GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

I:
SOIL MECHANICS

LABORATORY
MANUAL

Contributors:
Labaguis, Czarah Mercede P.
Mon, Jahzee Kiana L.
Guttierrez, Edna B.
Mangampo, Alyssa T.
Cabatay, Aethelbert V.
Ferrer, Francis Gabriel A.
Tenorio, Ceejay
 Table of Contents
No. Title Page
1 Soil Sampling 1
2 Simple Visual and Manual Test in the Field 9
3
4
5
6

Experiment 1: …………………………………………………………………1
Experiment 2: …………………………………..10
Experiment 3: Determination of Unit Weight, Specific Gravity, Moisture Content,
and Degree of Saturation of Soil
……………………………………………13
Experiment 4: Determination of Dry Unit Weight, Void Ratio and Porosity
………………20
Experiment 5: Plasticity of Soil……………………………………………………….
……..26
Experiment 6: Gradation Analysis …………………………………………………….
…….42
Experiment 7: Engineering Classification of Soil …………………………………….
……..53
Experiment 8: Determination of Optimum Moisture Content………………………..
………63
Experiment 9: Field Density Test……………………………………………………..
………71
Experiment 10: Permeability Test …………………………………………………..
………..78
Experiment 11: Seepage (Flownets)………………………………………………..
…………88
 Experiment No. 1
SOIL SAMPLING
Introduction
This activity will collect samples of disturbed and undisturbed soil for further
analysis. Soil sampling is the collection or gathering of soil samples from the surface
or from any location that has not been covered with fixed infrastructure. It is the
preliminary step of any infrastructure construction since it will determine the
suitability of the area for any development. Soil sampling must also include relevant
information such as the location, subsurface conditions in the area, extent and
condition of soil layers. To collect the samples, engineers often use drill rig or hand
augers and special sample collection tools to gather both disturbed and undisturbed
soil samples.

Soil sampling should reflect tillage, past fertilizer or soil amendment

placement, cropping patterns (and corresponding irrigation requirements), soil type
(including drainage and slope characteristics) and perhaps old field boundaries (such
as old feedlots, windrows, altered stream beds, etc.). Fields are split into sampling
areas that contain similar soils. Hillsides are kept separate from bottoms since the soil
types will vary. Soil survey maps, if applicable, can help organize the soil types
throughout the sampling are. Samples will not necessarily need to be collected for
every soil type; however, similar soils should be kept together. Sampling maps can be
kept to note the locations of the chores for subsequent sampling.

Disturbed Samples
Disturbed soil samples do not retain the in-situ properties of the soil during the
collection process. Engineers do not consider these samples to be representative of
underground soils except for geotechnical testing that do not rely on the structure of
the soil itself. Scientists commonly test disturbed soil samples for soil type and
texture, moisture content, and nutrient and contaminant analysis, among other
evaluations. The majority of soil samples engineers and geologists collect are
disturbed samples because they are easier to collect and the precision needed to
collect an undisturbed sample is not required for most geotechnical testing.
The samples that are lost their natural structure during collection process are
called disturbed sample. The only information that can be determined form this
sample are mineral content and composition of soil. The index properties like specific
gravity, grain size and plasticity characteristics can be determined from such sample.

Undisturbed Samples
The samples that retains its natural water content and structure of soil are
known as undisturbed samples. It is a theoretical term as some disturbance is
unavoidable. If all condition meets during collection of samples from bore hole,
during removal of this sample produces change in stress as conditions and get
disturbed. The small the disturbance, the more reliability of results.
Undisturbed samples allow an engineer to determine the geotechnical
properties of strength, permeability, compressibility and fracture patterns among
others. Results of these analyses are instrumental in the design of a new infrastructure.
 The engineering properties of soil that are most important for design of
foundation are strength, permeability and compressibility. Undisturbed samples of
cohesive soils can be collected with relatively less difficulty and fairly accurate
evaluation of these properties can be obtained by laboratory tests.
Undisturbed samples of most rock can easily be obtained; but it is almost
impossible to collect an appropriate undisturbed and when the term undisturbed is
used, it refers to a sample that are collected with some precautions to reduce
disturbance of soil skeleton that exist before boring or sampling. In this regard,
undisturbed sample collected by different laboratories may have wide variations.
Requirements of undisturbed sample
• Soil structure should be unaltered due to disturbance
• Water content and void ratio must be unchanged
• No change in chemical properties of constituents.

Factors Resulting Disturbance

Some disturbance is unavoidable during sampling, even though utmost care in total
process is adopted. Soil samples collected by wash boring and auger boring method
subjected to high disturbance. Wash samples collected from rotary and percussion
drilling method for rock masses are also highly disturbed, but rocks samples collected
as blocks or cores are undisturbed. Following factors are responsible for the
disturbance of sample:
 A sample is always remain under a confining pressure. When it is taken out
from its original position, the confining pressure is removed or unloaded
which result some unknown degree of expansion. In case of in-situ testing, the
lateral expansion along the side of boreholes will results error when
calculation is based on hole diameter, with unknown amount of disturbance.
 Except samples collected from test pit, are disturbed with volume
displacement by the tube or other devices used for collection; this disturbance
is further increased when gravel exist along depth of borehole.
 Sample friction along the sides of collection tube results compression of
sample during its recovery. Most collection tubes are given shape to decrease
side friction by maintaining smaller cutting edge than side diameter of tube.
 Uncertain variation of water content of the sample may occur depending on
method of recovery and availability of water around borehole or in the ground.
 Reduction of hydrostatic pressure may result voids generated by gas bubble in
the sample.
 There have more or less disturbance while handling and transferring sample
from site to the laboratory and removing sample from sampler or testing
device.
 The workmanship and technical knowhow of drilling operators, supervising
engineer and laboratory technicians may also influence sample quality.
 In extreme weather condition, may be cold or very hot days, sample may be
frozen or dehydrated if not protected well on site. Moreover, temperament of
 worker may deteriorate in extreme temperature.

Effect of Soil Type on Sampling

 Undisturbed sampling for cohesionless soil is almost impossible to collect for
the purpose of strength testing.
 Fairly good quality samples of fine to medium grained soils can be collected
with the help of thin-walled piston samples 
 Sample having minimum disturbance can only be obtained by extreme
difficulty for dense and gravelly materials
 For dense sand, dilation of sample results due to
o Volume displacement of sampler
o Together with large apparent volume of sample, due to inclusion of
pieces of gravel during progress of cutting edg

Figure 1. General Classification of Sampling Techniques (Source: SNU OCW)

Objectives
The main objective of this activity is demonstrate how soil samples are being
collected for further test or analysis and at the same time learn the skills of
determining the visual characteristics of soil in correlation to its purpose and
properties.

Materials and Equipment

 Auger
 Shovel
 Measuring tape/meter
 Crowbar (Bareta)
 Cling Wrap/wax
 Plastic Bag

Method
1. Define field areas to be sampled.
 2. Clear the area with a grass in 30 cm deep.
3. Set 1.5 x 1.5-meter area in the field.

For Disturbed Soil Sample

4. Use auger to collect soil sample
5. Thoroughly mix the cores in a plastic bucket. Do not use metal or rubber
containers.
6. Place mixed samples in the plastic bags.
7. Label the bag with information
8. Dry the samples through the sun or through the laboratory oven.
9. Ship samples to the lab promptly. If samples will not be shipped for several
days, use cling wrap to soil until they can be shipped to avoid changes in the
chemical composition of the sample that could alter the analysis.

For Undisturbed Soil Sample

1. Dig a depth of at least 1.5 meter deep into the soil. Width varies with soil type
if it will not erode as depth goes deeper.
2. Note of the changes in soil visual characteristics as you may encounter thin
layers of varying soil type.
3. From the excavated area, ensure that the site for collection is free from any
retained/uppermost soil.
Using Cylinder pipe Sampling*
4. Collect undisturbed soil samples by pushing into the soil a cylindrical pvc pipe
(4 - 6 inch diameter and 6 inch height). You may determine its initial weight to
easily determine the actual bulk density of the soil.
5. Carefully pull out the cylinder securing the collected soil.
6. Remove excess soil from both ends and weigh to compute the site bulk density
of the soil.
7. Seal each side of the cylinder using cling wrap and wax to prevent release of
moisture.
Using Box Sampling
4. Mark outline of the sample (say 30 cm by 30 cm) and carefully excavate
trench surrounding the soil.
5. Deepen excavation below base the sample and trim to size with a knife
(sample may have 15 cm height)
6. Seal the undisturbed soil sample using three layers of cheesecloth or plastic
cling wrap waxing each side to prevent release of moisture.
7. Cut sample from the bottom of the pit and seal base similar with (6). Place
wooden lid if box is used.

Reminders:
 As far as possible the place intended for sampling should be in its natural
state. This means that we do not step on it, because this would affect the bulk
density
  Soil core samples should be taken in appropriate moisture conditions. Too wet
or too dry soil at sampling can lead to erroneous values.
 Make sure that you do not affect the sampled soil much during the sampling.
If possible, do not use the hammer but push the sampling ring into the soil by
hand.

* This is an improvised method from standard method using piston and metal rings.

