WEEK 1: POLITICS AND
cooperation among people with different
GOVERNANCE
A. NATURE AND DEFINITION OF
POLITICS
 “Politics exists because people disagree
about the aims and objects of human
endeavor and, probably even more so,
about the methods to be used in achieving
them” (S. G. Richards, 1978). In his book,
The Nature of Politics and Government.
 These differences produce different attitudes
to public issues and lead to the activity of
politics. Politics therefore involves
conflict. This can result in violence, as in
many of the developing countries, but in the
Western democracies the differences
are usually resolved peacefully.
 “A disagreement in which incompatible
policies are advocated can only be
resolved ultimately by one side obtaining
the power to make its viewpoint prevail
over the other.
 The acquisition of power therefore is a
prerequisite of achieving political
objectives.”
THE
POLITICAL SCIENCE
 Thus, is the nature of politics.
DEFINITIONS OF POLITICS
 The term “politics” is generally applied to
behavior within civil governments, but
politics has been observed in all human
group interactions.
It consists of social relations involving
authority or power, the regulation of
political units, and the methods used to
formulate and apply social policy.
 Politics is the way in which we understand
and order our social affairs, and acquire
greater control over the situation.
-B. Pomton and P. Gill
 Politics is the strategy for maintaining
needs and ideals in life, or for resolving
the conflict within the group, whether this
is a family, a tribe, a village or a nation-
state.
–Tuibeo,A.
 Political Scientist Harold Lasswell, (1936)
author of a major study of the
distributive consequences of political
activity, gave his book the title, Politics--
Who Gets What, When, and How.
Lasswell, in effect, defined "politics" as
involving questions as to "who gets
what, when, and how."
 Politics, according to Lasswell, is concerned
with determination, by official
governmental decision making and
action, of:
1. Who in political society receives
what benefits, rewards, and advantages
and how much of them they receive,
2. when they receive the benefits,
rewards, and advantages, and
3. the methods by which they
receive them.
STUDY OF POLITICS:
 Political science is a classical discipline
that deals with the study of political
phenomena. Its goal is to deepen human
understanding of the forms and nature
of political action and to develop
theoretical tools for interpreting
politically meaningful phenomena.
 Political science focuses on the theory and
practice of government and politics at
the local, state, national, and
international levels.
 Political Science deals with the systematic
study of political structures, political
processes and political behavior.
APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
DIFFERENT POLITICAL  The behavioral approach to political science
STRUCTURES AND INSTITUTIONS mainly emphasizes on scientific,
objective and value free study of
THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH political phenomenon.
 Traditional approach to the study of political  This approach stresses upon the use of
science is a combination of views on empirical as well as scientific methods
and orientations to politics in of study political behavior.
philosophical, ethical and institutional
 This approach shifts its emphasis from the
terms. Since the time of Plato and
Aristotle, the great issues of politics study of the state and government to the
have revolved around the organization day-today problems, activities and
and functioning of the state- the political behavior of individuals and groups.
institution par excellence. CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIORAL
 Traditional approaches exhibit certain well- APPROACH:
defined features, such as:
 Regularities -believes that there are
(a) are largely normative and stresses on certain uniformities in political behavior
the values of politics, which can be expressed in
generalizations or theories in order to
(b) emphasize on the study of different
explain and predict political phenomena.
political structures and institutions
 Verification -emphasizes testing and
VARIOUS FORMS OF THE
verifying everything. According to the
TRADITIONAL APPROACH: behaviorists, what cannot be verified is
 Philosophical-This approach firmly not scientific.
believes that values cannot be  Techniques -put emphasis on the use of
separated from the study of politics and those research tools and methods which
political system. Therefore, its main generate valid, reliable and comparative
concern is to judge what is good or bad data.
in any political society.
 Quantification -After collecting data, the
 Historical- As the name of this approach is researcher should measure and quantify
related to history, it emphasizes on the those data.
study of history of every political reality
to analyze any situation.  Values -believe that to do objective
research one has to be value free.
 Institutional- This approach is concerned
with the study of formal structures and  Systematization -research in Political
institutions like legislature, executive, Science must be systematic. Theory and
judiciary, political parties, etc. research should go together.
 Legal- This approach is concerned with
the legal process, legal bodies or
institutions, justice and independence
of judiciary.
Cont. to systematization “The worst illiterate is the political illiterate, he
doesn’t hear, doesn’t speak, nor participates in
 Pure Science -believes that the study of the political events. He doesn’t know the cost of
Political Science should be verified by life, the price of the bean, of the fish, of the flour,
evidence. of the rent, of the shoes and of the medicine, all
depends on political decisions. The political
 Integration -Political Science should not
illiterate is so stupid that he is proud and
be separated from various other social
swells his chest saying that he hates politics.
sciences like history, sociology and
The imbecile doesn’t know that, from his political
economics, etc.
ignorance is born the prostitute, the abandoned
IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS AND child, and the worst thieves of all, the bad
politician, corrupted and flunky of the national and
GOVERNMENT multinational companies.”
1. It is very important to care about politics -Bertolt Brecht
because you should know what is going on
around you.
2. Another reason you should care about politics MEANING OF GOVERNANCE
is because you should have a say in what will
happen. The World Bank defines governance as “the
manner in which power is exercised in the
3. You should care about politics because the
management of a country's economic and
decisions people make will affect many lives.
social resources for development”…”
Governance has been defined as “the rules of
WHY ARE POLITICS IMPORTANT IN the political system to solve conflicts between
THIS SOCIETY? actors and adopt decision (legality).”
 Because politics affects our daily life more
than we know. Politics is the science of
optimum allocation of resources for the ETYMOLOGY OF GOVERNANCE
betterment of everyone. It requires great  The word “governance” came from the
understanding and skills. Latin verb “gubernare,” or more originally
 Common man too needs to have a basic from the Greek word “kubernaein,” which
grasp of politics specially in a means “to steer.”
democracy - which is essentially a  Basing on its etymology, governance refers
system of check and balances. A to the manner of steering or governing,
democracy is not run by the government or of directing and controlling, a group
alone but by both the citizens and the of people or a state.
government.
DEFINITION OF GOVERNANCE
 Governance is commonly defined as the
exercise of power or authority by
political leaders for the well-being of
their country’s citizens or subjects.
 It is the complex process whereby some
sectors of the society wield power, and
enact and promulgate public policies
which directly affect human and
institutional interactions, and economic
and social development.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
GOVERNANCE :
GOOD GOVERNANCE
INDICATORS
 Good governance is understood through its
eight indicators or characteristics: (1)
Participatory; (2) Rule of Law; (3) Effective
and Efficient; (4) Transparent; (5)
Responsive; (6) Equitable and Inclusive; (7)
Consensus-Oriented; and (8)
Accountability. They are inextricably related
to each other.
1. PARTICIPATION
 Good governance essentially requires
participation of different sectors of the
society. Participation means active
involvement of all affected and
interested parties in the decision-
making process.
 It requires an enabling environment
wherein pertinent information is
effectively disseminated and people
could respond in an unconstrained
and truthful manner.
 It also means gender equality,
recognizing the vital roles of both men
and women in decision-making.
2. RULE OF LAW
 Democracy is essentially the rule of law.
It is through the law that people express
their will and exercise their
sovereignty. That the government is of
law and not of men is an underlying
democratic principle which puts no one,
however rich and powerful, above the
law.
 Rule of law demands that the people
and the civil society render habitual
obedience to the law. It also demands
that the government acts within the
limits of the powers and functions
prescribed by the law. The absence of
rule of law is anarchy.
3. EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY
 Good governance requires that the
institutions, processes, and actors
could deliver and meet the necessities
of the society in a way that available
resources are utilized well.
 That the different actors meet the needs of
the society means that there is effective
governance.
 That the valuable resources are utilized,
without wasting or underutilizing any of
them, means that there is efficient
governance.
 Effectiveness (meeting the needs) and
efficiency (proper utilization of resources)
must necessarily go together to ensure
the best possible results for the
community.
4. TRANSPARENCY 7. CONSENSUS-ORIENTED
 Transparency, as an indicator of good  Governance is consensus-oriented
governance, means that people are when decisions are made after taking
open to information regarding into consideration the different
decision-making process and the viewpoints of the actors of the society.
implementation of the same.
 Mechanisms for conflict resolution
 In legal terms, it means that information must be in place because inevitably
on matters of public concern is made conflict that will arise from competing
available to the citizens or those who interests of the actors.
will be directly affected.
 To meet the consensus, a strong,
 It also means that transactions involving impartial, and flexible mediation
public interests must be fully structure must be established.
disclosed and made accessible to the Without such, compromises and a
people. It is anchored on the broad consensus cannot be reached
democratic right to information and that serves that best interest of the
right to access of the same. whole community.
5. RESPONSIVENESS 8. ACCOUNTABILITY
 Responsiveness means that institutions  Accountability means answerability or
and processes serve all stakeholders responsibility for one’s action.
in a timely and appropriate manner.
 It is based on the principle that every
 It also means that actors and structures person or group is responsible for
of governance easily give genuine their actions most especially when
expression to the will or desire of the their acts affect public interest.
people.
 The actors have an obligation to explain
 In other words, the interests of all and be answerable for the
citizens must be well protected in a consequences of decisions and
prompt and appropriate manner so that actions they have made on behalf of the
each of them can appreciate and take community it serves.
part in the process of governance.
6. EQUITY AND INCLUSIVENESS
 Equity and inclusiveness mean that all the
members of the society, especially the
most vulnerable ones or the
grassroots level, must be taken into
consideration in policy-making.
 Everyone has a stake in the society and
no one should feel alienated from it.
 Particularly, those who belong to the
grassroots level must not only be the
subject of legislation but they must be
given the opportunity to participate in
decision or policy making.
WEEK 2: THE STATE
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION
A. DEFINITION OF STATE
The modern term “state” is derived from the word
“status”. It was Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-
1527) who first used the term “state” in his
writings. His significant work is titled as
“Prince”.
The state is the most universal and most
powerful of all institutions. The state is a
natural institution.
A state is a community of persons, more or
less numerous, permanently occupying a
definite portion of territory, having a
government of their own to which the great
body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience, and enjoying freedom from
external control.
State has been also been defined variously by
political thinkers. Some of the definitions are
the following:
 “State is a numerous assemblage of
human beings, generally occupying a
certain territory among whom the will of
the majority or of an ascertainable class of
persons is by the strength of such a
majority made to prevail against any of
their members who oppose it.” -Alisha
Holland, Harvard University Professor
 “State is a particular portion of mankind
viewed as an organized unit.” -John
William Burgess, (1844–1931) American
political theorist, historian, and university
dean.
 “State is a people organized for law
within a definite territory.” -Former US
Pres. Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921)
 “State is a territorial society divided into
government and subjects claiming within
its allotted physical area a supremacy over
all other institutions.” -Prof. Harold
Joseph Laski (1893-1950) British political
scientist, educator and Labor leader.
 “State is a union of families and villages
having for its end a perfect and self-
sufficing life by which we mean a happy
and honorable life.” -Aristotle (384-322
BC) Greek philosopher and polymath.
 “The marks of an independent state are
that the community constituting it is
permanently established for a political
end, that it possesses a defined territory
and that it is independent of external
control.” – Arnold Bennett Hall (1881–
1936) American educator, political
scientist.
 “The state as a concept of political
science and public law, is a community
of persons more or less numerous,
permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, independent, or
nearly so, of external control
possessing an organized government
to which the great body of inhabitants
render habitual obedience.”-James
Wilford Garner (1871-1938) American
professor of Political Science.
 “The state is an association which, acting
through law as promulgated by a
government endowed to this end with
coercive power, maintains within a
community territorially demarcated the
universal external conditions of social
order.”- Robert M. Maclver, Scottish-
American sociologist, a humanist, and
political scientist (1882-1970)
 According to William F. Ogburn, an
American sociologist, a state “is an
organization which rules by means of a
supreme government over a definite
territory.”
  According to Max Weber, a German Continuation of No. 2
sociologist, historian, jurist, and political
There can be no state without a fixed
economist (1864-1920), “The state is an
territory. People need territory to live and
association that claims the monopoly of
organize themselves socially and politically.
the legitimate use of violence.”
Territory refers to the terrestrial (land),
 According to Anderson and Parker, “A fluvial/maritime (water), and aerial (air-space)
state is that agency in a society that is
domains. The territorial domains are: a.
authorized to exercise coercive control terrestrial (land) b. fluvial (water) which
within a given territory.” includes maritime and c. aerial (air). It consists
From the foregoing definitions, we can deduce the land within its boundaries, the air space
that the State has four essential elements: a) above the land, the inland waters and all the
People, b) Government, c) Territory, and d) natural resources therein, and the sea beyond
Sovereignty. the state’s coastlines, including its seabed
and subsoil. In the case of archipelagic states
B. ELEMENTS OF THE STATE this territorial sea stretches to 12 miles
(19kms) from the coastlines to the open sea.
1. People/Population
People refers to the mass of As in the case of the population, there is
population living within the state. “People” no definite size with regard to the extent of
answers the question, “who governs whom?” area of the state to be fixed. There are large
and small states. However, territory should be
According to Plato, there is no specific permanent and large enough to be self-
number requirement; “…the state shall neither sufficing. Vatican is the smallest with a total
be too small nor yet one that seems great but land area of 0.44 km Russia is the largest
2;

