Topic 1: Cytology (Cells to Mitosis)
Functions:
• Basic unit of life
• Synthesis of molecules
• Communication
• Cell metabolism and energy release
• Reproduction and inheritance (DNA)
Cell Part & its Function:
● Cell membrane- control what enters
and leaves the cell
● Nuclear membrane- control what
enters and leaves the nucleus
● Nucleus- control center of the cell
● Chromosomes- genetic information
in the nucleus
● Endoplasmic Reticulum- transport
system in cell
● Ribosomes- organelle that makes
proteins
● Golgi Body- organelle that packages
proteins
● Vacuole- stores water/waste
● Lysosome- breaks down old cell
parts
● Mitochondria- organelle for cellular
respiration- provides energy
● Cytoplasm- jelly like fluid
—----------plant cells (addition yung nasa
baba same meaning lang naman)
● Vacuole- it stores material like
water
● Cell Wall- support/protect plant
cells
● Chloroplasts- captures light to give
plants energy
Cell Structure:
• Organelles:
- specialized structures in cells that
perform specific functions
- Ex. Nucleus, mitochondria,
ribosomes, etc.
• Cytoplasm:
jelly-like substance that holds organelles
● Cell Membrane
- Outermost component of cell
Function:
- Selective barrier
- Encloses Cytoplasm
● Extracellular: material outside cell
● Intracellular: material inside cell
Structure of Cell Membrane
• Called Fluid Mosaic Model
• Made of phospholipids and proteins
• Phospholipids form a double layer or
bilayer
• Phospholipids contain 2 regions:
polar and nonpolar
• Polar regions:
- “heads”
- hydrophilic (H2O loving)
- exposed to H2O
• Nonpolar regions:
- “tails”
- hydrophobic (H2O fearing)
- away from H2O