Sources of Error
 Wrong choice of location for extraction of soil sample.
 Uncleaned material used in excavating and collecting soil sample.
Contaminated containers for disturbed soil sample.
 Undocumented information

Video Link
Disturbed: https://youtu.be/Oy_NTRLIgsg (until 1:16 sec only)
Undisturbed: https://youtu.be/IY4Hl0b4VkE (Starts at 1:04secs until
4:16secs)
Figure 2. Box Sampling (souce: SNU OCW, 2019)
 SOIL INFORMATION SHEET
Table 1. Undisturbed and Disturbed Soil Sample Details
Type of Soil Sample Disturbed and Undisturbed
Depth of Soil Sample

Date and Time of Extraction

Location
Latitude:
GPS
Longitude:
Weather before the date of the
experiment
Weather on the date of the
experiment
Remarks:

Guide Questions for Discussion

1. How do we select the location of sampling?
2. What are the precautions/points to consider in soil sampling?
3. Describe your soil sample (disturbed) and based on physical characteristics,
explain possible engineering purpose of the soil.
4. When do you think is the ideal time to get soil sample (undisturbed). Explain
your answer.
 Experiment No. 2
SIMPLE VISUAL AND MANUAL
TEST IN THE FIELD
Introduction
The first step in any geotechnical engineering project is to identify and
describe the subsoil condition. For example, as soon as a ground is identified as
gravel, engineer can immediately form some ideas on the nature of problems that
might be encountered in a tunneling project. In contrast, a soft clay ground is expected
to lead to other types of design and construction considerations. Therefore, it is useful
to have a systematic procedure for identification of soils even in the planning stages
of a project.
Soil classification is a way of describing a given soil sample. It presents
generalized information about the behavior and nature of soil belonging to a specific
site or location. It also gives scientist, engineers and agriculturists the information
they need for the kind of soil that they will be dealing with. This is actually one of the
first steps in any geotechnical engineering projects.
Soils can be classified based on visual and manual test, and laboratory test.
The use of visual examination and simple manual tests gives standardized measure
and procedures for describing and identifying soils. These tests can be used not only
in the field but also in the office, laboratory, or wherever soil samples are needed to
be identified and classified. Using these practices, like identifying the texture and
color of soil, can give a significant value of narrowing the number of tests needed to
be ran in laboratory for positive soil classification.
This activity presents a procedure for describing soil samples obtained from
earth and foundation engineering purposes. The procedure involves visually and
manually examining soil samples with respect to texture, plasticity, and color. The
procedure applies to soil description made in the field or laboratory.
It should be understand that the soil description are based upon the judgment
of the individual making the description. Classification tests are not intended to be
used to verify the description, but to provide further information for analysis of soil
design problems or for possible use of the soil as a construction material. It is the
intent of this system to describe only the constituent soil sizes that have a significant
influence on the visual appearance and behavior of the soil. Soils can be classified
into two general categories: (1) coarse grained soils and (2) fine grained soils. Usually
coarse-grained soils are sand, gravel, cobble and boulder, while fine-grained soils are
silt and clay.
Determining the soil color and texture is useful to characterize and
differentiate soils. The color of soil materials can be gauged in the laboratory by
visual analysis. By using the sense of sight, the color perceived by the eyes is
compared to Munsell Soil Color Chart (Figure 3). Small differences in soil color can
then be used to identify and study differences in soil compositional properties. Soil
texture is an important physical characteristic of soil which is used in both the field
and laboratory to determine classes for soils based on their physical texture. The soil
texture depends upon the proportion of the constituent solid particles of different
sizes. The terms sand, silt, and clay refer to particle size; sand is the largest and clay is
the smallest. Each texture corresponds to specific percentages of sand, silt, or clay.
The soil texture triangle is a tool used to visualize and understand the meaning of soil
texture names.
 Figure 2.1. Munsell Color Chart

Objectives
This activity aims to
 Define the texture and color of soil samples through simple visual and manual
tests of soil
 Recognize the differences in soil textures of the given samples
 Use the Munsell Color Classification System to classify a soil based on Hue,
Value and Chroma

Standard Reference
 ASTM D2488 – Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils
(Visual – Manual Procedure)

Method
Identification of Peat
A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of decomposition
that has a fibrous to amorphous texture, usually a dark brown to black color, and
organic odor shall be designated as a highly organic and shall be identified as peat.
Preliminary Identification
Soils can be classified into two general categories: (1) coarse grained soils and (2)
fine grained soils. Examples of coarse-grained soils are gravels and sands. Examples
of fine-grained soils are silt and clays. Procedures for visually identifying these two
general types of soils are decided in the following sections.
 The soil is fine grained if it contains 50% or more fines.
 The soil is coarse grained if it contains less than 50% fines.

1. Identify the color (e.g. brown, gray, brownish gray), odor (if any) and texture
(coarse or fine-grained) of soil.
2. Identify the major soil constituent (>50% by weight) using Table 2.1 a coarse
gravel, fine gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, or fines.
3. Estimate percentages of all other soil constituents using Table 2.1 and the
following terms:
4.
a. Trace – 0 to 50% by weight
b. Few – 5 to 10%
c. Little – 15 to 25%
d. Some – 30 to 45%
e. Mostly – 50 to 100%
Table 2.1 Grain size distribution
Soil Familiar
Size Limits
Constituent Example
Larger than
Boulder 12 in. (305 mm) or more
basketball
Cobbles 3 in (76 mm) – 12 in (305 mm) Grapefruit
3 Orange or
Coarse Gravel in. (19 mm) – 3 in. (76 mm)
4 Lemon
3
Fine Gravel 4.75 mm (No.4 sieve) - in. (19 mm) Grape or Pea
4
Coarse Sand 2 mm (No. 10 sieve) - 4.75 mm (No.4 sieve) Rock salt
Sugar, Table
Medium Sand 0.42 mm (No.40 sieve) – 2 mm (No.10 sieve)
salt
0.075 mm (No.200 sieve) – 0.42 mm (No.40 Powdered
Fine Sand*
sieve) Sugar
Fines Less than 0.075 mm (No.200 sieve) -

5. If the major soil constituent is sand or gravel: Identify particle distribution.

Describe as well graded or poorly graded. Well graded soil consists of particle
sizes over a wide range. Poorly graded soil consists of particles which are all
about the same size. Identify particle shape (angular, sub-angular, rounded, sub-
rounded) using Figure 2.2 and Table 2.2.

Figure 2.2. Shapes of coarse-grained soil particles

Table 2.2 Criteria for describing shape of coarse-grained soil particle

Description Criteria
Angular Particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with
unpolished surfaces.
Subangular Particles are similar to angular description, but have rounded edges.
Rounded Particles have smoothly curved sides and no edges.
Subrounded Particles have nearly plane sides, but have well-rounded corners and
 edges.

6. According to the major soil constituents are, perform the following tests:
Procedure for Identifying Coarse-grained soils
a. The percentages of the following particle fractions are estimated
(i) Gravel fraction (75 mm – 4.75 mm or approximately 5 mm)
(ii) Sand fraction (4.75 mm or 5 mm – 75 micron), and
(iii) Soil fines, i.e., silt and clay fraction (smaller than 75 micron)
b. If the gravel fraction is greater than sand fraction, identify the soil as “gravel” (G).
The gravel fraction may be further divided into
(i) Coarse gravel (75 mm – 20 mm), and
(ii) Fine gravel (20 mm – 4.75 mm)
c. If the gravel fraction is equal to or less than sand fraction, identify the soil as
“sand” (S). The sand fraction may be further divided into
(i) Coarse sand (4.75 mm – 2 mm)
(ii) Medium sand (2 mm – 425 micron), and
(iii) Fine sand (425 micron – 75 micron)
d. Identify the soil further as “clean gravel” or “clean sand” if the percentage of fines
is estimated to be less than 5 percent. Identify it as “gravel with fines” or “sand
with fines” if the percentage of fines is estimated to be more than 15%.
e. Classify the “clean gravels” or “clean sand” as follows:
Identify the soil as well graded gravel (GW), or as a well graded sand (SW) if
there is good representation of all particle sizes.
Identify the soil as poorly graded gravel (GP), or as a poorly graded sand (SP) if it
contains predominantly of one size (uniformly graded) or it has a wide range of
sizes with some intermediate size(s) obviously missing (gap graded).
f. Classify “gravel with fines” or “sand with fines” as follows:
(i) If the other course grained constituent is less than 15% then:
Silty gravel (GM) or silty sand (SM) if the fines have little or no plasticity,
or
Clayey gravel (GC) or clayey sand (SC), if the fines are of low to medium
or high plasticity.
(ii) If the other course grain constituent is greater than 15%, then the group
name shall be a combination from the two columns below:

Silty gravel With sand

Clayey gravel
Silty sand With gravel
Clayey sand

g. If the percentage of fine is in between 5 – 15% then the group name shall be a
combination from the two columns below:
 Well graded gravel With clay
Poorly graded gravel With silt
Well graded sand
Poorly graded sand
Boundary classification: Assume the coarser soil first, when there is a
choice, complete the classification and assign the appropriate symbol.

Then beginning where the choice was made, assume the finer soil, complete the
classification and assign the second group symbol. The examples are as follows: GW-
GP, GM-GC, GW-GM, GW-GC, SW-SP, SM-SC, SW-SM, SW-SC, GW-SW, GP-
SP, GM-SM, GC-SC, SM-ML, SC-CL, etc.

Additional Notes on Textural Classification

SAND, LOAMY SAND
o Almost all sand
o Individual grains easily seen and felt
o Moist soil forms a cast that crumbles when squeezed
SANDY LOAM
o Sand dominates noticeably
o Moist silt forms a cast that can be gently handled
LOAM
o Can feel all three soil separates but none dominates
o Moist soil forms a cast that can be freely handled
o Cast may be squeezed to form short, broken ribbons
SILT LOAM
o Dry soil has both a smooth and gritty feel
o Forms a stable cast when moist
o Short, broken ribbons (<2.5 cm) may be formed
SANDY CLAY LOAM
o Feels very gritty yet moist soil will form a cast
o Medium ribbons (2.5 to 5.0 cm) may be formed
CLAY LOAM
o Moderate grittiness
o Medium ribbons (2.5 to 5.0 cm) may be formed
SILTY CLAY LOAM
o Feels smooth, little grittiness
o Medium ribbons (2.5 to 5.0 cm) may be formed
CLAY, SILTY CLAY, AND SANDY CLAY
o Often sticky, however, stickiness varies with clay type
o Long ribbons (>5.0 cm) may be formed
o Cast is often very tough to work between thumb and finger
 DATA SHEET

1. Color : ____________________________________________
2. Odor : ____________________________________________
3. Texture : ____________________________________________
4. Major soil constituent : ____________________________________________
5. Minor soil constituents : ____________________________________________
6. For coarse-grained soils :____________________________________________
7. Gradation : ____________________________________________
Particle Shape : ____________________________________________
8. For fine-grained soils : ____________________________________________

Table 4 Simple Visual and Manual Test Data

Name of Test Observation Probable soil Type Conclusion on soil
(Considering individual type considering all
tests) the four field tests
Dry strength

Dilatancy reaction

Toughness of plastic
thread

Time to settle in
dispersion test

9. Moisture Condition: ____________________________________________

Classification: _________________________________________

Guide Questions for Discussion

1. What will be the effect to the data if you cannot determine the actual texture
and color of the soil?
2. How to distinguish clay from silt?
3. What soil texture will hold the most water? Sand, Silt or Clay.
 Experiment No. 3
DETERMINATION OF UNIT
WEIGHT, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND
MOISTURE CONTENT
INTRODUCTION

Soil mass is generally a three-phase system, consisting of soil solids, water,

and air. The interrelationships of the different phases are important since they help to
define the condition or the physical properties of the soil. The common terms used for
weight relationship are unit weight and moisture content. Unit weight, specific
gravity, and moisture content values are important values that will be used on further
experiments.
Unit weight denoted by  is the weight per unit volume with a unit of kN/m 3 in
SI unit and lb/ft3 in English unit. Specific gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the unit weight
(or density) of the soil solids to the unit weight (or density) of water. Moisture content
or water content (w), is the amount of moisture in the sample using the ratio of the
weight of water to the weight of the soil solids.