has no unity.” Aristotle, on the other hand, says with 17,098,242 km

2

“the number should be neither too large nor

too small; It should be large enough to be 3. Government
self-sufficing and small enough to be well There can be no state without
governed.” government. Government is the agency to
which the will of the state is formulated,
2. Territory expressed, and carried out. It is an institution
Territory is the demarcated area that or aggregate of institutions by which an
rightly belongs to the population. “Territory” independent society makes and carries out
answers the question, “where?” It is a definite those rules of action necessary to enable men
portion of the surface of the earth which is the to live in a social state, or that which are
subject of the jurisdiction and sovereign imposed upon the people by those who
rights of a state in accordance with the possess the power or authority of prescribing
international law. them.
 4. Sovereignty 2. Necessity or Force Theory
Sovereignty is the supreme power of the Necessity or force theory maintains that
state to command and enforce obedience its the state must have been created as a product
will from the people within its jurisdiction, and of the existence of the strong and the weak in
corollarily, to have freedom from foreign society, and as a result of their struggle against
control. each other wherein those who are strong are able
to dominate and impose their will upon the weak.
The word “sovereignty” means supreme
and final legal authority above and beyond The creation of the state through the constant
which no legal power exists. Sovereignty has war and invasion of the great warriors in the
two aspects: 1) Internal sovereignty which ancient time dominated the weak and later on
means that the State is supreme over all its formed a state.
citizens, and associations; 2) External
sovereignty which means that the state is According to this theory, state is the
independent and free from foreign or outside result of the superior physical force and
control. subjugation of the weaker section by the
stronger. Physical strength was able to
C. THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE
overcome fellow men and to exercise
STATE authority over them.
There are several theories that attempt to
explain the origin of the state, but no single 3. Natural or Instinctive Theory
theory offers an adequate explanation. These The Natural or Instinctive Theory holds
theories have been formed and developed as a that the state is founded out of man’s natural
result of the political thought and philosophy in
instinct for association. The social urge of the
the ancient time until the Enlightenment period
human being to be within a group of people in
in Europe.
the community as in sociology describes that
1. Divine Right Theory “man is a social being.” The social group
The Divine Right Theory holds that the provides the political development to stay and
state is of divine creation and the ruler is work together with common goal in the
ordained by God to govern the people. community then later on transforms into a
Reference has been made by advocates of state.
this theory to the laws which Moses received
at Mount Sinai.
4. Patriarchal Theory
The rulers of the past advocated the The Patriarchal theory attributes the origin
political dominance of authority and power of states to the enlargement of the family
through their own ordained mandate that they which remained under the authority of the
represented the state as on the basis of the father or mother. By natural stages, the family
divine right (as God created the state). It was grew into a clan, then developed into a tribe
in this nature that the divine rights of kings which broadened into a nation and the nation
have the absolute power and influence over became a state.
their subjects.

This is the oldest theory concerned in the

origin of state. According to this theory, state is
established and governed by God himself by
agent or vice regent or vicar of God. The chief
exponent of this theory in early times were
the Jews and supporters were the early
church fathers.
Continuation of No.4
According to MacIver, “Kinship creates
society and society at length creates the
states.”
In the process of development of kinship
patriarchal and matriarchal both societies
were experienced and such societies
contributed in the origin of the state theory
through their authority, military and political
and religious privileges and powers.
5. Social Contract Theory
Social contract theory asserts that the early
states must have been formed by deliberate
and voluntary compact among the people to
form a society and organize government for
their common good.
This theory justifies the right of the people
to revolt against a bad ruler.
This is the right of the people to have the
deliberate and voluntary contract on the right
to overthrow the kings and rulers against
corrupt governance to organize a new
government with common interest for all the
people. Philosophers like Thomas Hobbes,
John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau are
the main supporters of this theory.
6. Historical and Evolutionary Theory
The Historical or Evolutionary theory
explains that “the state is the product of
growth, a slow and steady evolution
extending over a long period of time and
ultimately shaping itself into the complex
structure of a modern state.” This theory is
more scientific.
The state is neither the handiwork of God,
nor the result of superior physical force, nor
the creation of evolution or convention, nor a
mere expansion of the family. The state is not
a mere artificial mechanical creation but an
institution of natural growth or historical
evolution says professor Garner.
Continuation of No.6
There were a number of factors which
helped the evolution of the state. They
were kinship, religion, war, migration
economic activities and political
consciousness.
a. Kinship- is the most important and
was based upon blood relationship
and kinship was the first strongest
bond of unity. Family constituted the
first link in the process of the evolution
of the state with the expansion of the
family arose new families and the
multiplication of families led to the
formation of clans and tribes. Kinship
was the only factor which bound the
people together.
According to Professor Mac Iver, the
magic of names 'reinforced the sense of
kinship, as the course of generations
enlarged the group. The blood bond of
sonship changed imperceptibly into the
social bond of the wider brotherhood. The
authority of the father passes into the
power of the chief once more under the
aegis of kinship new forms arise which
transcend it. Kinship creates society
and society at length creates the state'.
b. Religion- provided the bond of unity in
early society. It also affected all walks
of life. The worship of a common
ancestor and common goods created a
sense of social solidarity. There was
fear in the hearts of men as far as
religion was concerned. Even today we
see religious practices, affairs and faith in
uniting people. In the early days a
number of races are united by religion
and unity was essential for the
creation of state.
c. Force- also played an important part in D. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATE
the evolution of the state. It was the use
AND NATION
of physical force that was responsible
for the growth of kingdoms and
By definition, State is a community of persons
empires.
occupying a definite territory, have
government of their own, and enjoying
d. Property and Defense- played a vital freedom from external control, while a
role in the evolution of state in ancient Nation a is society of inhabitants of a specific
times particularly among the people geographic region united and bound together
who were nomads and vagabonds and by a common racial ancestry, the same
tribes. Prof. Laski has referred to the language and culture, historical past, laws
necessity of acquiring property by the and a shared interests and sentiments over
members of society and protecting the the passing of many years.
property acquired with reference to the
population mentioned above. This led State Distinguished from Nation. Nation
to making adjustments in the social should not be confused with state for they are
system and relationship between the not the same.
members of different groups. The need
to protect property ultimately compelled a. The state is a political concept, while
the ancient people to establish the state. nation is an ethnic or racial concept.

