A rock is a naturally occurring solid mixture of one or
more minerals, or organic matter.
 Igneous rock begins as magma.
 Magma can form:
▪ When rock is heated
▪ When pressure is released
▪ When rock changes
composition
 Magma freezes between
700 °C and 1,250 °C
 Magma is a mixture of
many minerals
Felsic: light colored rocks that are rich in
elements such as aluminum, potassium, silicon,
and sodium
Mafic: dark colored rocks that are rich in calcium,
iron, and magnesium, poor in silicon
Coarse-grained: takes longer to cool, giving
mineral crystals more time to grow
Fine-grained: cools quickly with little to no
crystals
Intrusive Igneous Rocks: magma pushes into
surrounding rock below the Earth’s surface
Extrusive Rocks: forms when magma erupts onto
the Earth’s surface (lava), cools quickly with very
small or no crystals formed
Obsidian is a dark-colored volcanic glass that
forms from the very rapid cooling of molten rock
material. It cools so rapidly that crystals do not
form.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rock is formed by erosion
Sediments are moved from one place to another
Sediments are deposited in layers, with the older
ones on the bottom
 The layers become compacted
and cemented together
Sedimentary Rocks are formed at or near the
Earth’s surface
No heat and pressure involved
Strata – layers of rock
Stratification – the process in which sedimentary
rocks are arranged in layers
Clastic – made of fragments of rock cemented
together with calcite or quartz
Breccia is a term most often used for clastic
sedimentary rocks that are composed of large
angular fragments (over two millimeters in
diameter).
Chemical sedimentary – minerals crystallize out
of solution to become rock
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed
primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the
form of the mineral calcite. It most commonly
forms in clear, warm, shallow marine waters.
Metamorphic Rock
Meaning to change shape
Changes with temperature and pressure, but
remains solid
Usually takes place deep in the Earth
Contact Metamorphism – heated by nearby
magma
Increased temperature changes the composition
of the rock, minerals are changed into new
minerals
Hornfels is a fine-grained non-foliated
metamorphic rock produced by contact
metamorphism
Regional Metamorphism – pressure builds up in
rocks that is deep within the Earth
Large pieces of the Earth’s crust collide and the
rock is deformed and chemically changed by heat
and pressure
Foliated - contain aligned grains of flat minerals The Mineral Beryl
Emerald Aquamarine
Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock that has a
banded appearance and is made up of granular The Mineral Corundum
mineral grains. It typically contains abundant
Ruby Sapphire
quartz or feldspar minerals.
Identifying Minerals
Non-Foliated – mineral grains are not arranged in
Each Mineral has its own specific properties that
plains or bands
can be used to identify it.
Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is
1. Hardness 6. Crystal Shape
produced from the metamorphism of limestone.
It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. 2. Color 7. Cleavage & Fracture

3. Streak
The rock cycle
8. Special Properties

4. Luster
5. Density
Rocks are aggregates of 2 or more minerals.
Petrology is the study of rocks. Mohs hardness scale
There are three classifications of rocks: igneous, 1 = Softest (talc or graphite)
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
10 = Hardest (diamond)

Properties of Minerals Streak- the color of a mineral when it is made

into a powder
The Rules of the Mineral
Pyrite (fool’s gold) is very similar in color to real
Every Mineral must follow these set of rules gold, but Pyrite has a greenish-black streak and
1. Naturally Occurring gold has a gold streak.