OBJECTIVES

The Laboratory Experiment was performed to determine the specific gravity

of solids based on ASTM method of testing. The specific gravity of solids is normally
only applied to that fraction of solids that passes the No. 4 sieve. The knowledge of
specific gravity is needed in calculation of soil properties like void ratio and degree of
saturation, and also can be used in the determination of types of solids in a certain
sample.

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D7263-09 (2018) Standard Test Methods for Laboratory

Determination of Density (Unit Weight) of Soil Specimens
 ASTM D 854-00 – Standard Test for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by
Water Pycnometer.
 ASTM D 2216 - Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of
Water (Moisture) Content of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures.

SIGNIFICANCE

Specific gravity of a soil is used in the phase relationship. Soil density

calculation for many soils, the water content may be an extremely important index
used for establishing the relationship between the way a soil behaves and its
properties. The consistency of a fine-grained soil largely depends on its water content.
The water content is also used in expressing the phase relationships of air, water, and
solids in a given volume of soil.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

A. Unit Weight
 Undisturbed soil sample
 3 Containers/Cans
 Beaker
 Weighing Scale

B. Specific Gravity
 Dry Soil Sample
 Pycnometer (Volumetric flask)
 Distilled Water (Absolute)
 Weighing Balance
 Funnel

C. Moisture Content
 Disturbed Soil Sample
 Moisture Can
 Weighing Balance
 Drying Oven
 Gloves
 Spatula

Aluminum containers Beaker

Funnel Weighing scale

 Drying oven

Volumetric flask

Protective Gloves Distilled water

Spatula

SOURCES OF ERROR
 Weighing balance sensitivity
 Transferring of soil particles

PROCEDURE

A. Unit Weight
1. Weigh the tin cans containing the undisturbed sample.
2. Using the displacement method using beaker the water and the three
 undisturbed soil to obtain the volume of each sample.

B. Specific Gravity
1. Determine and record the weight of the empty clean and dry pycnometer,
W1.
2. Place 50g of a dry soil sample (passed through the sieve No. 10) in the
pycnometer. Determine and record the weight of the pycnometer
containing the dry soil, W2.
3. Add distilled water to fill about half to three-fourth of the pycnometer.
Soak the sample for 10 minutes.
4. To remove entrapped air in the volumetric flask, gently roll the flask in an
inclined position until all bubbles are dispersed.
5. Fill the pycnometer with distilled (water to the mark), clean the exterior
surface of the pycnometer with a clean, dry cloth. Determine the weight of
the pycnometer and contents, W3.
6. Empty the pycnometer and clean it. Then fill it with distilled water only
(to the mark). Clean the exterior surface of the pycnometer with a clean,
dry cloth. Determine the weight of the pycnometer and distilled water, W4.
7. Empty the pycnometer and clean it.

C. Moisture Content
1. Record the moisture can and lid number. Determine and record the mass of
empty, clean, and dry moisture can with its lid (M1)
2. Place the moist soil in the moisture can and secure the lid. Determine and
record the mass of the moisture can (now containing the moist soil) with
the lid (M2).
3. Remove the lid and place the moisture can (containing the moist soil) in
the drying oven that is set at 105 °C. Leave it in the oven overnight.
4. Remove the moisture can. Carefully but securely, replace the lid on the
moisture can using gloves, and allow it to cool to room temperature.
Determine and record the mass of the moisture can and lid (containing the
dry soil) (M3).
5. Empty the moisture can and clean the can and lid.

ACTUAL PHOTO

B. Specific Gravity
Placing a 50g dry soil sample on the volumetric flask (left); Checking the temperature
on the volumetric flask (right)

C. Moisture Content

Oven-Drying of soil sample until its mass becomes constant.

VIDEO LINK
A. Unit Weight: https://youtu.be/bf9qTZQGNHs
B. Specific Gravity: https://youtu.be/1pdhk6z1674
C. Moisture Content: https://youtu.be/AKUQpBeUp2s

CALCULATIONS
A. Unit Weight
M
¿ x 9.81
V
where ,
M = Mass of the undisturbed soil sample
V = Volume of the undisturbed soil sample
 B. Specific Gravity
( W 2−W 1 )
Gs =
( W 4−W 1 )−( W 3−W 2 )
where,
W1=Weight of Pycnometer
W2=Weight of Pycnometer+Soil
W3=Weight of Pycnometer+Soil+Water
W4=Weight of Water + Pycnometer

C. Moisture Content
a. Determine the mass of soil solids.
MS = M3-M1

b. Determine the mass of pore water.

MW=M3-M2

c. Determine the water content.

Mw
w= x 100 %
Ms

QUESTIONS

1. What factors affect the unit weight and moisture content of soil?
2. What is the difference between bulk and dry unit weight?
3. Does unit weight of soil vary with its moisture content?
 DATA SHEET
Table 3.1 Determination of Unit Weight of soil

Specimen number 1 2 3
Weight of Undisturbed Soil
Initial Volume (water)
Final Volume (water+soil)
Volume(Vf-Vi)
Unit Weight of Soil
Average Unit Weight =

Table 3.2 Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil

Specimen number 1 2 3
Weight of Pycnometer, W1
Weight of Pycnometer + Soil, W2
Weight of Pycnometer + Soil+Water,
W3
Weight of Pycnometer + Water, W4
Specific gravity of the Soil, GS
Average Specific Gravity =

Table 3.3 Determination of Moisture Content of Soil

Specimen number 1 2 3
Moisture and lid number
M1 = Mass of empty, clean can + lid
(gm)
M2 = Mass of can, lid and moist soil
(gm)
M3 = Mass of can, lid and dry soil
(gm)
MS = Mass of soil solids (gm)
MW = Mass of pore water (gm)
w = Water content %
Average Moisture Content =
 Experiment No. 4
DETERMINATION OF DRY UNIT
WEIGHT, VOID RATIO, AND
POROSITY

INTRODUCTION

Soil mass is generally a three-phase system, consisting of soil solids, water,

and air. The interrelationships of the different phases are important since they help to
define the condition or the physical properties of the soil. On the previous activity
weight relationship is used. Now volumetric relationship will be used to determine the
void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation.
 Dry unit weight denoted by d is the weight per unit volume with a unit of
kN/m in SI unit and lb/ft3 in English unit. Void ratio (e), defined as the ratio of the
3

volume of the voids to the volume of solids. Porosity (n), the ratio of the volume of
voids to the total volume.

OBJECTIVES

The laboratory experiment was conducted to determine the porosity, void ratio
and dry unit weight of a soil sample. The determination of porosity, void ratio and dry
unit weight are one of the basis to distinguish the soil between different types of silts
and clay. It is also used to characterize soil structure and compaction (Hillel, 1982).

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D7263-09(2018) Standard Test Methods for Laboratory

Determination of Density (Unit Weight) of Soil Specimens

SIGNIFICANCE

Volume change tendency control. If void ratio is high (loose soils) voids in a
soil skeleton tend to minimize under loading – adjacent particles contract. The
opposite situation, i.e. when void ratio is relatively small (dense soils), indicates that
the volume of the soil is vulnerable to increase under loading – particle dilate.

APPLICATIONS

Fluid conductivity control (ability of water movement through the soil). Loose
soils show high conductivity, while dense soils are not so permeable.
Particle movements. In a loose soil particles can move quite easily, whereas in
a dense one finer particles cannot pass through the voids, which leads to clogging.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

A. Dry Unit Weight

  Undisturbed soil sample (dry)
 3 Tin Cans
 Beaker
 Weighing Scale

B. Void Ratio and Porosity

 Dry Soil Sample
 Sieve No. 40 and Pan
 Beaker
 Graduated Cylinder
 Distilled Water
 Weighing Scale

Containers/Cams Beaker Weighing

Scale

Sieve #40 Distilled Water Graduated

Cylinder
SOURCES OF ERROR
  Weighing balance sensitivity
 Transferring of soil particles
 The undisturbed soil sample is not sealed properly

PROCEDURE

A. Dry Unit Weight

1. Weigh the tin cans containing the dried undisturbed sample.
2. Using the displacement method using beaker the water and the three
undisturbed soil to obtain the volume of each sample.

B. Void Ratio
1. Clean first the beaker and make sure that there is no water present in it.
2. Weigh the beaker and record it.
3. Place some quantity of dry soil sample passing Sieve No. 40 into the
beaker then take the total weight of the soil filled beaker.
4. Pour some distilled water into the soil sample and keep the container for
some time so that the entire voids present in the soil get filled with water.
5. Again, take the weight of the beaker with its contents.
6. After obtaining the data needed, calculate the void ratio.

C. Porosity
1. Take a clean beaker and fill it with 100mL dry soil sample passing Sieve
No. 40.
2. Prepare 100mL of distilled water in a graduated cylinder and slowly pour
it into the soil filled beaker until the water just reaches the top of the soil.
3. Record the amount of excess water in the graduated cylinder.
4. Calculate the porosity.

ACTUAL PHOTO

B. Void Ratio
Pouring enough distilled water to fill the void on the soil sample. Make it sealed when
taking the mass.
C. Porosity

a b
(a) Pouring soil sample on the container until in the mark indicated; (b)
Measuring 100ml distilled water on a graduated cylinder then pour enough
amount to fill the void on the soil sample. Record the volume left on the
cylinder.