e. Political consciousness- arising b. A state is not subject to external control

from the fundamental needs of life for
protection and order. When the people
settle down on a definite territory in
pursuit of their, subsistence and a desire
to secure it from encroachment by others.
The need for regulating things and
persons is felt imminently and this is
the essence of political
consciousness.
In conclusion, it is apparent that many
factors helped the growth of the state.
No single factor alone was responsible for
its origin. Sometimes all and sometimes
many of them help the process by which
uncivilized society was transformed into a
state. Of all the theories which seek to
explain the origin of the states, the
evolutionary theory is the most
satisfactory. It should be noted that no
theory pin-points the time at which the
state originated as a consequence of
many factors working in union at
different times
while a nation may or may not be
independent of external control.
c. A state cannot become a state without a
nation or nations that consists its
people. On the other hand, a nation is a
nation whether or not a state exists.
d. A single state may consist of one or
more nations or peoples and conversely,
a single nation may be made up of
different states. The United States is a
melting pot of several nationalities. On
the other hand, the Arab Nation is divided
politically into several foreign states. The
Philippines is a state composed of one
nation.
E. INHERENT POWERS OF THE
STATE
1. Police power is the power of
government to enforce obedience from
the people in the promotion of public
health, morals, or safety, and the
general well-being of the community. It
is the inherent power of government to
enact and enforce laws for the
promotion of general welfare.

2. Power of Eminent Domain is the power

possessed by the state over all
property within the state, specifically its
power to appropriate property for a
public purpose. This is the power of the
state to take private property for public
use with just compensation.

3. Power of Taxation is the inherent power

of the sovereign, exercised through the
legislature, to impose burdens upon
subjects and objects within its
jurisdiction for the purpose of raising
revenues to carry out the legitimate
objects of the government.
WEEK 3: POLITICAL POWER
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION PPGC111
A. MEANING AND NATURE OF
POWER
Power may be explained in different ways
because its meaning is within the context of
human relations. We are encountered with
many different explanations in various
disciplines. Even within a single social
discipline, power is defined in several
different ways.
Some social scientists define it as the use
of force whereas many others explain it as the
capacity to secure the desired goals through the
use of force or threat of use of force or even by
exercising influence.
 According to Morgenthau “Power is
the power of man on others” and as a
“man’s control over the minds and
actions of other men.”
 Another definition is from
Schwarzenberger who view power as
“the capacity of one to impose his will
on others by reliance on effective
sanctions in case of non-compliance.”
 Charles P. Schleicher defines power
as “the ability to exercise such control
as to make others do what they
otherwise would not do by rewarding or
promising to reward them, or by
depriving or threatening to deprive
them of something they value.”
Based on these definitions, we can say that
power in the context of human relations is the
capacity and ability to secure a desired and For understanding the nature of National Power
intended effect or gain through the use of let us know the meaning of the terms ‘National’
force, influence and sanctions. and ‘Power’:
In Social Science and Politics, Power is
the ability to influence or outright control the
behavior of people. It is authority when the
power is perceived as legitimate by the social
structure. Power may also be seen as evil or
unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted
as reserved only to humans as social beings.
B. NATIONAL POWER:
DIMENSIONS, FEATURES AND
EXERCISE
National Power is that “combination of
power and capability of a state which the
state uses for fulfilling its national interests
and goals” according to Paddleford and
Lincoln.
To Hartman, national power denotes the
ability of a nation to fulfil national goals, how
much powerful or weak a particular nation in
securing them.
National Power is simply the ability or
capability of a nation to secure the goals and
objectives of its national interests in relation
with other nations. It involves the capacity to
use force or threat of use of force or influence
over others for securing the goals of national
interest. In this way, we can define National
Power as “the ability to control the behavior of
other states in accordance with one’s own
will.” National Power is the currency of
international relations.
NATURE OF NATIONAL
POWER
NATIONAL:
National means pertaining to the nation
making national power the power of a nation. Power and Influence:
However, in the context of national power the
term ‘nation’ does not mean the same as in Both involve the ability to produce an
Political Science. In the context of national intended change or effect in the behavior of
powers, nation stands for the power of the others. However, the two are not the same.
group of decision makers and authorities who Power involves a use of force or threat of use
exercise power on behalf of the nation. It is the of force. Political Power or Legal Power is
power of the decision-makers who formulate backed by authority or sovereignty of the
and implement the foreign policy of the nation state.
and thereby attempt to secure national goals.
Influence involves the attempt to change the
National Power does not mean the power of behavior of others through persuasion and
the entire population of the state. It is only a not by threats or force. The scope of influence
psychological link that makes the people is wider than the scope of power and it is
regard the power of the decision-makers as more democratic than power.
their own power.
8 MAIN FEATURES OF NATIONAL
POWER: POWER:
For understanding the nature of power in the
context of National Power, it is necessary to National Power has a non-stable, dynamic
distinguish between Power and Force, and character and as such it has to be
Power and Influence. continuously or at least periodically and
regularly evaluated for understanding the role
of the nation in international relations.
National power is always dynamic. A powerful
Power and Force: nation can become less powerful or more
powerful in future.
Force means physical force, violence in the
form of police action, imprisonment, The Most Important Features of
punishment or war. Power means a
psychological relationship of control which is
National Power in Politics:
backed by the use of force, or threat of use of
force. When physical force, war and other 1. National Power Is both a Means as
means involving the use of military power or well as an End in International
police power are actually used to secure Relations:
certain objectives, power stands replaced by National Power is the means to control the
force. behavior of other states with a view to
accomplish certain ends. It is recognized as
the currency with which a nation can secure
the desired values—peace, security,
progress, development, status, and more
power. Nations use power to secure their
interests in international relations. This makes
power a means in relations among nations.
Continuation of No. 1
However, in actual practice power is pursued
as an objective or as an end. Nations want
power not only for their immediate but also
for their future needs. They, therefore, always
try to build up a reserve of power and hence
pursue power as an end. Thus, power like
money is a means but it is mostly pursued as
an end.
2. National Power is the Ability to
Secure Goals of National Interest:
National Power is the ability or capacity of a
nation to influence or change the behavior of
other nations with a view to secure the goals
of its national interest. It is a relationship in
which a powerful nation is in a position to
achieve its desired goals of national interest
in international relations. National Power is
measured in terms of a nation’s ability to
secure its goals and objectives
international relations.
3. National Power is Dynamic and National power is often analyzed and
evaluated in terms of the capabilities of a
Relative in Character:
National power is always relative to time and
resources. The power of a nation has to be
analyzed both through an analysis of the
capabilities and ability of the nation as well as
by a comparison of its national power with
other nations.
National Power has a non-stable, dynamic
character and as such it has to be
continuously or at least periodically and
regularly evaluated for understanding the role
of the nation in international relations.
National power is always dynamic. A powerful
nation can become less powerful or more
powerful in future.
This depends upon the changes in the power
potential of other nations as well as upon the
various components of national power. The
power of a nation is always relative to the
powers of other nations, particularly the
power of its adversaries. In 1990, the collapse
of the USSR and decline in the Russian power
acted as a source of increase in the US power in
international relations.
4. No Two Nations Have Equal
Power:
Further, it must be noted that no two nations
have or can have absolutely equal power.
There can be only a rough equality between
two equally powerful super powers or great
powers or major powers. The power of a nation
is always more or less than the power of every
other nation.
in
5. There Are Several Elements of
National Power:
nation which are determined on the basis of
several factors, like Geography, Population,
Industrial Capacity, Diplomacy, Military
Preparedness, Quality of Leadership and
Government etc. All these factors have to be
analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively
for evaluating the national power of a nation.
6. Actual Power and Potential Power:
Moreover, the attempt to analyze the power of
a nation must focus both on the analysis of
actual power as well as potential power of a
nation. Actual power is the power which is