Movement through Cell Membrane
• Cell membrane selectively determines
what can pass in and out of the cell.
• Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are
found in higher concentrations INSIDE
the cell.
• Sodium, calcium, and chloride are
found in higher concentrations
OUTSIDE the cell.
Ways molecules Pass through Cell
Membrane
1. Directly through (diffusion):
O2 and CO2 (small molecules)
2. Membrane channels:
- proteins that extend from one
side of cell membrane to other
- size, shape, and charge (+/-)
determine what can go through
- Ex. Na+ passes through Na+
channels
3. Carrier molecules:
- bind to molecules, transport them
across, and drop them off - Ex.
glucose
4. Vesicles:
- can transport a variety of
materials
- fuse with cell membrane
Diffusion
● movement of molecules from areas
of high to low concentration
● Solution: solid, liquid, or gas that
contains one or more solutes
● Solute: substance added to solvent
that dissolves
● Solvent: substance such as H2O that
solute is being added to
Ex. Add salt to H2O. H2O =solvent,
salt=solute, mixture=solution
● Concentration gradient:
- measures conc. difference at 2 points
- greater the distance the faster the solute
will travel
● Filtration:
- movement of fluid through a
partition with holes
Mediated Transport Mechanisms
Facilitated diffusion:
- diffusion with aid of a carrier
molecule
- requires no ATP
Active transport:
- moves substances from low to high
conc.
- requires ATP
- Ex. Sodium-potassium pump
 ● Nucleus
Osmosis Location: center of cell
- diffusion of water across a cell Characteristic: all cells contain nucleus at
membrane some point
- Osmotic pressure: Function: houses DNA
force required to prevent movement of ● Nuclear envelope:
water across cell membrane Location: edge of nucleus
Types of Osmotic Solutions ● Nuclear pores:
Hypotonic solution: Location: surface of nucleus
- lower conc. of solutes outside cell Function: where materials pass in and out
- higher conc. of H2O outside cell of nucleus
- H2O moves into cell ● Chromosome:
- lysis (burst) Location: inside nucleus
Hypertonic solution: Characteristic: made of DNA and proteins
- higher conc. of solutes outsidecell Function: part of genetic makeup
- higher conc. H2O inside cell ● Chromatin:
- H2O moves out Location: inside nucleus
- crenation (shrinks) Characteristic: loosely coiled chromosomes
Isotonic solution: ● Nucleolus
- equal conc. of solutes Location: in nucleus
- water doesn’t move Function: produce ribosomes
- cell remains intact ● Ribosome
Endocytosis Location: attached to RER or cytoplasm
- process that brings materials into Function: produce proteins
cell using vesicles ● RER (Rough Endoplasmic
2 types Reticulum)
- Phagocytosis: cell eating (solid particles) Location: cytoplasm
- Pinocytosis: cell drinking (liquid particles) Characteristic: membranes with ribosomes
Exocytosis attached
- process that carries materials out of Function: site of protein synthesis
cell using vesicles ● SER (Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum)
Cell Structures: Location: cytoplasm
● Cytoplasm Characteristic: membranes with no
Location: inside cell ribosomes
Characteristic: jelly-like fluid Function: site of lipid synthesis (Ex.
Function: give cell shape and hold Cholesterol)
organelles in place ● Golgi apparatus
Location: cytoplasm Microtubules:
Characteristic: closely, packed stacks of - largest diameter
membranes - provide structural support
Function: collect, sort, package, and - form cilia and flagella
distribute proteins and lipids Intermediate filaments:
● Secretory vesicle - medium diameter
Location: cytoplasm - maintain cell shape
Function: distributes materials out of cell Microfilaments:
● Lysosome - smallest diameter
Location: cytoplasm - involved in cell movement
Function: enzymes that digest foreign
material Whole Cell Activity
● Mitochondria - A cell’s characteristics are
Location: cytoplasm determined by the type of proteins
Characteristic: contains folds (cristae) produced
Function: produces ATP - Proteins’ function is determined by
● Cilia genetics
Location: cell surface - Information in DNA provides the cell
Characteristic: many per cell with a code for its cellular processes
Function: move materials across cell’s DNA
surface - double helix in nucleus
- composed of nucleotides
● Flagella - contains 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose,
Location: cell surface nitrogen base, phosphate)
Characteristic: 1 per cell
Function: move cell, Ex. sperm Flow of Genetic Information:
● Microvilli - Also called Central Dogma
Location: cell surface Occurs in three stages:
Characteristic: shorter than cilia ● DNA replication
Function: increase surface area ● Transcription
● Cytoskeleton ● Translation
- cell’s framework
- made of proteins DNA Replication
Functions:
- provide support
- hold organelles in place
- enable cell to change shape
Types of Cytoskeleton
 - codons: set of 3 nucleotide bases that
code for a particular amino acid
● Translation
- process by mRNA is converted into amino
acids (polypeptides)
- produces proteins
- codons pair with anticodons
- anticodons: 3 nucleotide bases carried by
tRNA

Cell Division (Mitosis)

- formation of 2 daughter cells from a
single parent cell
- uses mitosis and meiosis
- each cell (except sperm and egg)
contains 46 chromosomes (diploid)
- sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes
65

Mitosis
- cell division that occurs in all cells except
sex cells
- forms 2 daughter cells

● Gene Expression Components of Mitosis

- information in DNA directs protein Chromatid:
synthesis - 2 strands of chromosomes that are
- proteins provide code for gene expression genetically identical
- enzymes regulate chemical reactions Centromere:
- uses transcription and translation - where 2 chromatids are connected
● Transcription Centrioles:
- process by which DNA is “read” - small organelle composed of 9
- occurs in ribosomes triplets
- produces mRNA (messenger RNA) Stages in Mitosis
- mRNA contains codons 1. Interphase:
 - time between cell divisions
- DNA is in strands (chromatin)
- DNA replication occurs
2. Prophase:
- chromatin condenses into
chromosomes
- centrioles move to opposite ends
3. Metaphase:
- chromosomes align
4. Anaphase:
- chromatids separate to form 2 sets
of chromosomes
- chromosomes move towards
centrioles
5. Telophase:
- chromosomes disperse
- nuclear envelopes and nucleoli form
- cytoplasm divides to form 2 cells