VIDEO LINK

A. https://youtu.be/bf9qTZQGNHs
B. https://youtu.be/1pdhk6z1674

Calculations
A. Dry Unit Weight
Md
❑d = x 9.81
V

B. Void Ratio
W 3−W 2
e=
W 2−W 1
C. Porosity
100−excess water
n=
100
QUESTIONS
1. What does high void ratio mean in soil?
2. What factors affect the void ratio of soil?
3. What does high porosity mean in soil?
 DATA SHEET
Table 4.1 Determination of Dry Unit Weight
Specimen number 1 2 3
Weight of Dry Soil
Initial Volume (water)
Final Volume (water+soil)
Volume(Vf-Vi)
Unit Weight of Soil

Table 4.2 Determination of Void Ratio

1 2 3
Mass of beaker (W 1 )
Mass of beaker + soil (W 2 )
Mass of beaker + soil + water (W 3 )
W 3−W 2
Void Ratio (e )e=
W 2−W 1

Table 4.3 Determination of Porosity

1 2 3
Volume of water
Volume of soil
Excess water
Porosity (n)
100−excess water
n=
100
 Experiment No. 5
PLASTICITY OF SOIL

INTRODUCTION
The Swedish soil scientist Albert Atterberg originally defined seven ―limits of
consistency‖ to classify fine-grained soils, but in current engineering practice only
two of the limits, the liquid and plastic limits, are commonly used. (A third limit,
called the shrinkage limit, is used occasionally.) The Atterberg limits are based on the
moisture content of the soil. The plastic limit is the moisture content that defines
where the soil changes from a semi-solid to a plastic (flexible) state. The liquid limit
is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a plastic to a viscous
fluid state. The shrinkage limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil
volume will not reduce further if the moisture content is reduced. Awide variety of
soil engineering properties have been correlated to the liquid and plastic limits, and
these Atterberg limits are also used to classify a fine-grained soil according to the
Unified Soil Classification system or AASHTO system.

Figure 4.1 Atterberg Limits (Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, B. M.

Das)

Figure 4.2 Modified Plasticity chart (Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, B.

M. Das)

OBJECTIVE
The Laboratory Experiment will be performed to determine 2 out of 3
Atterberg limits; Liquid and Plastic Limit. Determining the Liquid and Plastic limit is
needed to measure the Liquidity and Plasticity Index of the soil. With the aid of
Plasticity chart, Fine-grained soils are classified based on Atterberg limits rather than
their grain sizes. From there, the group may now distinguish the soil between different
types of silts and clays.

Also, the experiment was performed to determine the Shrinkage Limit which
is one of the three Atterberg’s Limits in determining the moisture content of the soil
sample using the wax method instead of the conventional mercury displacement
method. The shrinkage factors covered in this test method can only be determined on
basically fine-grained (cohesive) soils which exhibit a dry strength when air dried.

STANDARD REFERENCE
 ASTM D 4318 - Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and
Plasticity Index of Soils.
 ASTM D 427-04 - Standard Test Method for Shrinkage Factors of Soils by
the Mercury Method

SITE REFERENCE

 Das, Braja M. And Nagaratnam Sivakugan. 2017, Fundamentals of

Geotechnical Engineering. 5th ed. Phil. Edition: Cengage Learning

SIGNIFICANCE
This testing method is used as an integral part of several engineering
classifications systems to characterize the fine-grained fractions of soils and to specify
the fine-grained fraction of construction materials. The liquid limit, plastic limit and
plasticity index of soils are also used extensively, either individually or together, with
other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior such as compressibility,
permeability, compatibility, shrink-swell and shear strength.
Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the moisture content at which no further
volume change occurs with further reduction in moisture content (SL represents the
amount of water required to fully saturate the soil (100% saturation)). It is needed in
producing bricks and ceramics.
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS
Liquid Limit
For Casagrande Method:
 Liquid limit device
 Porcelain (evaporating) dish
 Flat grooving tool with gage,
 Moisture cans
 Balance
 Glass plate
 Spatula
 Wash bottle filled with distilled water
 Drying oven set at 105oC

Casagrande and Grooving Tool Moisture Can

Spatula

Weighing Scale
Washing Bottle
Drying Oven

For Automatic Fall Cone Method:

 Automatic Fall Cone Apparatus
 Cylinder Mould
 Automatic Fall Cone Apparatus

Plastic Limit
 Mixing dishes
 Spatula
 Balance
 TxDOT recommended Plastic limit device (for this session)

Weighing Scale Spatula Evaporating Dish

Shrinkage Limit
 Casagrande liquid limit device
 Grooving tool
 Mixing dishes, Shrinkage Dish
 Spatula
 Balance Scale Sensitive up to 0.01 g
 Drying Oven
 Straight edge
  Wax
 Distilled water
 Mortar and Pestle
 Sieve #40
 Petroleum Jelly

Distilled water Spatula Petroleum

Jelly

Sieve #40 Mixing Bowl Mortar and Pestle

 Evaporating Dish
SOURCES OF ERROR
 Lack of care while performing the experiment
 Operator error
 Uncalibrated tool

PROCEDURE:

Liquid Limit by Casagrande Method:

1. Take roughly 3/4 of the soil and place it into the porcelain dish. Assume that the soil was
previously passed through a No. 40 sieve, air-dried, and then pulverized. Thoroughly mix
the soil with a small amount of distilled water until it appears as a smooth uniform paste.
Cover the dish with cellophane to prevent moisture from escaping.
2. Weigh four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights
and can numbers on the data sheet.
3. Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking the height of drop of the cup. The point on
the cup that comes in contact with the base should rise to a height of 10 mm. The block
on the end of the grooving tool is10 mm high and should be used as a gage. Practice
using the cup and determine the correct rate to rotate the crank so that the cup drops
approximately two times per second.
4. Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit apparatus at
the point where the cup rests on the base. Squeeze the soil down to eliminate air pockets
and spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm at its deepest point. The soil pat
should form an approximately horizontal surface.
5. Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center of the cup.
The tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being made.
Use extreme care to prevent sliding the soil relative to the surface of the cup.
6. Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of the cup is
clean of soil. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of approximately two drops per
second and count the number of drops, N, it takes to make the two halves of the soil pat
come into contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.). If the
number of drops exceeds 50, then go directly to step eight and do not record the number
of drops, otherwise, record the number of drops on the data sheet.
7. Take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The sample should
include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into contact. Place the soil into a
moisture can cover it. Immediately weigh the moisture can be containing the soil, record
its mass, remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the
 oven for at least 16 hours. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the porcelain dish.
Clean and dry the cup on the apparatus and the grooving tool.
8. Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount of distilled
water to increase the water content so that the number of drops required closing the
groove decrease.
9. Repeat steps six, seven, and eight for at least two additional trials producing successively
lower numbers of drops to close the groove. One of the trials shall be for a closure
requiring 25 to 35 drops, one for closure between 20 and 30 drops, and one trial for a
closure requiring 15 to 25 drops. Determine the water content from each trial by using the
same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same balance for all
weighing.

Liquid Limit by Automatic Fall Cone Method:

(1) Determine the mass of each of the three moisture cans (W1).
(2) Put the air-dried soil passing # 40 into an evaporating dish and add enough distilled water
with a plastic squeeze bottle to barely form a paste like consistency.
(3) After about a minute, mix it thoroughly with hands.
(4) Place the soil in the cylinder mold using a spatula, smoothen the surface.
(5) The cone is then quickly released automatically without any jerk and penetration noted.
(6) The time taken between adding of water to soil sample and the filling of the mold should
be between 3 to 5 minutes.
(7) Determine the water content weighing the weight of the can + moist soil (W2).
(8) Oven dry the weighted wet soil, then determine the weight of the can + dry soil (W3).
(9) Add water to soil at second and third trial, then repeat step 3 to 9.
Plastic Limit

(1) Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective
weights and can numbers on the data sheet.

(2) Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water until the soil is
at a consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.

(3) Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass. Roll the mass between the palm or the fingers and
the glass plate. Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter by
using about 90 strokes per minute. (A stroke is one complete motion of the hand forward and
back to the starting position.) The thread shall be deformed so that its diameter reaches 3.2
mm (1/8 in.), taking no more than two minutes.

(4) When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into several
pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal masses and re-roll them. Continue this
alternate rolling, gathering together, kneading and re-rolling until the thread crumbles under
 the pressure required for rolling and can no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm diameter thread.

(5) Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into moisture can,
and then cover it. If the can does not contain at least 6 grams of soil, add soil to the can from
the next trial. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record it’s mass,
remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least
16 hours.

(6) Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the water content
from each trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the
same balance for all weighing.

Shrinkage Limit Determination

Procedure in Brief:
(1) A sample of fine-grained soil is thoroughly remolded with water to approximate
the liquid limit consistency.
(2) The saturated paste is placed into a container of known volume and slowly dried.
(3) The final mass and volume of the solid soil pat are determined.
(4) These measurements are used to compute the SL.

Procedure in Detail (Volume of Wet Soil Pat):

(1) Make the soil paste of liquid consistency.

(2) Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of petroleum jelly, silicone
grease, or similar lubricant to prevent the adhesion of the soil to the dish.
(3) Determine and record the mass in grams of the empty dish, MT.
(4) Place the shrinkage dish in the shallow pan in order to catch any mercury overflow.
(5) Fill the shrinkage dish to overflowing with mercury.
(6) Remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate firmly over the top
of the shrinkage dish.
(7) Determine the volume of mercury held in the shrinkage dish either by means of
the glass graduate or by dividing the measured mass of mercury by the mass
density of mercury (equal to 13.55 Mg/m3).
(8) Record this volume in cubic centimeters of the wet soil pat, V.

Procedure in Detail (Volume of Dry Soil Pat)

(1) Place the glass cup in the shallow pan in order to catch any mercury overflow.
(2) Fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury.
(3) Remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate with the three prongs
 firmly over the top of the cup.
(4) Place the evaporating dish in the shallow pan in order to catch any mercury
overflow. Place the cup filled with mercury in the evaporating dish and rest the
soil pat on the surface of the mercury (it will float).
(5) Using the glass plate with the three prongs gently press the pat under the mercury
and press the plate firmly over the top of the cup to expel any excess mercury.
Observe that there is no air trapped between the plate and mercury,
(6) Measure the volume of the mercury displaced into the evaporating dish either by
means of the glass graduate or by dividing the measured mass of mercury by the
mass density of mercury.
(7) Record the volume in cubic centimeters of the dry soil pat, Vo.

CALCULATIONS
Analysis to Determine Liquid Limit
(1) Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after they have been
in the oven for at least 16 hours.

(2) Plot the number of drops, N, (on the log scale) versus the water content (w). Draw the
best-fit straight line through the plotted points and determine the liquid limit (LL) as the
water content at 25 drops.

Analysis to Determine Plastic Limit

(1) Calculate the water content of each of the plastic limit moisture cans after they have
been in the oven for at least 16 hours.

(2) Compute the average of the water contents to determine the plastic limit, PL. Check to
see if the difference between the water contents is greater than the acceptable range of
two results (2.6%).