immediately available, whereas potential
power is the power that can be generated in
situations of crisis and times of need. It refers
to the crisis- management ability as well as
the possible availability of power in the years
to come.
 7. National Power is the Currency of The Major Dimensions of National
International Relations: Power in International Politics
Each nation seeks to use its power for
securing its national interests in international
1. Military Power:
relations. It is this feature which makes
Military power is an important dimension of
international relations regarded as a process of
national power. It is regarded as absolutely
struggle for power. The nature of this struggle
essential for achieving the objective of
for power can be analyzed only through an
security of the nation. For every nation,
analysis of the national powers of various
security is the most vital element of its
nations. The role a nation is playing or can
national interest. It is the primary concern of
play in international relations can be judged
every nation to work for her security.
by evaluating its national power.
In fact, the greatest of all the national interests
The possibility of violation of security of a
of a nation is to maintain and increase its
nation through war and aggression by other
national power. It is the means for the
nations is always considered as a distinct
fulfillment of the needs and aspirations of a
possibility and hence every nation gives first
nation.
priority to her security. For keeping her security
against possible violations, each nation maintains
8. National Power is the Basis as Well an army. Military power is regarded as the key
as a Means of Foreign Policy: means for securing the security and territorial
National Power is the very basis of the foreign integrity of each nation.
policy of a nation, and foreign policy can be
effective in securing the goals of national Military power is as such a vital part of
interest when there is adequate national national power. The role and importance of a
power. The ability of the statesmen and state in international relations depends upon
diplomats to act and react with others is again its military power. No state can get
determined by their respective national power recognition as a super power without being
militarily superior.
DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL
While evaluating military power of a nation we
POWER: have to take into account the other two forms
(Economic Power and Psychological Power)
The three forms of national power are of national power, the elements of military
inseparable from each other. Without power and the military power of other nations.
economic power no nation can develop her USA is a super power and is a formidable
military power, and without the latter no military power.
nation can play an active role in international Japan and Germany are big economic powers
relations. Psychological power can be but are not recognized even as great powers
enduringly and really effective only when it is because they are weak military powers.
backed by economic and military power. Russia, the successor state of former USSR is
a nuclear power but not a super power
because of its economic weakness.
China is a big military power but is not
recognized as a super power.
 2. Economic Power: 3. Psychological Power:
Economic power is the second important Psychological power means the power of
dimension of national power. It is constituted opinion and image of the nation. The role of
by the ability of a nation to satisfy its own propaganda and persuasive negotiations in
needs and to control the behavior of other international relations have been used by the
states by affording or denying access to states for securing an intended change in the
economic goods and services. The economic behavior of other states.
means of foreign policy are today the most The improvement in the means of
vital means which a state can use for communications, increased influence of mass
influencing the actions and behavior of other media, social media and public opinion on
states. No state can become a military power foreign policy, the emergence of open and
without having adequate economic power. conference diplomacy, the popularity of
alternative ideologies, the role of NGOs and
According to Palmer and Perkins, economic social movements, and the increased role of
power is inseparable from military power, for propaganda and publicity in international
it is one of its basic components, but even relations, have all increased the role of this
under conditions of modern warfare, dimension of National Power.
economic power and military power are not
the same. By the use of psychological and cultural
means a nation always tries to influence the
Economic power is used by rich and people and leaders of other nations. The
developed nations to influence other states ability to influence others through systematic
by granting them economic aid and loans, publicity and educational and cultural
and try to secure their interests in relations constitutes the psychological part of
international relations. It is used as a means to the national power of a nation.
induce as well as to coerce a desired change in
the behavior of other states. The Interdependence of the Three
In present times, it has come to be recognized
Dimensions of National Power:
as even more important form of national
power than military power as in the case of The three forms of national power are
Japan. Lack of economic power is a basic inseparable. Without economic power no
factor behind the weak power positions of the nation can develop her military power, and
Third World countries. without the latter no nation can play an active
role in international relations. Psychological
While evaluating the economic power of a power can be enduring and really effective
nation one has to take into account such with economic and military power. Thus,
factors as raw materials, natural resources, psychological power is a valuable and
food stocks, industrial and technological important part of national power. The nature
capacity, G.N.P., trade surplus, means of and scope of National Power can be evaluated
transport and communication, GDP, GDP per only by evaluating all these three highly
capital etc. However, economic power of a related and interdependent dimensions of
nation when not backed by military power and National Power.
psychological power is not very effective in
international relations.
METHODS OF EXERCISING The lease of territories or a military bases or
equipment—industrial or military, transit and
NATIONAL POWER: trade facilities and grant of right to allow passage
of ships are some of the other forms of rewards
Each nation uses its national power for which a state can offer to other states for
securing its national interests, and goals of securing a desired change in their behaviors.
foreign policy. It is used by the nation through
four basic means Persuasion, Rewards,
3. Punishment:
Punishment and Force.
A powerful nation can inflict punishment on an
offending or unhelpful state by imposing
1. Persuasion: economic sanctions or norms or policies or
The art of persuasion consists in defining and placing trade restrictions or ensuring a denial
logically explaining a particular problem or of a possible reward. Denial or reduction in
issue or dispute to other nations or any other foreign aid or loan or refusal to export certain
nation. An attempt is made to persuade other items or technology can be used by a
nations to adopt a particular and desired view powerful nation for inflicting a punishment or
or perception of the nature of issues involved pressure on other nations.
in any bilateral or multilateral problem or
dispute or issue. The attempt is to convince Thus, punishment can be used by a powerful
others about goodness of the policies of the nation for exercising its power over other
nation. Diplomacy basically uses persuasion states. In actual practice the powerful nations
to secure support for the foreign policy that it use threat of punishment as a method and
represents. refrain from actual imposition of punishment.
The recourse to punishment can cause a
Persuasion is widely used by diplomats and reaction and thus harm the interest of the
statesmen for securing the desired and state resorting to punishment as a method of
defined objectives of the foreign policy. But exercising its power.
success in persuasion can be achieved only
when it is supplemented by other methods The most effective punishment is the one
and when it is supported by a strong national which secures the desired objective of a state
power and effective foreign policy. without the actual infliction of punishment on
other states. Threat of punishment is a better
2. Rewards: method of exercise of national power than its
The offering of rewards can be material or actual infliction.
economic or psychological. A nation can give
material help to another nation in times of 4. Force or Physical Violence:
crisis or in other ways. The practice of giving By the use of military power or physical force,
economic aid and easy loans or grants-in-aid a powerful nation can compel a desired
is another method of winning support and behavior of another nation. As a method of
inducing a change in the behavior of other exercising power, force is related to
states. punishment.
The token support or grant of certain
honors to the statesmen, philosophers,
artists, scientists and scholars of other
nations also serve as psychological rewards
intended to keep the other states friendly and
cooperative.
No. 4 Continuation
When punitive action is taken against another
nation, it becomes a case of use of force.
However, when only threat of punitive action is
given without the actual use of physical
violence against the other state, it becomes a
case of exercise of power through the use of
punishment. As such the difference between
force and punishment is in the actual use of
force versus the threat of use of force.
No. 4 Continuation
Physical force or violence can be used by
resorting to war or acts of reprisals by a
powerful state.
Resort to war is the extreme form of exercise
of force in international relation. It is a risky
and dangerous method, which can damage the
national power of the state which resorts to
war. This consideration makes the resort to
war as a method of last resort.

