materials used to start a fire. They are combustible fuels.

EXAMPLES OF INCENDIARY MATERIAL:

a. Arson Chemical −− incendiary materials often used by arsonist as accelerants.

Examples are alcohol, benzene, petroleum ether, gasoline, kerosene, naphtha,
turpentine.
b. Gases as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas, propane
c. Solids as chlorates, perchlorate, chromates, bichromates, nitrates permanganates
 MOTIVE

FIVE MOTIVES THAT PREDOMINATE IN ARSON CASES:

1. economic gain
2. concealment of crime
3. punitive measure
4. intimidation and economic disabling
5. pyromania

FIRE ARE SET BY TWO TYPES OF SETTERS NAMELY:

1. Person with motive

a. Those with desire to defraud the insurer

b. Employees or such other persons who have grievance
Fire of revenge ( revenge is sometimes the cause of a fire where a person
wishes to destroy the goods of another person against whom he has a bad
feeling.
c. Those who desire to conceal evidence of their crimes
d. Those who set fire for purpose of intimidation

2. Person without motive

a. Mental case
b. Pathological fire-setters
c. Pyros
d. Psychos

PYROMANIA −− an uncontrollable impulse toward incendiarism. A tern used to describe a

condition of mind leading to an act of arson.
PYROMANIAC −− a type of person who has passion for fire that can be satisfied only by
watching flames. People who get pleasure in watching fireman put out fire.

DEVELOPMENT / IDENTIFICATION OF PRIME SUSPECT

The third basic line of inquiry pointed towards the identification of the criminal and his
accomplices if any. To accomplish this identification it is first necessary to develop what are
known as prime suspects among those having motives and opportunity to set the fire or pinpoint
a prime suspect in pyro fire studying the fire pattern.

Suspected fire setters with rational motivation are usually developed by a check of their
activities, questioning and background study. Friends, eyewitness and others who may posses
information about the fire are interviewed. The owner of the building, the occupants of the
premises affected by the fire and anyone who may profit by the fire are interrogated. The
following may serve the investigation:

1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence

2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or
other person having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogations of the person who discovered the fire, the one turned
the first alarm, fireman, eyewitness
4. Surveillance
 IDENTIFICATION OF FIRE SETTER

The final basic line of inquiry to be pursued by a arson investigator concerns which one
of the prime suspects is the fire setter and who were his accomplices if any. This identification
result from the full development of leads, clues and traces.

The testimony of persons, particularly eyewitness and the development of expert

testimony maybe of value.

GUIDES IN THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FIRE SCENE

The fire scene holds the key to the origin of any fire. A careful, methodical and toughly
search of the scene of a suspicious fire is a basic part of the initial investigation. The following
points must be given due attention:

1. the scene must be protected so that the evidence is not destroyed or removed either by
careless persons or the guilty party.
2. Mechanics of search
3. Collection and preservation of physical evidence
4. Laboratory aids

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF ARSON EVIDENCE

1. Two to three quarts of ash and shoot debris must be collected at the point of origin of a fire.
2. Specimen should be packed immediately in an airtight container.
a. Can use new clean paint cans with friction lids
b. Wide-mouths glass can be used provided they contain airtight lids
c. Leave an airspace in the container above the debris
3. Plastic polyethylene bags are not suitable for packaging.
4. Fluids found in open bottles or cans must be collected ans sealed
5. Thorough search of the scene should be undertaken for igniters
6. Collect clotting of the suspect / perpetrator and place in a separate airtight container
7. Freeze samples containing soil or vegetation.