(3) Calculate the plasticity index, PI=LL-PL. Report the liquid limit, plastic limit, and
plasticity index to the nearest whole number, omitting the percent designation.

Analysis to Determine Shrinkage Limit

(1) Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after they have been
in the oven for at least 16 hours.

M−M o
w= ×100
Mo

(2) Compute Shrinkage Limit by the following equation:

 ( V −V o ) ρw
SL=w− ×100
Mo

VIDEO LINK
Casagrande Method: https://youtu.be/ldgD0fPfKc8
Automatic Fall Cone Method: https://youtu.be/qpPxCu6P408
Plastic Limit: https://youtu.be/b9HvDB8G90k
Shrinkage Limit: https://youtu.be/is19YtpRfqw

QUESTIONS

1. What will be the effect if the Casagrande tool will not be calibrated?
2. What are the ways of preventing of inclusion of air bubbles in shrinkage dish?
3. Why to know liquid limit of soil?

DATA SHEETS

Table 5.1 Determination of Liquid Limit by Casagrande Method Data

Sample No. 1 2 3 4
Can no.
 Can weight
Can + wet soil
Can + dry soil
Weight of water
Water content w%
No. of drop

Liquid Limit for 25 blows from graph:

Table 5.2 Determination of Liquid Limit by Automatic Fall Cone Method Data
Sample No. 1 2 3 4
Penetration
Can weight
Can + wet soil
Can + dry soil
Weight of water
Water content w%

Table 5.3 Determination of Plastic Limit Data

Sample No. 1 2 3 4
Can no.
Can weight
Can + wet soil
Can + dry doil
Weight of water
Water content w%
 Plastic Limit (PL) = Average w %:

Final Results:
Liquid Limit :
Plastic Limit :
Plasticity Index:

Moisture
Contents
w%

No. of Blows, N

Figure 4.3 Liquid Limit Graph using Casagrande

24.2
24

23.8
Moisture Content %

23.6

23.4
23.2

23
22.8

22.6
22.4
17 17.5 18 18.5 19 19.5 20 20.5
Penetration, mm
Figure 4.4: Sample Graphical Representation for Automated Falling Cone Method Data
Appendix A

Mechanical Liquid Limit Device

 Appendix B

Diagrams Illustrating Liquid Limit Test

 Appendix C

Diagrams Illustrating Plastic Limit Test

 Experiment No. 6
GRADATION ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Distribution of the size grains in a given soil is important to classify a soil for engineering
purposes. Sieve analysis, also known as “gradation test”, is where the percentage of individual
grain sizes present is determined by sieving known weight of soil through successive smaller
sieves. Note that as the sieve number increases the size of the openings decreases. Table6.1 gives
a list of the U.S standard sieve numbers with their corresponding size of openings. For all
practical purposes, the No. 200 sieve is the sieve with the smallest opening that should be used
for the test.
Table 6.1. U.S Sieve Sizes with Number Designation
OPENING OPENING
SIEVE NO. SIEVE NO.
(mm) (mm)
4 4.750 45 0.355
5 4.000 50 0.300
6 3.350 60 0.250
7 2.800 70 0.212
8 2.360 80 0.180
10 2.000 100 0.150
12 1.700 120 0.125
14 1.400 140 0.106
16 1.180 170 0.090
18 1.000 200 0.075
20 0.850 230 0.063
25 0.710 270 0.053
30 0.600 325 0.045
35 0.500 400 0.038
40 0.425    

APPLICATION
Gradation is usually specified for each engineering application it is used for. For
example, foundations might only call for coarse aggregates, and therefore an open gradation is
needed.
OBJECTIVES
The sieve analysis experiment was conducted to determine the particle size distribution of
the coarse and fine aggregates. It aims to separate different sizes of particles using the sieve set,
compute the percentage of different sizes contained and also use the soil particle size lower than
0.075mm for Hydrometer Analysis.
STANDARD REFERENCE
 ASTM D422, D1140, and AASHTO T88
SITE REFERENCE
 Brajah M. D., Nagaratman S., Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering Book (5th
Edition)
 http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/dsafi/files/2015/02/Soil-Laboratory-Manual-Das.pdf
 https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/SarchiaKhursheed/sieve-analysis-of-coarse-andfine-
aggregate-report
SIGNIFICANCE

Sieve analysis is the operation of dividing the aggregate into various fractions, each
consisting of particles of same size. It is performed on coarse and fine aggregates to in order to
check their gradation. This gradation gives an indirect measure if the workability and average
particle size. 
Hydrometer analysis is based on Stokes law. According to this law, the velocity at which
grains settles out of suspension, all other factors being equal, is dependent upon the shape,
weight and size of the grain. In case of soil, it is assumed that the soil particles are spherical and
have the same specific gravity. Therefore, we can say that in a soil water suspension the coarser
particles will settle more quickly than the finer ones.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

A. Sieve Analysis

 Set of sieves, a bottom pan, and a cover

o Note: Sieve numbers 4, 10, 20, 40, 60, 100 and 200 are generally used for most
standard sieve analysis work.
 Digital weighing scale
 Tin container
 Cleaning brush
 Plastic bags
 Marker

Sieve Set Weighing Scale Container/Can

 Cleaning Brush Plastic Bags Marker

B. Hydrometer Analysis

 Hydrometer (152H model preferable)

 Distilled water (about 2.5L per test)
 Beaker (500mL)
 Graduated 1000 mL cylinder
 Dispersion agent (sodium hexametaphosphate)
 Thermometer
 Sieve no. 200
 Disturbed Soil

Hydrometer Graduated Cylinder (1000ml) Soil sample passing sieve #200

Dispersing Agent (Sodium Hexametaphosphate)

SOURCES OF ERROR

The error that may occur on this laboratory experiment is basically when the summation
of the retained mass is not equal to the initial mass of the dry sample. This is probably because of
soil are missing during sieves are being shaken.
In hydrometer test analysis, source of error are:
 Improper sealing of cling wrap in graduated cylinder
 Uncalibrated hydrometer
 Unstable surface area
 Miniscous and temperature correction
 Not monitored properly

PROCEDURE
A. Sieve Analysis
1. Prepare the necessary materials needed, including the soil sample that will be used.
2. Make sure that the sand that will be sieved is fully dried. Sand just like the soil can be
dried using air-dry or oven-dry for faster drying. After drying, weigh at least 1000
grams of sand samples to sieved
3. Take suitable quantity of oven-dry soil.
4. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the
analysis.
5. Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
6. Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of
sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200
sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap
over it.
7. Shake the sieves for 15 minutes.
8. Remove the stack and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve with its
retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan
with its retained fine soil.
9. Place the retained soil on a plastic bag or any other container and label it on their
corresponding sieve number/ opening.

B. Hydrometer
1. Take about 50 g in case of clay soil and 100 g in case of sandy soil and weigh it
correctly to 0.1 g.
2. In case of soil contains considerable amount of organic matter or calcium compounds,
pre-treatment of the soil with Hydrogen Peroxide or Hydrochloric Acid may be
necessary. In case of soils containing less than 20% of the above substances pre-
treatment shall be avoided.
3. To the soil thus treated, add 100 cc of sodium hexametaphosphate solution and warm
it gently for 10 minutes and transfer the contents to the cup of the mechanical mixer
using a jet of distilled water to wash all the traces of the soil.
 4. Stir the soil suspension for about 15 minutes.
5. Transfer the suspension to the Hydrometer jar and make up the volume exactly to
1000 cc by adding distilled water.
6. Take another Hydrometer jar with 1000 cc distilled water to store the hydrometer in
between consecutive readings to the soil suspension to be recorded.
7. Mix the soil suspension roughly, by placing the palm of the right hand over the open
end and holding the bottom of the jar with the left hand turning the jar upside down
and back.
8. Immediately after shaking, place the Hydrometer jar and start the stopwatch. Insert
the Hydrometer into the suspension carefully and take Hydrometer readings at the
total elapsed times of ¼, ½, 1 and 2 minutes.
9. After 2 minutes reading, remove the Hydrometer and transfer it to the distilled water
jar and repeat step 8.
10. Take the subsequent Hydrometer readings at elapsed timings of 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49,
60 minutes and every one hour thereafter. Each time a reading is taken, remove the
Hydrometer from the suspension and keep it in the jar containing distilled water.
11. Continue recording operation of the Hydrometer readings until the hydrometer reads
1000 approximately.

VIDEO LINK

https://youtu.be/QqxfwpUtEoQ

CALCULATIONS

A. Sieve Analysis

1. Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve and record this mass as the mass
retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately
equal to the initial mass of the soil sample.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 − 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 Eq. (1)
2. Calculate the cumulative mass retained above each sieve by adding the mass
retained on each sieve starting with sieve no. 4 and calculate the percent finer than each
sieve,
∑ M −col . 4
Percent Finer = ×100 Eq. (2)
∑M
Where col.4 is the cumulative mass retained above each sieve.
3. Make a semi logarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
4. Find the particle size for 10% finer, D10; particle size of 30 % finer, D30; particle
size for 60% finer, D60.
5. Find uniformity coefficient,
D 60
C u= Eq. (3)
D 10
6. Find the coefficient of curvature,
D302
C c= Eq. (4)
D60 × D10

A sample calculation of sieve analysis is shown in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2. Sieve Analysis and Grain Shape Distribution
Cumulative Mass Percent
U.S. Sieve Opening Mass Retained
Retained Above Finer
No. (mm) on Each Sieve (g)
Each Sieve (g) (%)
4 4.75 84.3 84.3 91.5599
10 2.00 169.2 253.5 74.6195
20 0.85 199.9 453.4 54.6055
40 0.425 154.5 607.9 39.1370
60 0.250 88.8 696.7 30.2463
100 0.150 77.2 773.9 22.5170
200 0.075 92.5 866.4 13.2559
Pan – 132.4 ΣM = 998.8 0

Figure 6.1. Plot of percent finer vs. grain size from the calculation shown in Table __.
 𝐷60 = 1.0255 𝑚𝑚
𝐷30 = 0.2199 𝑚𝑚
𝐷10 = 0.0673 𝑚𝑚

Calculation of uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature using Eq. (3) and Eq. (4).
D 60
C u= Eq. (3)
D 10
2
D 30
C c= Eq. (4)
D 60 × D 10

1.0255mm
C u=
0.0673 mm

𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟓

C c =¿ ¿

𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 0.70

B. Hydrometer Analysis

If V is the terminal velocity of sinking of a spherical particle, it is given by;

 (G s−G w) 2
V= D
18 n
Where:
V = Terminal velocity of soil particle (cm/s) Gw = specific gravity of water
D = Diameter of soil particle (cm) n = viscosity of water (g-s/cm2)
Gs = Specific gravity of soil particle

Assuming density of water to be approximately equal to 1g/cm3,

D (mm) = K

You can use the formula L = 16.3 - (0.162R)

√ L(cm)
t (min)

Calculate percent finer as follows:

PF = [(a ∗Rcp) / Ws] ∗ 100
a = correction for specific gravity = 1

Questions

1. How many ways can sieve analysis be carried out?

2. Why do we use sieves of particular sizes (like exactly 4.75mm rather than 4.50mm or
4.76mm) in sieve analysis tests?
3. Why do you measure the temperature of water during hydrometer analysis?
4. What is the use of dispersing agent in hydrometer analysis?