C. TYPES OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY

Max Weber identified and explained three distinct types of authority:

WEBER’S THREE TYPES OF AUTHORITY

TRADITIONAL CHARISMATIC LEGAL-RATIONAL

Authority resides in
Legitimized by long- Based on a leader’s
SOURCE OF POWER the office, not in the
standing customs personal qualities
person

LEADERSHIP STYLE Historic personality Dynamic personality Bureaucratic officials

Napoleon, Jesus
Patriarchy (traditional
EXAMPLE Christ, Mother Teresa, Pres. Rodrigo Duterte
positions of authority)
Mahatma Gandhi

NATURE AND DEFINITION OF AUTHORITY:

Authority is “the right or the capacity or both to have proposals or prescriptions or
instructions accepted without recourse to persuasion, bargaining or force”.

Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics defines authority as “the power or right to give orders
and enforce obedience, the power to influence others based on recognized knowledge or
expertise.”

“Authority can most simply be defined as legitimate power. Authority is, therefore, based on
an acknowledged duty to obey rather than on any form of coercion or manipulation. In this
sense authority is power cloaked in legitimacy or rightfulness”.
Weber’s Classification of
Authority:
Max Weber, the doyen (highly respected
person) of sociology, has classified authority on
the basis of legitimacy. Authority’s claim to do
something and to demand allegiance from the
citizens are based on arguments which Weber
calls legitimacy. Needless to say, that Weber
uses the term legitimacy in the light of greater
and wider perspective.
There are three types of authority. The first is
traditional authority. Second is charismatic
authority and the third is legal-rational authority.
This classification, though not a fool proof one, is
still recognized and accepted by majority of the
people.
1. TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY:
Traditional authority is power that is rooted
in traditional, or long-standing, beliefs and
practices of a society.
It exists and is assigned to particular
individuals because of that society’s customs
and traditions. Individuals enjoy traditional
authority for at least one of two reasons.
a) The first is inheritance, as certain
individuals are granted traditional
authority because they are the children
or other relatives of people who
already exercise traditional authority.
b) The second reason, individuals enjoy
traditional authority as more religious:
their societies believe they are anointed
by God or the gods, depending on the
society’s religious beliefs, to lead their
society.
Traditional authority is legitimated by the
sanctity of tradition. The ability and right to
rule are passed down, often through heredity.
It does not change overtime, does not facilitate
social change, tends to be irrational and
inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo. In
fact, Weber states: “The creation of new law
opposite traditional norms is deemed
impossible in principle.”
Continuation of No. 1
Traditional authority is typically embodied in
feudalism or patrimonialism. In a purely
patriarchal structure, “the servants are
completely and personally dependent upon
the lord”, while in an estate system (i.e.,
feudalism), “the servants are not personal
servants of the lord but independent men”
(Weber 1958, 4). But, in both cases the system
of authority does not change or evolve.
2. CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY:
Charismatic authority stems from an
individual’s extraordinary personal qualities
and from that individual’s hold over followers
because of these qualities. Such charismatic
individuals may exercise authority over a
whole society or only a specific group within
a larger society.
They can exercise authority for good and for
bad, as this brief list of charismatic leaders
indicates: Joan of Arc, Adolf Hitler, Mahatma
Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Jesus Christ,
Muhammad, and Buddha. Each of these
individuals had extraordinary personal
qualities that led their followers to admire
them and to follow their orders or requests for
action.
Charismatic authority is found in a leader
whose mission and vision inspire others. It is
based upon the perceived extraordinary
characteristics of an individual. Weber saw a
charismatic leader as the head of a new social
movement, and one instilled with divine or
supernatural powers, such as a religious
prophet. Weber seemed to favor charismatic
authority, and spent a good deal of time
discussing it. In a study of charisma and religion,
Martin Riesebrodt (1999), a German-American
professor of sociology and politics, argues that
Weber also thought charisma played a strong, if
not integral, role in traditional authority systems.
Thus, Weber’s favor for charismatic authority
was particularly strong, especially in focusing
on what happened to it with the death or
decline of a charismatic leader.
 3. LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY Legal-rational authority is empowered by a
Legal-Rational authority derives from law formalistic belief in the content of the law
and is based on a belief in the (legal) or natural law (rationality). Obedience
legitimacy of a society’s laws and rules is not given to a specific individual leader -
and in the right of leaders to act under whether traditional or charismatic - but a set
these rules to make decisions and set of uniform principles. Weber thought the best
policy. example of legal-rational authority was a
bureaucracy (political or economic). This form
This form of authority is a hallmark of of authority is frequently found in the modern
modern democracies, where power is state, city governments, private and public
given to people elected by voters, and corporations, and various voluntary
the rules for wielding that power are associations. In fact, Weber stated that the
usually set forth in a constitution, a “development of the modern state is identical
charter, or another written document. indeed with that of modern officialdom and
bureaucratic organizations just as the
development of modern capitalism is identical
Continution ------> with the increasing bureaucratization of
economic enterprise (Weber 1958, 3).
WEEK 4: THE GOVERNMENT(PART 1)
A. CLASSIFICATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS
Attempts to produce a classification of political institutions can be dated back to the beginnings of the
study of political science. Aristotle made one of the earliest attempts to classify government
structures. He distinguished between states ruled by one person, by the few and the many-
monarchy, aristocracy and mixed government. His intention was not only to describe but to
evaluate and thus he extended his classification scheme to their 'perverted' forms, which he labelled
tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. He realized, however, that these types did not exist in their
pure forms, thus noting that classification in political science is a search for 'ideal' types.

Charles baron de Montesquieu, a French philosopher of the eighteenth century, produced one of
the most famous schemes of classifying governments: 'There are three species of government:
republican, monarchical and despotic.' Montesquieu's classification differed from Aristotle's in that
aristocracy and democracy were part of his republican type of government, but his categorization was
firmly in the classical mold since the type of government depended on the number of people holding
power. Republican government divides power between the many or the few, 'the more an
aristocracy border on democracy the nearer it approaches perfection: and in proportion as it
draws towards monarchy, the more it is imperfect'. Monarchy is a system of government in
which power, although in the hands of a single person, is regulated by fundamental laws and
by the power of other groups in the society. Despotism is the worst form of government since
power is in the hands of one man. There is in Montesquieu the important recognition of the
relationship between the type of government and the type of society. Education, morals, patriotism
and the level of economic equality all help to determine the type of government, and a most
important variable is the extent of the state's territory: 'A large empire supposes a despotic
authority in the person who governs', a monarchical state possesses moderate territory, but 'It
is natural for a republic to have only a small territory otherwise it cannot long subsist.'
Purpose and Necessity of Government.
Government exists and should continue to exist for the benefit- of the people governed. It is
necessary for the protection of society and its members, the security of persons and property,
the administration of justice, the preservation of the state from external danger, and the
advancement of the physical, economic, social and cultural well-being of the people.

Government exists to do these things which by their very nature, it is better equipped to
administer for the public welfare than any private individual or group of individuals. It is
obvious that without an organized structure of government, anarchy and disorder, and a
general feeling of fear and insecurity will prevail in society, progress and development will not
be possible, and values taken for granted in a free modern society such as truth, freedom,
justice, equality, rule of law, and human dignity can never be enjoyed. The need for
government is so apparent that even the most primitive societies, history shows, had some form
of it.

A. As to The Number of Persons Exercising Sovereign Power

WHO RULES?
NONE ONE FEW ALL
Anarchy Monarchy Aristocracy Democracy
Tyranny Oligarchy Direct
Dictatorship Representative

3. Democracy is a government in which

1. Monarchy is a government in which
supreme and final authority is in the hands
of a single person.
a) Absolute Monarchy is a government in
which the ruler rules by divine right
b) Limited Monarchy is a government in
which the ruler rules in accordance
with the Constitution
 Tyranny is an autocratic form of
rule in which one individual
exercises power without any
legal restraint
 Dictatorship is an authoritarian
type of government where there is
absolute control by one person.
political power is exercised by a majority of
the people.
a) Direct or pure democracy is a
government in which the will of the state is
formulated or expressed directly and
immediately through the people in a mass
meeting or primary assembly.
b) Indirect, representative or
republican democracy is a government in
which the will of the state is formulated and
expressed through a relatively small and
select body of persons chosen by the
people to act as their representatives.

2. Aristocracy is a government in which

political power is exercised by few
privileged classes which is known as
aristocracy or oligarchy. In an oligarchy, a
small group of people has all the power in
the government.
B. As to Extent of Powers Exercised by B. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
The Central or National Government 1. Anarchy is the state of having no
 Unitary Government is a government in government.
which the control of national and local 2. Adhocracy is a type of organization that
affairs is exercised by the central or operates in opposite fashion to
national government. a bureaucracy; government in
unstructured fashion
 Federal government is a government in 3. Androcracy or andrarchy is a form of
which the powers of government are government in which the government rulers
divided between the national and local are male.
governments. 4. Atheocracy is a government where religion
is forbidden
C. As to the Relationship Between the 5. Autarchy is a government by an absolute
Executive and Legislative Branches of ruler
6. Bureaucracy is a government by civil
Government servants
 Parliamentary government is a government 7. Confederacy is a union of sovereign states
in which the state confers upon the
8. Dyarchy is a government by two; dual
legislature the power to terminate the
monarchy
tenure of office of the real executive. 9. Ethnocracy is a form of government by a
Legislatures called parliaments operate particular ethnic group
under a parliamentary system of 10. Geniocracy is a government of intelligent
government in which the executive is people
constitutionally answerable to the 11. Gynarchy is a government by women;
parliament. Parliaments usually consist of gynocracy
chambers or houses, and are usually 12. Heptarchy is a government by seven people
either bicameral or unicameral.
 Presidential government is a government in 13. Judiciocracy is a government by judges
which the state makes the executive
14. Kakistocracy is a government by the worst
constitutionally independent of the
legislature as regards to tenure to a large
15. Kleptocracy is a government by thieves
extent. A presidential system is a system of
government where an executive branch is 16. Malarchy is a government by bad leaders
led by a president who serves as both head
of state and head of government. In such a 17. Matriarchy is a form of government by
system, this branch exists separately from women or mothers
the legislature, to which it is 18. Meritocracy is a government by those with
not responsible and which it cannot, in merit
normal circumstances, dismiss. 19. Minarchy is a government with the smallest
possible size
20. Nomocracy is a government through
established laws
21. Ochlocracy is a government by mobs