2. Inorganic Luster- describes how light reflects off a

3. Solid
4. Crystal Structure
5. Definite Chemical Composition
Crystal Structure
A crystal is a solid in which the atoms are
arranged in a pattern that repeats again and
again.
Internal Arrangement of the Atoms
Definite Chemical Composition
This means that a mineral always contains certain
elements in definite proportions
Quartz- always has one atom of Silica for every
two atoms of oxygen
minerals surface
Metallic Luster- describes minerals that are shiny.
Glassy Luster- describes minerals that look like
they have a glassy surface, ex. Quartz
*Minerals are usually described as having a
metallic or non-metallic luster.
Crystal Shape
Every crystal has a characteristic shape that is
due to its Crystal structure.
Halite (NaCl or Salt)- will always have six sides
and form a cube
Hoppered pink Halite crystals from the
evaporation
Minerals will either break by cleavage or
fracture?
Cleavage- a minerals ability to split easily along
flat surfaces
Fracture- minerals which break with rough or
uneven surfaces
Special Properties
Fluorescence- some minerals glow under
ultraviolet light ex.) Fluorite
Magnetism- some metallic minerals are naturally
magnetic ex.) Magnetite
Effervescence- some minerals such as Calcite fizz
when acid is placed on it
Electrical Properties- a few minerals, such as
quartz produce an electrical current
MINING
A mine is a place where rocks and minerals of
value are extracted.
Government Permits are needed before and
during all mining processes
The first phase of mining is called EXPLORATION.
Satellites, airplanes and helicopters can be used
to help find mineral deposits
A geologist is a scientist who studies the Earth
and it’s processes.
If an area looks promising, a drill is moved to the
site.
The drill goes deep into the Earth’s crust
removing long cylinders of rock called cores.
Geologic maps are created.
Before a mine can be opened, a complete
environmental study is done so the land can be
rehabilitated during and after mining.
Environmental protection
throughout the mining process.
There are two basic types of Mining
Underground Mining- various underground mining
techniques used to excavate hard minerals (hard rock
mining), mainly those containing metals such as gold,
silver, iron, copper, zinc, nickel and lead, but also
involves using the same techniques for excavating
ores of gems such as diamonds. In contrast soft rock
mining refers to excavation of softer minerals such as
salt, coal or tar sands.
Surface Mining-  method of extracting minerals near
the surface of the Earth. The three most common
types of surface mining are open pit mining, strip
mining, and quarrying.
Underground Mining
Nickel Miners Underground Drill
Longwall coal mining cuts a slice from the long
wall.
Notice the safety gear that these miners wear
everyday.
Miner Safety
Hard hat – The hard hat will protect Stan’s head
from falling objects (rocks, tools, etc.) in the
workplace.
Light – The light provides improved illumination
so Stan can see better in what can be a dark
workplace.
Safety glasses – Protect Stan’s eyes from dust or
any objects that are thrust towards his eyes while
performing work.
Snug Coveralls – Heavy duty snug coveralls keep
the miner warm and help prevent cuts and
scratches.
Self-rescuer – The self rescuer is a breathing
apparatus that supplies Stan with oxygen for up
to 1 hour in the case of a mine fire, smoke, smog
or any other incident that would deprive him
from breathing fresh air.
Ankle strap – The ankle strap keeps Stan’s
coveralls tight to his legs to avoid loose and
floppy clothing that could get caught in moving
machinery or cause him to trip and fall.
Steel-tipped boots – The steel tip of his work
boots protect Stan’s toes from injury due to
heavy falling objects.
Battery for light – The battery supplies power to
Stan’s light for a good 8 to 10 hours.
Methane detector – detects dangerous levels of
methane gas in the mine and allows the miner to
get to a safe place. Methane is a colorless,
odorless gas that is very explosive. Methane gas
is often encountered in coal mining.
Extraction- is the process of removing mineral
resources from the Earth’s crust.
Minerals are different so many different types
of processing are needed to remove them from
the rock. Following are just a few processes.
Milling-This rock contains gold. Milling is the
process of separating the desired mineral from
the unwanted rock (called gangue.) See if you can
find the specks of gold.
Concentration and Flotation- Some minerals
are separated by washing, flotation or magnetic
separation. Here a combination of water,
chemicals, air and agitation make desired mineral
particles float to the top of the bubbles.
Smelting - Smelting uses high heat and
chemicals to remove base metals and impurities
from concentrates. Smelting furnaces can reach
temperatures above 1064°Celcius. What would
that number be in Fharenheit?
Leaching - Arial view of a leach pad at a
copper mine in Morenci, Arizona. These
pads are the size of several football fields.
This one is being stacked with crushed ore.
Electrowinning- Starter sheets are lowered
into a solution. An electrical charge passes
through causing copper ions to stick to the
sheets.
Reclamation -Modern mines reclaim and
rehabilitate the land during and after
mining is completed, returning the land to
useful purposes.
Fossil Fuels
Electricity is considered a secondary source of
energy because it takes other sources of energy,
such as coal or solar to create electricity.
Currently, most electricity is generated through
nonrenewable energy sources.
Most electricity in the U.S.A. is generated by coal
burning power plants because it is the cheapest
to use and produces large amounts of energy.
The three types of fossil fuels are coal, natural
gas, and oil.
Fossil fuels are the most commonly used
nonrenewable resources.
The energy in fossil fuels originally came from the
sun.
The sun provides energy to plants and the plants
use photosynthesis to help them grow.
The ultimate source of the energy in fossil fuels is
from the sun. Photosynthetic plants and marine
algae lock this energy into organic matter. When
we burn plants, coal, oil, or gas, we release the
sun's trapped energy.
Burning fossil fuels releases their stored energy.
Three problems with burning fossil fuels are air When present supplies of nonrenewable
pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution. resources are used up, there will be no more

Carbon dioxide is released when burning fossil

fuels.

Coal is an organic rock that originally came from

dead swamp grass that compacted over millions
of years.

The fossil fuel coal formed from the

remains of plants that lived and died
around 100 to 400 million years ago, when
parts of the earth were covered with huge
swampy forests.
Coal is considered a nonrenewable energy
source because it takes millions of years to
form.
Of the fossil fuels, natural gas produces
the least amount of pollution.
Natural gas is a naturally occurring
hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting
primarily of methane, with other
hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
and hydrogen sulfide.
Natural gas is an energy source often used
for heating, cooking, and electricity
generation.
Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil
is a nonrenewable fossil fuel usually found
underground in reservoirs located in sandstone
or limestone. This fossil fuel is made from sea
plants and animals.
The energy source used more than any other in
the U.S.A. is oil.
Gasoline is made from the fossil fuel oil.
Oil and gas are formed from the remains of
marine plants, animals and microorganisms that
lived in seas millions of years ago.
Propane is a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is a
derivative of natural gas and petroleum