DATA SHEET

Mass of oven dry specimen:

Table 6.3 Data gathered in Sieve Analysis Experiment

Sieve Opening Mass of the Mass retained on Cumulative Percent Finer

No. (mm) container each sieve (g) Mass Retained (%)
(g) above each sieve
 (g)
4 4.75
10 2.00
20 0.85
40 0.425
60 0.250
100 0.150
200 0.075
Pan –
⅀M =

From Grain Size Distribution Curve:

% Gravel:
% Sand:
% Fines:

D10:
D30:
D60:

C u:
Cc
Table 6.4: Hydrometer Analysis Data
Reading Hydro Diameter, Percent
L, cm K
time, min Reading, Rcp mm Finer, %

Grain Size Distribution Curve:

100

90

80

70
Percent Finer (%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
10 1 0.1 0.01

Grain Size (mm)

Experiment No. 7
 ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION

INTRODUCTION
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The AASHTO classification system was originally initiated by the Highway Research
Board (now called the Transportation Research Board) in 1943. This classification system has
under-gone several changes since then. This system presently used by federal, state, and county
highway departments in the United States. In this soil classification system, soils are generally
placed in seven major groups: A-i, A-2, A-3, A-4, A-5, A-6 andA-7. Group A-i is divided into
two subgroups: A-i-a and A-i-b. Group A -2 is divided into four subgroups: A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6
andA-2-7. Soils under group A-7 are also divided into two subgroups: A-7-5 and A-7-6. This
system is also presently included in ASTM under test designation D-3284. Along with the soil
groups and subgroups discussed above, another factor called the group index (Ol) is also
included in this system. The importance of group index can be explained as follows. Let us
assume that two soils fall under the same group; however, they may have different values of OJ.
The soil that has a lower value of group index is likely to perform better as a highway sub grade
material. The procedure for classifying soil under the AASHTO system is outlined below.
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
This classification system was originally developed in 1942 by Arthur Casagrande for
airfield construction during World War II. This work was conducted on behalf of the U.S. Anny
Corps of Engineers. At a later date, with the cooperation of the United States Bureau of
Reclamation, the classification was modified. More recently, the American Society of Testing
and Materials (ASTM) introduced a more definite system for group name of soils. In the pre-sent
form, it is widely used by foundation engineers all over the world. Unlike the AASHTO system,
the Unified system uses symbols to represent the soil types and the index properties of the soil.
This system classifies soils into two broad categories; coarse-grained soil and fined-
grained soil.

OBJECTIVES
This experiment was conducted to classify the soil sample using different method- Visual
Classification, USDA, USCS, and AASHTO. It can be used as a basis on what will be the use of
the soil, can be for agriculture, constructions or roads and highways.

STANDARD REFERENCE
 ASTM Test Designation D-2487-11
 ASTM D3282-09 Standard Practice for Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate
Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes

SITE REFERENCE
 Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (Fifth Edition) BRAJA M. DAS
SIGNIFICANCE
Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behavior. A classification for engineering purposes should
be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness, strength. 1 st type of
classification is the Visual Classification where the soil can be classified by observing the sample
using the senses. 2nd type is the USDA Soil Taxonomy developed by the United States
Department of Agriculture provides an elaborate classification of soil types according to several
parameters (most commonly their properties) and in several levels: Order, Suborder, Great
Group, Subgroup, Family, and Series. 3rd type is the USCS or the Unified Soil Classification
System that is a soil classification used in engineering and geology to describe texture and grain
size of a soil. The classification system can be applied to most unconsolidated materials, and is
represented by a two-letter symbol. The 4th type is the AASHTO Soil Classification developed
by the American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials, and is used as a
guide for the classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway
construction purposes.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

  Soil

Soil sample

PROCEDURES
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
1. Determine the percentage of soil passing through U.S. No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm opening).
‘1[35% or less passes No. 200 sieve, it is a coarse-grained material. Proceed to Steps 2 and 4. If
more than 35% passed No. 200 sieve, it is a fine-grained material (i.e., silty or clayey material).
For this, go to Steps 3 and 5.
2. Determination of Groups or Subgroups 2. For coarse-grained Soils, determine the percent
passing U.S. sieve Nos. 10,40 and 200 and, additionally, the liquid limit and plasticity index.
Then proceed to Table 7.1. Start from the top line and compare the known soil properties with
those given in the table (Columns 2 through 6). Go down one line at a time until a line is found
for which all the properties of the desired soil matches. The soil group (or subgroup) is
determined from Column I - 3.
3. For fine-grained soils, determine the liquid limit and the plasticity index. Then go to Table
9.2. Start from the top line. By matching the soil properties from Columns 2, 3 and 4, determine
the proper soil group (or subgroup). Determination of Group Index 4.
4. To determine the group index (GI) of coarse-grained soils, the following rules need to be
observed.
a. OH or soils in groups (or subgroups) A-I-a, A-I-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3 is zero.
b. For OJ in soils of groupsA-2-6 and A-2-7, use the following equation:
GI = 0.01 (F - 15)(PI - 10)
where F = percent passing No. 200 sieve PI = plasticity index (9.1) If the 01 comes out
negative, round it off to zero. If the 01 is positive, round it off to the nearest whole
number.
c. For obtaining the GI of coarse-grained soils, use the following equation:
GI = (F200 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F2oo - l5)(PI - 10) (9.2) If the GI
comes out negative, round it off to zero. However, if it is positive, round it off to the
nearest whole number. Expression for Soil Classification
6. Expression for Soil Classification. The final classification of a soil is given by first writing
down the group (or subgroup) followed by the group index in parenthesis.

Table 7.1 AASHTO Classification System

Unified Classification System
1. Using Table 7.2, if it is peat (i.e., primarily organic matter, dark in color, and has organic
odor), classify it as Pt by visual observation. For all other soils, determine the percent of
soil passing through U.S. No. 200 sieve (F200).
2. Determine the percent retained on U.S. No, 200 sieve (R200) as R4 = 100 - F4 i (nearest
whole number)
3. If R200 is greater than 50%, it is a coarse-grained soil. However, if R2oo is less than or
equal to 50%, it is a fine-grained soil. For the case where R200 s 50% (i.e., fine-grained
soil), go to Step 4. If R200 > 50%, go to Step 5.
4. For fine-grained soils (i.e., R200 S 50%, determine if the soil is organic or inorganic in
nature.
a. If the soil is organic, the group symbol can be OH or OL. If the soil is inorganic, the
group 'symbol can be CL, ML, CH, MH, or CL-ML.
b. Determine the percent retained on U.S. No.4 sieve (R4) as R4 = 100 - F4 i (nearest whole
number) where F4 ='percent finer than No.4 sieve Note that R4 is the percent of gravel
fraction in the soil (OF), so
c. Determine the percent of sand. fraction in the soil (SF), or SF=R200 - OF (9.4) (9.5)
(9.6).
d. For inorganic soils, determine the liquid limit (LL) and the plasticity index (Pl). Go to
Step 4e. For organic soils, determine the liquid limit (not oven dried), LLNOD; the liquid
limit (oven dried), LLOD; and the plasticity index (not oven dried), PI NOD' Go to Step
4f.
e. With known values of R200, OF, SF, SF/OF, LL and PI, use Table 9-3 to obtain group
symbols and group names of inorganic soils.
f. With known values of LLNOD' LLoD, PINOD' R200 , OF, SF and SF/OF.
5. For coarse-grained soils:
a. If R4 > 0.5R200> it is a gravelly soil. These so Us may have the following group
symbols:
GW GW – GM
GF GW – GC
GM GP – GM
GC GP – GC
GC - GM
b. If R4 > 0.5Rzoo, it is a sandy soil. These soils may have the following group symbols:
 SW SW-SM
SP SW-SC
SM SP-SM
SC SP-SC
SM-SC
Table 7.2 USCS Classification System
Table 7.2 USCS Classification System (continuation)

Table 7.2 USCS Classification System (continuation)

CALCULATIONS
Group Index (GI):
GI = ( F 200 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)]+ 0.01( F 200 – 15)(PI – 10)
Where:
F 200 – Percent Passing No. 200 Sieve
LL – Liquid Limit
PI – Plasticity Index

For Groups A-2-6 and A-2-7

GI = 0.01( F 200 – 15)(PI – 10)
Where:
F 200 – Percent Passing No. 200 Sieve
PI – Plasticity Index

QUESTIONS
1. How the boundaries between the soil mineral particles (i.e., sand, silt, clay) have been
defined?
2. How important to know the group index of soil when used in pavement construction?
3. How does the plasticity chart useful for classifying fine-grained soil?
4. How is suitability of sub-grade soils assessed by the AASHTO classification system?

Experiment No. 8
DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM
MOISTURE CONTENT
 INTRODUCTION

This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture
content and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort. The compactive
effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several different
methods are used to compact soil in the field, and some examples include tamping,
kneading, vibration, and static load compaction. This laboratory will employ the tamping
or impact compaction method using the type of equipment and methodology developed by
R. R. Proctor in 1933, therefore, the test is also known as the Proctor test.

Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: (1) The Standard Proctor
Test, and (2) The Modified Proctor Test. Each of these tests can be performed in three
different methods as outlined in the attached Table 1. In the Standard Proctor Test, the soil
is compacted by a 5.5 lb hammer falling a distance of one foot into a soil filled mold. The
mold is filled with three equal layers of soil, and each layer is subjected to 25 drops of the
hammer. The Modified Proctor Test is identical to the Standard Proctor Test except it
employs, a 10 lb hammer falling a distance of 18 inches, and uses five equal layers of soil
instead of three. There are two types of compaction molds used for testing. The smaller
type is 4 inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/30 ft3(944 cm3), and the larger
type is 6 inches in diameter and has a volume of about 1/13.333 ft3(2123 cm3). If the
larger mold is used each soil layer must receive 56 blows instead of 25 (See Table).

Table 8.1 Alternative Proctor Test Methods

 Note: Volume of 4ʺ diameter mold = 944 cm3, Volume of 6ʺ diameter mold = 2123
cm3(verify these values prior to testing)

Standard and Modified proctor compaction mold

OBJECTIVES

1. To measure and determine the optimum water content of a sample of soil.
2. To determine the relationship between the moisture content and the dry density of a soil
for a specified compaction effort using modified proctor test.

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D 698 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction

Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbs/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3))

 ASTM D 1557 - Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction

Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbs/ft3(2,700 kN-m/m3))

SIGNIFICANCE

Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of
stabilizing soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the
performance and analysis of field control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting
the prescribed design specifications. Design specifications usually state the required
density (as a percentage of the ―maximum‖ density measured in a standard laboratory
test), and the water content. In general, most engineering properties, such as the strength,
stiffness, resistance to shrinkage, and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by
 increasing the soil density.

The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for
a specified compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the
optimum water content results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle
orientations) that is weaker, more ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to
shrinking, and less susceptible to swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to the
same density. The soil compacted lower than (dry of) the optimum water content typically
results in a flocculated soil structure (random particle orientations) that has the opposite
characteristics of the soil compacted wet of the optimum water content to the same
density.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

MOLDS WEIGHING BALANCE

DRYING OVEN
MANUAL HAMMER
 MIXING PAN # 4 SIEVE

TROWEL

MOISTURE CANS

GRADUATED CYLINDER

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Estimation of water for the first trial

 2. Defective equipment to be used in performing the activities.

PROCEDURE
1. Obtain about 26.5 lb (12 kg) of air-dry soil on which the compaction test is to be
conducted. Break all the soil lumps.
2. Sieve the soil on a No.4 U.S. sieve. Collect all of the minus-4 material in a large pan.
This should be about 22 lb (10 kg) or more.
3. Add enough water to the minus-4 material and mix it in thoroughly to bring the moisture
content up to about 5%.
4. Determine the weight of the Proctor mold + base plate (not the extension), W1 (lb).
5. Now attach the extension to the top of the mold.
6. 'Pour the moist soil into the mold in three equal layers. Each layer should be compacted
uniformly by the standard Proctor hammer 25 times before the next layer of loose soil is
poured into the mold.
7. Remove the top attachment from the mold. Be careful not to break off any of the
compacted soil inside the mold while removing the top attachment.
8. Using a straight edge, trim the excess soil above the mold. Now the top of the compacted
soil will be even with the top of the mold.
9. Determine the weight of the mold + base plate + compacted moist soil in the mold, W 2
(lb).
10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Using a jack, extrude the coma<; ted soil cylinder
from the mold.
11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).
12. From the moist soil extruded in Step 10, collect a moisture sample in the moisture can
(Step 11) and determine the mass of the can + moist soil, W4 (g).
13. Place the moisture can with the moist soil in the oven to dry to a constant weight.
14. Break the rest of the compacted soil (to No.4 size) by hand and mix it with the leftover
moist soil in the pan. Add more water and mix it to raise the moisture content by about
2%.
15. Repeat Steps 6 through 12. In this process, the weight of the mold + base plate + moist
soil (W2) will first increase with the increase in moisture content and then decrease.
Continue the test until at least two successive down readings are obtained.
16. The moist soil has to be poured into the mold in five equal layers. Each layer has to be
compacted by the modified Proctor hammer with 25 blows per layer.

ACTUAL PHOTO
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
VIDEO LINK:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kO5qkzRGek0

Trial 1 2 3 4 5
Specific Gravity
Water Content
Vol of mould, m3
Mass of mould, kg
Mass of mould + soil, kg
Mass of soil, kg
Weight of soil, N
Moist Unit Weight,
kN/m3
Dry Unit Weight, kN/ m3
Zero-air-void, kN/ m3
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the importance of performing standard proctor compaction test?
2. What strategies to improve soil conditions for sampling with auger if the soil is in
compact?
3. What could be the possible errors while performing the soil compactor test?

DATA SHEET
Table 8.1 Determination of Optimum Moisture Content

25

20
Dry Unit Weight, Kn/m3

Dry Unit
15 Weight,
kN/m3

10 Zero-air-void

0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Moisture Content, w%
Figure 8.1: Sample Flow Curve of Dry Unit Weight and Zero Air Void Unit Weight using
Modified Proctor Test
Experiment No. 9
FIELD DENSITY TEST
INTRODUCTION

There are several methods for the determination of field density of soils such as core
cutter method, sand cone method, rubber balloon method, heavy oil method etc. The dry density
of the compacted soil or pavement material is a common measure of the amount of the
compaction achieved during the construction. Knowing the field density and field moisture
content, the dry density is calculated.

OBJECTIVES
 To determine the field density of soil sample using sand cone method and rubber balloon
method.

SIGNIFICANCE

Therefore, field density test is important as a field control test for the compaction of soil
or any other pavement layer. The basic principle of sand cone method is to measure the in-situ
volume of hole from which the material was excavated from the weight of the sand with known
density filling in the hole. The in-situ density of material is given by the weight of the excavated
material divided by the in-situ volume.

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D446-82

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

Sand Cone Method:

 Sand cone apparatus with Density plate
 Digging tools
 Balance sensitive to 1gm & 0.1gm
 Spoon
 Brush
 Moisture containers
 Oven

Rubber Balloon Method:

 Rubber balloons with Balloon Density Meter
 Rubber Bulb Pump with Density plate with fasteners
 Soil augur or trowel
 Moisture tight container
 Weight balance
 Drying oven
Sand cone apparatus with Density plate Weighing balance

Digging Tools Cleaning brush Moisture containers

Rubber Balloon Method Set-up Drying Oven

PROCEDURES
Sand Cone Method:

1. Calibration of cone apparatus should be done firstly:

2. Weigh the sand cone apparatus full of known density sand.
3. Seat the density plate on leveled clean test ground.
4. Dig out soil 4” to 6″ deep with the same diameter as the density plate hole. Clean all loose soil
out of the test hole with brush and spoon.
5. Collect all the excavated soil and weigh it.
6. Invert the sand cone apparatus over the density plate and open the valve to tilt the hole with
sand. When the sand stops flowing, close the valve and remove the apparatus from the test
hole.
7. Weigh the sand cone apparatus with remaining sand.
8. Collect as much of the sand from the hole as possible.
9. Put a sample of the excavated soil in the weighed moisture container and place it in the oven
for water content determination.

Rubber Balloon Method:

1. Prepare a flat and smooth surface of the soil in the field where density needs to be found.
2. Place the density plate on prepared surface and fix it using fasteners provided. The plate
should not move while conducting a test.
3. Now position the balloon density meter exactly on the hole provided in the density plate.
4. Place the rubber bulb pump in the control valve and pump water into the balloon which is
placed at the bottom of the density meter.
5. Water is pumped until the water level in the density meter reached its lowest position. Note
down the reading as initial volume (V1).
6. After recording the initial volume, Invert the rubber bulb pump and pump the water back into
its original position.
7. Now remove the density meter and dig a hole using auger or trowel. The hole dug should be
minimum 4 inches in diameter and 5 inches deep.
8. The soil excavated from the hole should be collected completely in a moisture tight container.
Its weight (W) should be noted and it is also used to determine the water content of the soil.
9. Place the balloon density meter over the excavated hole and pump the water into the balloon
using a rubber bulb pump.
10. When the water level reached its lowest position, note the reading as the final volume (V2).
11. Now pump the water back into its original level using a rubber bulb pump with vacuum side
connected to the control valve.
ACTUAL PHOTO
VIDEO LINK
Sand cone Method :
https://youtu.be/nlfy6fOPfns
Rubber Balloon Method: https://youtu.be/IlF3m4OLFwc

CALCULATIONS
The basic principle of sand cone method is to measure the in-situ volume of hole from which
the material was excavated from the weight of the sand with known density filling in the hole.
The in-situ density of material is given by the weight of the excavated material divided by the in-
situ volume.

In calculating the weight of sand in the hole and then the volume of the hole as follows:

W sand ∈hole =W sand cone initially−W sand cone final−W sand∈cone + plate
 W sand ∈hole
V hole =
Υ sand

Where:

W sand∈cone + plate- measured in the lab ahead of time

Υ sand - measured in the lab

Then calculate the unit weight or field density of the soil:

W soil
Υ soil =
V hole

Rubber balloon test is a quick method and gives more accurate results compared to other in-situ
methods. In this method, rubber balloons are used to determine the volume of excavated soil
hole. Rubber balloon test is generally suitable for well-compacted soils. For very soft soils, that
deform easily, rubber balloon method is not suitable.

In calculating the Field density or wet density of soil

W soil
Υ soil =
V hole

Where:
W = Weight of the soil excavated
V = Volume of hole excavated

V= V1 – V2

Where:

V1 = initial volume reading of balloon density meter

V2 = Final volume Reading of balloon density meter

Dry density of soil,

 Υ
Υ d=
1+ w

Where:
w = Water content of excavated soil

QUESTIONS
1. Why are we using sand to replace the soil excavated from the hole?
2. How can we judge a field whether it reached standard compaction or not, is there any
standard value or percentage?
3. Why is it important to measure the field density? by using in-situ density tests?

Experiment No. 10
PERMEABILITY TEST
INTRODUCTION

Permeability is a measure of the ease in which water can flow through a soil volume. It is
one of the most important geotechnical parameters. However, it is probably the most difficult
parameter to determine. In large part, it controls the strength and deformation behavior of soils. It
directly affects the following:

 Quantity of water that will flow toward an excavation

 Design of cutoffs beneath dams on permeable foundations
 Design of the clay layer for a landfill liner.

APPLICATION

 Estimation of quantity of underground seepage water under various hydraulic conditions

 Quantification of water during pumping for underground construction
 Stability analysis of slopes, earth dams, and earth retaining structures
 Design of landfill liner.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this test is to determine the permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of a

sandy soil by the three methods, the Constant Head Test, Falling Head Test and Permeameter.

The constant head test method is used for permeable soils (k > 10-4 cm/s) and the falling
head test method is mainly used for less permeable soils (k < 10-4 cm/s).

STANDARD REFERENCE

 ASTM D 2434 - Standard Test Method for Permeability of Granular Soils (Constant
Head) (Note: The Falling Head Test Method is not standardized)

SITE REFERENCE

 Brajah M. D., Nagaratman S., Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (5th Edition)

 http://www.aust.edu/civil/lab_manual/ce_344.pdf
 http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/dsafi/files/2015/02/Soil-Laboratory-Manual-Das.pdf
SIGNIFICANCE

Permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) refers to the ease with which water can flow
through a soil. The knowledge in the coefficient of permeability is much useful in solving
problems involving yield of water bearing strata, seepage through earthen dams, stability of
earthen dams, and embankments of canal bank affected by seepage, settlement etc.
Permeability depends on a number of factors-
 The size of the soil grains
 The properties of the pore fluid
 The void ratio of the soil
 The shape and arrangement of pores
 The degree of saturation

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

 Constant and Falling head permeameter

 Beaker
 Balance, sensitive up to 0.1g
 Rubber Tubing
 Sand
 Watch (or Stopwatch),
 Thermometer
 Sieve #4 and #200 with Pan
Figure 10.1: Sketch of the combination permeameter test: Falling Head (left) Constant Head
(right)

Constant and Falling Head Apparatus Rubber Tubing

Stopwatch
Thermometer
Sieve # 4
and 200 with pan

SOURCES OF ERROR

 Measuring error such as the inner diameters of the apparatus, the distance between two
standpipes, the length of the soil column, the volume of water and the head difference in
the two standpipes and as the time delay. Also, if there’s a leakage on the apparatus the
volume of outflow water and time it takes can be affected.

PROCEDURE
A. Constant Head Test:

1. Remove the cap and upper chamber of the permeameter by unscrewing the knurled cap
nuts and lifting them off the tie rods. Measure the inside diameter of upper and lower
chambers. Calculate the average inside diameter of the permeameter (Dinner).
2. Place one porous stone on the inner support ring in the base of the chamber then place a
filter paper on top of the porous stone.
3. Mix the soil with a sufficient quantity of distilled water to prevent the segregation of
particle sizes during placement into the permeameter. Enough water should be added so
that the mixture may flow freely.

4. Using a scoop, pour the prepared soil into the lower chamber using a circular motion to
fill it to a depth of 1.5 cm. A uniform layer should be formed.

5. Use the tamping device to compact the layer of soil. Use approximately ten rams of the
tamper per layer and provide uniform coverage of the soil surface. Repeat the compaction
procedure until the soil is within 2 cm. of the top of the lower chamber section.

6. Replace the upper chamber section, and don’t forget the rubber gasket that goes between
the chamber sections. Be careful not to disturb the soil that has already been compacted.
Continue the placement operation until the level of the soil is about 2 cm. below the rim
of the upper chamber.

7. Level the top surface of the soil and place a filter paper and then the upper porous stone
on it

8. Place the compression spring on the porous stone and replace the chamber cap and its
sealing gasket. Secure the cap firmly with the cap nuts.

9. Measure the sample length at four locations around the circumference of the permeameter
and compute the average length. Record it as the sample length.

10. Adjust the level of the funnel to allow the constant water level in it to remain a few
inches above the top of the soil.

11. Connect the flexible tube from the tail of the funnel to the bottom outlet of the
permeameter and keep the valves on the top of the permeameter open.

12. Place tubing from the top outlet to the sink to collect any water that may come out.

13. Open the bottom valve and allow the water to flow into the permeameter.
 14. As soon as the water begins to flow out of the top control (desiring) valve, close the
control valve, letting water flow out of the outlet for some time.

15. Close the bottom outlet valve and disconnect the tubing at the bottom. Connect the funnel
tubing to the top side port.

16. Open the bottom outlet valve and raise the funnel to a convenient height to get a
reasonable steady flow of water.

17. Allow adequate time for the flow pattern to stabilize.

18. Measure the time it takes to fill a volume of 750 - 1000 mL using the graduated cylinder,
and then measure the temperature of the water. Repeat this process three times and
compute the average time, average volume, and average temperature. Record the values
as t, Q, and T, respectively.

19. Measure the vertical distance between the funnel head level and the chamber outflow
level, and record the distance as h.

20. Repeat step 17 and 18 with different vertical distances.

B. Falling Head Test:

Repeat Step 1-11 as described in constant head test for the preparation of the specimen.

10. Supply water using a plastic tube from the water inlet to the burette. The water will flow
from the burette to the specimen and then to the funnel. Check to see that there is no leak.
Remove all air bubbles.

11. Allow the water to flow for some time in order to saturate the specimen. When the funnel
is full, water will flow out of it into the sink.

12. Using the pinch cock, close the flow of water through the specimen. The pinch cock is
located on the plastic pipe connecting the bottom of the specimen to the funnel.

13. Measure the head difference, h0 (cm) (see Fig. 8.1). Note: Do not add any more ~a1:e'r to
the burette.

14. Open the pinch cock. Water will flow through the burette to the specimen and then out of
 the funnel. Record time (t) with a stop watch until the head difference is equal to h1 (cm)
(Fig. 8.1). Close the flow of water through the specimen using the pinch cock.

15. Determine the volume (Vw) of water that is drained from burette in cm3.

16. Add more water to the burette to make another run. Repeat Steps 13, 14·and 15.
However, hi and h1 should be changed for each run.

17. Record the temperature, T, of the water to the nearest degree (0C).

ACTUAL PHOTO

For falling head, record

the initial and final head also the time each trial.
 Making sure that the head of water is constant, Then, recording the time for each trial to take a
desired volume to reach.

Tips: To make the water overflow on the funnel for it to be at constant height.
VIDEO LINK

https://youtu.be/BqJqcTdf4FY

CALCULATIONS

A. Constant Head Test

QL
k t ℃=
Aht

Where,
K = Coefficient of permeability
Q = Collected volume of water
L = Length of soil column
π D2
A = Area of the soil column =
4
h = Head difference
t = Time required to get Q volume
D = inner diameter of the specimen

ηT ℃
k 20℃ = k T ℃( ¿
η20 ℃

ηT ℃
Table 10.1 Variation of
η20 ℃
 B. Falling Head Test
aL h
k t ℃=2.303 log 0
At h1

Where;
a = inside cross-sectional area of the burette
h 0 = initial head difference
h1 = final head difference

Q
a=
h0−h1

ηT ℃
k 20℃ = k T ℃( ¿
η20 ℃

QUESTION

1. What is the effect of adsorbed water on the permeability of soil?

2. How do degree of saturation effect permeability of soil?
3. What are the factors affects the permeability of soil?
 DATA SHEET

Table 10.2 Constant Head Permeability Test: Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

Test No. 1 2 3
Average flow, Q (cm3)
Time of collection, t (s)
Temperature of water, T (℃ )
Head difference, h (cm)
Diameter of specimen, D (cm)
Length of specimen, L (cm)
2
πD
Area of specimen, A =
4
QL
k t ℃= , (cm/s)
Aht
Average k (cm/s) =

ηT ℃
k 20℃ = k T ℃( ¿=
η20 ℃

Table 10.3 Falling Head Permeability Test: Determination of Coefficient of Permeability

Test No. 1 2 3

Cross-sectional Area of the Burette, a (cm2)

Length of specimen, L (cm)

Area of specimen, A (cm²)

Beginning head difference, h1 (cm)

Ending head difference, h2 (cm)

Test duration, t (s)

k =(2.303aL/At)log10(h1/h2), cm/s

Average k =
Experiment No. 11
SEEPAGE ANALYSIS (FLOWNETS)
INTRODUCTION

In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one-direction only, and it is not
uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the flow. In such cases, the groundwater flow is
generally calculated by the use of graphs referred to as flow nets. A flow net is a graphical
representation of two dimensional steady-state groundwater flows through aquifers. It is a
combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines. A flow line is a line along which
water molecules will travel from the upstream to the downstream side in a permeable soil
medium. An equipotential line is a line along which potential head at all points is equal. These
two lines are perpendicular to each other

OBJECTIVES

In order to understand seepage, a flow net demonstration is being used as illustration for
better discussions and understanding about the topic. The flow net demonstration is based on
Laplace’s Equation of Continuity wherein a sheet of pile or a dam is to be used. The experiment
will help the students in analyzing every detail connected to the topic that will make them easily
understand the preceding course subject required in Civil Engineering.

SIGNIFICANCE

It is well known in geotechnical engineering that groundwater seepage often plays a

significant role in slope stability and deformation of geotechnical structures. In order to grasp
how groundwater seepage behaves in a particular soil mass, geotechnical engineers conduct
various types of seepage analyses. To conduct a seepage analysis, it often requires a fundamental
understanding of seepage theory, engineering principals/concepts, soil mass properties, soil
geometry, and subsurface soil conditions.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

 Aquarium
 Sand
 Pump
 Sheet pile
 Food Color or Dye
 Aquarium Sand Sample
Water Pump

Sheet Pile Food Color / Dye

SOURCES OF ERROR

 Leakage on the aquarium

PROCEDURE

1. Prepare the aquarium to be used. Check if there are holes because an impermeable layer
should be used as the base.
2. Put a divider to create a thin volume of space for easier demonstration of flow nets.
3. Put the sand into the thin space and insert the sheet pile in the middle. The sheet pile
should also be impermeable.
4. Put water on both sides creating a higher level on the upstream side than on the
 downstream side.
5. Put a pump on the downstream side to maintain the level of water lower on the
downstream than on the upstream.
6. Inject the dye or food color unto the sand. This is for the flow to be visible enough to be
observed properly.
7. Observe and wait for the flow to curve and show the behaviour a flow should create.

VIDEO LINK

https://youtu.be/zJiF3FPPKSY

Figure 11.1 Planned Flownets Experiment Set-up

CALCULATIONS

Nf
q= kH
Nd
where,
q = rate of flow
k = hydraulic conductivity
H = head difference between the upstream side and the downstream side
= H1 – H2
Nf = number of flow channels
Nd = number of potential drops

SITE REFERENCE

Brajah M. D., Nagaratman S., Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (5th Edition)

 https://ir.library.louisville.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3252&context=etd

QUESTIONS

1. The quantity of water, flowing through a saturated soil mass can be estimated by which
theory?
2. Is there will be a change in the degree of saturation in the zone of soil through which
water seeps?
3. What is the purpose of seepage pressure?