22. Particracy is a government by political

parties
23. Patriarchy is a government by fathers
24. Plutocracy is a government by the wealthy 1. LIBERALISM VS CONSERVATISM
LIBERALISM
25. Polyarchy is a government by many people
In the early modern age of the Western world
26. Republic is a government by elected officials(beginning roughly in the early 1500s and
27. Robocracy is a government by robots running for about 200 years), a number of
28. Stratocracy is a government by armed changes occurred that led to new ideologies: The
forces European discovery of the Americas, the rise
29. Technocracy is a government by technical of Protestantism, the beginnings of the free-
experts market economy, and the early stages of the
30. Tetrarchy is a government by four people scientific revolution fundamentally altered
Europe. People began developing different
31. Theocracy is a government by a deity ways of thinking to take account of these
through the clergy or by religious law (ex. changes.
Frailocracy)
32. Timocracy is a government by the propertied Perhaps the most important of the new ideas
class is liberalism (also known as classical
33. Triumvirate is a government by three people liberalism). This type of liberalism, which began
in England in the 1600s, differs from American
liberalism. Classical liberalism developed
C. POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES: when such thinkers as John Locke (in his
Second Treatise of Government in 1690)
MEANING OF IDEOLOGY rethought the relationship between the
individual and society, as well theorized about
Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative the rights and responsibilities of the individual.
beliefs, conscious and unconscious ideas, These ideas formed the foundation for many
that an individual, group or society has. An political systems still operating today.
ideology is less encompassing than the ideas Liberalism emphasizes:
expressed in concepts such as worldview,
imaginary and ontology.  Individualism - The individual takes priority
over society;
Political ideologies can be proposed by the
 Freedom - Individuals have the right to make
dominant class of society such as the elite to
choices for themselves. This freedom is not
all members of society as suggested in some
absolute, and some behaviors, such as
Marxist and critical-theory accounts. In
murder, are prohibited. Freedom of religion
societies that distinguish between public and
is a particularly important freedom to come
private life, every political or economic
out of liberalism because so many
tendency entails ideology, whether or not it is
governments at the time were very closely
propounded as an explicit system of thought.
tied to a particular religious creed;
Louis Althusser’s Ideological State  Equality - No person is morally or politically
Apparatuses (2010) in essence define ideology superior to others. Hierarchies are rejected;
as “the imaginary relation to the real  Rationalism - Humans are capable of
conditions of existence”. thinking logically and rationally. Logic and
reason help us solve problems;
 Progress - Traditions should not be kept
unless they have value. New ideas are
helpful because they can lead to progress in
the sciences, the economy, and society;
 The free market - Liberalism and 2. CAPITALISM VS SOCIALISM
capitalism go hand in hand. Liberals like the
free market because it more easily creates CAPITALISM
wealth, as opposed to traditional
economies, which often have extensive Capitalism is a political and economic ideology
regulations and limits on which which states that individuals are free. They are
occupations people can hold free to make money, own businesses, sell
goods and services and crucially own private
CONSERVATISM
property. Emphasis within capitalist countries
Conservatism (also known as classical is on the role of individuals rather than the
conservatism) began as a reaction against the state.
liberal ideas taking hold of Europe during the
Capitalism is often thought of as an economic
French Revolution in the late eighteenth
system in which private actors own and
century. This type of conservatism differs from
control property in accord with their interests,
American conservatism. Edmund Burke, a
and demand and supply freely set prices in
British Member of Parliament, observed the early
markets in a way that can serve the best
stages of the French Revolution with great
interests of society.
distress and predicted the violence and terror that
would ensue. His book, Reflections on the The essential feature of capitalism is the
Revolution in France (1790), is one of the motive to make a profit. As Adam Smith, the
founding texts of classical conservatism. 18th century philosopher and father of
modern economics, said: “It is not from the
Burke and other conservatives attacked
benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the
liberalism for many reasons. They argued that
baker that we expect our dinner, but from
liberalism destroyed tradition. In its rush to
their regard to their own interest.” Both parties
overturn the old and bring in the new, liberalism
to a voluntary exchange transaction have their
and capitalism ruthlessly attacked traditional
own interest in the outcome, but neither can
institutions and beliefs. Conservatism
obtain what he or she wants without addressing
emphasizes:
what the other wants. It is this rational self-
 Stability - Stability is a precious thing, interest that can lead to economic prosperity.
and change must be made gradually in order
In a capitalist economy, capital assets—such
to preserve it. Undermining stability is very
as factories, mines, and railroads—can be
dangerous because societies can easily fall
privately owned and controlled, labor is
into chaos and violence.
purchased for money wages, capital gains
 Concreteness - Liberalism is too
accrue to private owners, and prices allocate
abstract. It focuses on freedom and equality,
capital and labor between competing uses.
not on the concrete way people live every
day, which is the focus of conservatism. Although some form of capitalism is the basis
 Human fallibility - Liberalism for nearly all economies today, for much of
overestimates human beings. Humans are the last century it was but one of two major
frequently ignorant, prejudiced, and irrational. approaches to economic organization. In the
By ignoring these defects, liberalism becomes other, socialism, the state owns the means of
unrealistic. production, and state-owned enterprises seek
 Unique circumstances - There is no to maximize social good rather than profits.
universal answer to the problems of society;
the circumstances are unique in each country.
PILLARS OF CAPITALISM
Capitalism is founded on the following pillars:
 private property, which allows people to
own tangible assets such as land and
houses and intangible assets such as
stocks and bonds;
 self-interest, through which people act in
pursuit of their own good, without regard
for sociopolitical pressure. Nonetheless,
these uncoordinated individuals end up
benefiting society as if, in the words of
Smith’s (1776) Wealth of Nations, they were
guided by an invisible hand;
 competition, through firms’ freedom to
enter and exit markets, maximizes social
welfare, that is, the joint welfare of both
producers and consumers;
 a market mechanism that determines
prices in a decentralized manner through
interactions between buyers and sellers—
prices, in return, allocate resources, which
naturally seek the highest reward, not only
for goods and services but for wages as
well;
 freedom to choose with respect to
consumption, production, and
investment—dissatisfied customers can
buy different products, investors can
pursue more lucrative ventures, workers
can leave their jobs for better pay; and
 limited role of government, to protect
the rights of private citizens and maintain
an orderly environment that facilitates
proper functioning of markets.
THE IDEOLOGY OF STATE CAPITALISM
All ruling classes defend their power and
privileges with an ideology. Similarly, all
aspiring ruling classes justify their pursuit of
power with an ideology. The ideology of state
capitalism initially was fashioned during the
nineteenth century as groups in various
European countries advanced plans for
reorganizing society along state capitalist
lines and for raising their own social status in
the process.
Since the nineteenth century, some of these
groups (for instance, the Russian Bolsheviks)
have fulfilled both these ambitions, with the result
that state capitalist ideology has been
transformed by them from sets of ideas which
challenge existing social arrangements into
doctrines which celebrate the status quo and
attempt to maintain it. Although some varieties
of state capitalist ideology have thus been
transformed into conservative creeds and
even quasi-religious dogmas, we shall argue
that there is an essential continuity between the
nineteenth-century and early twentieth-
century ideological formulations of political
radicals such as Kautsky and Lenin and the
subsequent records of state capitalist groups in
government in different parts of the world.
SOCIAL DEMOCRACY
Social Democracy is a political movement
which emerged in the latter half of the
nineteenth century and grew to mass
proportions in a number of European
countries. Despite the Social Democrats'
habitual use of the vocabulary of socialism, the
primary aim of their movement was to
reorganize capitalism in such a way that state
corporations would replace private
capitalists. In many countries, parliamentary
democracy did not exist when Social
Democratic parties were formed. Accordingly,
a second objective of Social Democracy was to
democratize the political systems found in
such countries. Thirdly, Social Democracy
sought to improve the position of the working
class, both by raising wage levels and by
means of various welfare schemes to be
administered by the state. Fourthly, although it
was never frankly acknowledged, another key
aim of Social Democracy was to raise the Social
Democratic politicians and the trade union
leaders to the ruling position within society. In
effect, these new rulers were expected to
administer the system of wages and capital
accumulation in such a way that it would
supposedly operate in the interest of the
working class.
SOCIALISM
Socialism is an economic system in which the
factors of production are valued in relationship to
their usefulness to people. Socialists take into
account both individual needs and greater social
needs. They allocate resources using central
planning, as in a command economy.
Examples of greater social needs include SOCIALISM
transportation, defense, education, health care,
and preservation of natural resources.1 Some  Collectivism - Human beings are social by
also define the common good as caring for those who
can't directly contribute to production. Examples
include the elderly, children, and their caretakers.
A mantra of socialism is, "From each according to
his ability, to each according to his contribution.”
Everyone in society receives a share of the
production based on how much each has
contributed. This system motivates them to work
long hours if they want to receive more. Workers
receive their share of production after a
percentage has been deducted for the common
good.
PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
nature, and society should respect this.
Individualism is poisonous
 Public ownership - Society, not individuals,
should own the property
 Central economic planning - The
government plans the economy; there is no
free market
 Economic equality - All citizens have
roughly the same level of prosperity.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIALISM, CAPITALISM, COMMUNISM, AND FASCISM

Attribute Socialism Capitalism Communism Fascism
Factors of Production Individuals
Everyone Individuals Everyone
are owned by:
Factors of Production
Usefulness to people Profit Usefulness to people Nation building
are valued for:
Allocation decided by: Central plan Demand and Supply Central plan Central plan
From each according
Ability Market decides Ability Value to the nation
to their:
To each according to
Contribution Wealth Need Value to the nation
their:

CLASS WARFARE/STRUGGLE COMMUNISM

According to socialists, liberalism fails to live The regimes of the Soviet Union and
up to its promises of freedom and equality. communist China embody this ideology.
Socialists blame the free market for liberalism’s Communists such as Vladimir Lenin, who
failings. Under a capitalist system, money and became the first premier of the Soviet Union in
means of production are the measures of 1917, argued that people can and must make the
power. The haves (the bourgeoisie, in Marx’s transition to socialism quickly rather than
terms) and the have-nots (whom Marx calls waiting for it to evolve. Authoritarian and
the proletariat) are locked into a fight that Marx violent measures are often required because
called class warfare. the defenders of capitalism will fight
ferociously to stop socialism from coming
THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIALISM into being.
Socialism evolved in a variety of ways. Communist systems possessed five common
Communism and democratic socialism are the features which, taken together, distinguished
two most prominent evolutions of socialism. them from other authoritarian regimes and,
still more fundamentally, from socialism of a
social democratic type:

COMMUNISM
Communism is an authoritarian and
revolutionary approach to achieving
socialism. As an ideology, communism
emphasizes a classless society in which all
members jointly share the means and output
of production.
WEEK 4: THE GOVERNMENT The ancient Filipinos who lived in
LESSON V: HISTORICAL barangays were ruled by a chieftain called datu,
BACKGROUND OF THE PHILIPPINE who were addressed either as Raja or Lakan.
GOVERNMENT The datu exercised all powers of government.
A. THE BARANGAY AND THE SULTANATE
In early Philippine history, the barangay was a
complex sociopolitical unit which scholars
have historically considered the dominant
organizational pattern among the various
peoples of the Philippine archipelago. The term,
barangay, refers to both a house on land and a
boat on water; containing families, friends
and dependents and is currently the basic
political unit of the Philippines.
These sociopolitical units were sometimes also
referred to as barangay states, but are more
properly referred to using the technical term
"polity", rather than "state", so they are
usually simply called "barangays", but evidence
suggests a considerable degree of independence
as a type of "city states" ruled by datus,
rajahs and lakans and sultans. Some
barangays were well-organized independent
villages, consisting of thirty to a hundred
households. Other barangays - most notably
those in Maynila, Tondo, Panay, Pangasinan,
Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu-
were integrated into large cosmopolitan polities.
 the monopoly of power (‘leading role’)
of the Communist Party;
 intra-party relations which were highly
centralized and strictly disciplined
(‘democratic centralism’);
 state, rather than private, ownership of
the means of production;
 the building of communism as the
ultimate, legitimizing goal; and
 a sense of belonging to an international
Communist movement.
He was the chief executive, the lawmaker, and
the judge, so much so that he became very
powerful and influential. He obtained his
position either by inheritance, strength,
bravery or wisdom. The Datu promulgated
laws with the help of the elders or advisers
consisting of former datus. Once a law was
made, a towncrier called Umalohokan,
would go around the village and announce to the
people the new law. Violators were punished by
fines, swimming for long hours, exposure to
ants, death or slavery.
Anthropologist F. Landa Jocano defines
this period of the barangay states' dominance -
approximately the 14th to the 16th centuries -
as the "Baranganic Phase" of early
Philippine history. The Baranganic Phase of
Philippine history can be noted for its highly
mobile nature, with barangays transforming
from being settlements and turning into
towns and cities, with the mode constantly re-
purposed according to the situation.
Historical barangays should not be
confused with present-day Philippine
barrios, which were officially renamed
barangays by the Philippine Local Government
Code of 1991 as a reference to historical
barangays.
 LEGISLATION
GOVERNMENT
 unit of government was the barangay,  before laws are made, the chief consults

which consisted of from 30 to 100 with a council of elders who approved of

families. The term came from the Malay his plan
word balangay, meaning boat  they are not immediately enforced until the
 barangays were headed by chieftains new legislation is announced to the
called datu village by the umalohokan, who also
 the subjects served their chieftain during explains the law to everyone
wars, voyages, planting and harvest,
and when his house needs to be built or JUDICIAL PROCESS
repaired; they also pai  disputes between individuals were settled
by a court made up of the village chief
 the chief or datu was the chief executive, and the council of elders; between
the legislator, and the judge; he was also barangays, a board made up of elders
the supreme commander in times of war from neutral barangays acted as arbiter
 alliances among barangays were common  the accused and the accuser faced each
and these were formalized in a ritual
other in front of the “court” with their
called sanduguan
respective witnesses
 conflicts between or among barangays  both took an oath to tell the truth; most of
were settled by violence; those who win the time, the one who presents the most
by force is always right witnesses wins the case
LAWS  if the losing party contests the decision, he
 were either customary (handed down from is bound to lose in the end because the
generation to generation orally) or chief always take the side of the winner
written (promulgated from time to time
as necessity arose)
THE SPANISH COLONIAL
dealt with various subjects such as
ADMINISTRATION 1565 - 1821

inheritance, property rights, divorce,
usury, family relations, divorce, The Philippines was a crown colony ruled by
adoption, loans, etc. Spain through Mexico from 1565 to 1821, as
 those found guilty of crimes were such, Spain ruled the Philippines with the help
punished either by fine or by death; of the Council of the Indies, created in 1524,
some punishments can be considered as which was an overseas ministry governing the
torture by modern standards colonies of Spain. The head of the council was
the Viceroy of Mexico.
 however, it must be noted that ancients did
not believe in endangering society by
letting loose a gang of thieves of
recidivists who are incapable of reform
THE SPANISH LAWS THREE CLASSES OF ENCOMIENDA

 Laws in the Philippines were from Spain and 1. Royal Encomienda

consisted of royal decrees of the king.
The numerous laws governing the colonies
were compiled and published in the
convenient colonial code entitled
“Recopilacion de las Leyes de
Indies”, popularly known as the Laws of
Indies.
SPANISH INSTITUTIONS
 Polo- The forced labor rendered by
Filipinos to the government annually.
- those that were set aside for the King of
Spain
2. Ecclesiastical Encomienda
- those which were assigned to the religious
order
3. Private Encomienda
- those who were given to the Spaniards who
helped in the conquest and colonization of
the Philippines

 Falla - exemption fee for rendering forced  Divide and Rule

labor. - Using people to fight their own
 Tribute – the tax called tributo, as a people, one fighting for his new master,
symbol of vassalage to Spain. while the other preserving his own
independence.
 Bandala – system that caused a lot of  Frailocracy
hardships to the Filipinos where products
were sold compulsory to the - The rule of the friars
government.
- This made the clergy, by way of the Royal
 Encomienda System Patronage, obtained certain political powers
and privileges
– a grant designed to reward those
persons who have rendered valuable  Isolation Policy
services to the king of Spain. Those who - Prohibiting people from trading with other
were given encomienda were called Asian countries.
“encomenderos”.
-This policy is to ward off the expressed
In exchangeto these privileges, the interests of other colonial powers over the
encomendero was obliged by law to island.
promote the welfare of his constituents. He
must THE GOVERNOR GENERAL
1. protect them from enemies (bandits and  He was the King’s official representative in
pirates), the Philippines.

2. assist the missionaries in propagating  He was vested with executive, legislative

Christianity, and judicial powers

3. maintain peace and order,  He also exercised religious and

extraordinary powers called cumplase.
4. promote education, and to render
humane treatment among his subjects.
 Executive Power THE THREE MOST REMEMBERED SPANISH
GOVERNOR-GENERALS IN PHILIPPINE
- He enforced Spanish laws and royal HISTORY
decrees in the Philippines. He appointed all
subordinate officials including “alcaldes MIGUEL LOPEZ DE LEGAZPI (1565-1572)
mayores” (provincial governors). - He was the first governor general of
 Legislative Power the Philippines. The governor general who
desired that the Spaniards & Filipinos will live
- He enacted and issued laws, regulations and together as one community. He is
decrees called superior decrees. remembered for his diplomacy with natives.
 Judicial Power JOSE BASCO Y VARGAS (1778-1787)
- He was the president or presiding - He established Economic Society of
officer of the “Royal Audiencia” which was the the Friends of the Country and the tobacco
supreme court of the Philippines during the monopoly.
Spanish Era.
- He laid the foundation of agricultural
 Ecclesiastical Power progress of the Philippines.
- He had the power to recommend - He promoted the country’s economy.
priests for appointment and intervene in
CARLOS MA. DE LA TORRE (1869-1871)
controversies between religious
authorities. - He abolished press censorship.

 Military Power - He is the most liberal-minded

governor.
- The Governor General is also the
commander in chief of the armed forces. - He introduced reforms.

 Veto Power
- He can overrule the royal decrees; CHECKS TO GUBERNATORIAL POWERS
called “cumplace”.  The Royal Audiencia
- The Supreme Court during the
colonial period.
From 1565-1898, a total of 122 governors
general served in the Philippines. Accordingly,  Residencia
there were more undesirable governors - The office of the incoming governor
who only exploited the Filipinos than serve them. general investigating the acts of the
There were, however, a few good men who outgoing governor general and other
truly served well and are worthy to be officials.
remembered by Filipinos.
 Visitador
- An investigative body sent by the king
to investigate colonial conditions.
 Direct complaints
- Reports to the King by friars and other
officials.
THE ROYAL AUDENCIA RELIGIOUS ORDERS
 Categorized as the Supreme Court.  Augustinians
 It was established in the Philippines by virtue  Franciscans
of the Royal Decree of May 5, 1583.
 Dominicans
 Its first president was Governor General
 Jesuits
Santiago de Vera.
 Recollects
 It functions as an appeals court, hearing
and deciding civil and criminal cases.
 The Royal Audencia also performed non- CAUSES OF FILIPINO RESISTANCE
judicial functions such as doing AGAINST SPAIN
consultation with the governor known as
“real arcados”.  The imposition of the polo
The tribute and other Spanish policies
THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT


 The delegation of strong political powers

Spain instituted the centralized form of to the friars
government. The previously independent
barangays became part of the unitary  All the injustices, abuses and
government. maladministration committed by
government officials
Philippines was divided into
provinces consisting of two types:
 Pacified – called alcaldia mayor headed by SOME FILIPINO HEROES
the alcalde mayor  Magalat led the Cagayan Revolt (1596)
 Unpacified – called corregimentos, each  Francisco Sumoroy led the Samar
under a corregidor Revolt (1649)
The city government was called
 Tamblot & Bankaw led the religious
ayuntamiento. revolt in Bohol and Leyte
 Dagohoy led the 85 years of Boholano
ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION Revolt (1744-1829)
The Diocese of Manila, the most  Diego & Gabriela Silang led the Ilocos
powerful diocese in Asia was canonically Revolt
erected on February 6, 1579 by Pope Gregory
XII encompassing all of the Spanish colonies in
 Hermano Pule led the Tagalog religious
Asia. The Diocese of Manila covered the whole revolt (1840)
Philippine archipelago making the bishop of  Muslim resistance which lasted
Manila at the top of ecclesiastical hierarchy in throughout the entire period of
the colony. The bishop was appointed by the colonization
pope upon the recommendation of the King of
Spain. The first bishop of Manila was Fr.
Domingo de Salazar.
WEEK 4 U.S OCCUPATION TO On June 3, 1900, the right to exercise
legislative functions in the Philippines was
COMMONWEALTH transferred to the second Philippines
THE U.S CIVIL GOVERNMENT Commission called as the Taft
Commission, as it was presided by William
- War days are over that it was already time Howard Taft (his previous position before
to change government, from military shifting to becoming U.S Civil Governor).
a civilian rule. On July 4 ,1901, right after
Aguinaldo’s capture, the U.S Civil During the Taft Commission,499
Government was inaugurated with William laws for the Philippines were proposed to the
Howard Taft as Civil Governor. However, the U.S Congress and have become applicable
military rule , due to the continuing immediately. Gen. Arthur MacArthur, in the
resistance, still prevailed over Southern last days of his military administration, offered
Luzon until 1902, Northern Mindanao until amnesty on June 21,1900.
1905 (after the execution of MacarioSakay),
and Southern Mindanao until 1914 (due to The opportunity was grabbed by
Muslim resistance). notable person like T. Pardo de Tavera,
Felipe Buencamino and Pedro Paterno,
THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION who later created the pro-American Federal
- The history of the Philippine Commission party. Those who were captured or surrendered
started on Jan. 31 ,1900 and is mentioned earlier but remained unyielding were exiled to Guam
in the previous chapter. Its creation was and other destinations. Mabini and
intended to function as the body that would Artemio Ricarte were some of them
study the Philippine situation and
recommended to the U.S Congress necessary The man responsible for the ending
measures to make the U.S administration in of the Military Administration in the Philippines
the Philippines more effective. was Sen. John Spooner who passed to the
“Army Appropriations Act” the provision
that would create a Civil Government in the
With the first one w/c is the Schurman Philippines. This amendment is now called as
Commission, the following were recommended the “Spooner Amendment”.
to the American Government:
THE TAFT ADMINISTRATION
a. The establishment of a territorial form of
government w/c will create a bicameral Taft was the first Civil Governor of the
legislature that are elected and appointed, Philippines. His administration lasted from 1901-
provided that insurgency soon comes to an 1904. During his term, the ff. were some of his
end. accomplishments:

b. That once there is already the cessation of a. The passage of a relief fund for the
hostilities, military rule would be withdrawn, Philippines w/c amounted to $3 million as
and a civil government must be established. approved by Congress.

c. Conservation of natural resources b. The American purchase of “Church

Lands” from the Vatican. Pope Leo XIII
d. organization of autonomous local agreed to sell to the U.S government the
governments. 423,000 acres of land that various religious
e. Provision of free primary schools. orders (e.g. Dominicans) possessed during the
Spanish period. These were some of the lands
f. Appointment of capable Filipinos to fought for by landless Filipino farmers during
government offices. the revolution.
 provided that a Philippine
It
The lands that were denied by the Assembly would be created under conditions
friars from the Filipinos were distributed by that:
the Americans to the landless farmers for low a) complete peace is achieved;
costs and interest rates made payable for 25
years. b) census is made;
c. The assurance from the U.S that the c) a lapse of two years after the publication
Philippines will be for Filipinos. of a census. It provided also for two resident
commissioners and the extension of the Bill of
d. The passing of the Cooper act, or whatRights
is of the U.S. Constitution (except for the right
called as the Philippine Bill of 1902, w/c of trial by jury) for the Filipino people.
provided for:
1. The extension of the Bill of Rights (of
the U.S. Constitution) to the Philippines THE GOVERNOR GENERAL
and the Filipino except, only, for the trial by In 1904, Luke E. Wright was made Civil
jury court procedure; Governor replacing Taft. In the same year, new
2. The appointment of two Filipino nationalist political parties emerged like that of
Resident Commissioners who shall Pedro Paterno’s Independence Party
function as Philippine representatives to the and Pascual Poblete’s National Party. In
U.S. Congress; 1905, Wright assumed the position of the
Governor General as resistance to American
3. The creation of a Philippine Assembly rule was finally over. Wright governed from
w/c shall be composed of Filipinos elected by the Feb. 1, 1904 to April 1, 1906. He was
people. This shall serve as the lower house of succeeded by Henry C. Ide on April 2.
the bicameral legislature;
The significant contribution of Ide was the
4. The retention of the Philippine lifting of the ban on independence parties that
Commission (duly appointed by the Governor) was instituted by Wright during his term. He
w/c would serve as the Upper House was replaced by James F. Smith on Sept. 20,
Legislature. 1906. The most significant events that took place
during his term were the election of the members
5. Conservation of natural resources. of the Philippine Assembly and the
After the inauguration of the Civil inauguration of this legislative body.
Government on July 4, 1901, w/ William THE PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY
Howard Taft as Civil Governor, the office of
the Vice-Governor was likewise created on As the executive power was vested in
August 29, 1901. On Sept. 1 of that year, the Governor General, who also was the
Cayetano Arellano was made Chief Justice chairman of the Philippine Commission, the
of the Supreme Court. legislative power was partly vested in the
Philippine Assembly being the lower house of
THE PHILIPPINE BILL of 1902 the bicameral legislature, of w/c, the Philippine
Commission served as the Upper House.
The first stage in the development of
the Civil Government was done through the The assembly was composed of
passage of the Philippine Organic Act of Filipinos elected by the people. From it would
1902 w/c was officially called as the Philippine come the two Resident Commissioners who
Bill of 1902, passed on July 1, 1902. would represent the Philippines in the U.S.
Congress.
 These representatives were given The ff. were the accomplishments of the
the same privileges as members of the U.S. Harrison Administration:
House of Representatives, except for the voting
privilege. The first two commissioners were Pablo A. Pres, Wilson assigned five Filipinos
Ocampo and Benito Legarda. out of the nine members of the Philippines
Commission, giving The Filipinos the majority
The first law that passed the of Upper House.
Philippine Assembly was called as the
Gabaldon Law. The law created a budget for B. Harrison replaced American
primary education in the barrios. employees w/ the Filipinos in government
service making 89% of all government offices
The first leaders of the Philippine occupied by Filipinos by 1913. This made
Assembly were Sergio Osmena, who served Wilson and Harrison very popular among
as House Speaker, and Manuel Luis Quezon as Filipinos but hated by many Americans since
Majority Floor Leader. many lost their jobs due to the “Pro-Filipino”
policies.
Because of the outstanding
performance of Quezon, who was pushing for an C. The Jones Bill of 1912:The bill that
independence measure, he was sent as provided for a complete independence in eight
Resident Commissioner in 1909 replacing years, but not able to pass the House of the
Ocampo, and partnering Legarda. In the U.S., Representatives. This was the first set back of
Quezon made impressive remarks regarding Rep. William Atkinson Jones, a
the necessity for a Philippine independence democrat. It was submitted again in 1914, at the
law. Both Filipinos and Americans were opening of the next Congress, only to be
impressed w/ Quezon. Late in 1909, a new
amended by Sen. Clarke of Arkansas who
Governor was named, William Cameron wanted it in two to four years. It was a better
Forbes, replacing Smith on Nov. 11. proposal and it won in the Senate w/ vice Pres.
Marshall breaking the 41 – 41 in this favor.
THE JONES LAW OF 1916
THE PRO-FILIPINO DEMOCRATS
When the bill reached the House of
From the beginning of the American civil Representatives in 1912,and then in 1914, it
rule up to the time of Governor William was debated heavily that it lasted up to 1916
Forbes the Americans have continued to deny when finally Pres. Wilson signed it on August
the reality that the Philippines already needed a 29,1916, without the Clarke amendment.
road for independence. The Republicans, The Jones law was an American law w/c was
members of a U.S. political party, never favored
officially called as the Philippine autonomy
this idea. Presidents William McKinley
Law. It contained the ff.
1897-1901, Theodore Roosevelt, 1901-
1909, and William H. Taft, 1909-12 were all A. A separate Bill of Rights intended for the
republicans. It was only on Nov. 1912 that events Philippines
turned out differently and the Democrats finally B. Definition of Filipino Citizenship
took office when Woodrow Wilson defeated
Taft. A new Governor in the Philippines was C. Continuation of representation through
the named, Francis Burton Harrison, a the resident commissioners and
Democrat, in Oct. 1913. D. Provision for a budgetary system and
powers granted to the new Government
E. The creation of a bicameral (Congress)
legislature, abolishing Philippine Commission
and Assembly.
THE PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE CONTINUED MISSION FOR
MISSIONS INDEPENDENCE
The first independence mission was To counter the claims of the Wood-Forbes
composed of 40 members w/ Manuel L. Mission, the Phil. Congress sent in 1922 a
Quezon as it’s leader. It left Manila on Feb. 23, Second Independence Mission to the U.S. It was
1919. They were welcomed by War Sec. Newton jointly headed by Senate Pres. Manuel L.
D. Baker who was a Philippine independence Quezon and House Speaker Sergio
sympathizer. However, the mission failed w/o Osmena. They insisted that the Philippines was
even meeting Wilson who was in Paris that already worthy of independence but, to no avail,
time. Later that year, in the Philippines, the Pres. Harding declined. The third
Congress passed a “Declaration of independence mission in 1923 likewise
Purposes” w/c reiterated Philippine failed.
aspiration for independence.
1923 CABINET CRISIS
This was reinforced by a report that Gov.
Harrison made for the U.S Pres. w/c confirmed In 1923, a federal agent Ray Conley, who
that stable Gov’t. already exists in the Phil. was sent for a special mission had allegedly
violated some gov’t. protocols in the conduct
The end of the two terms of Pres. of his work. On this reason, Interior Sec. Jose P.
Wilson gave way to the elections of another Laurel terminated his services. Gov. Wood did
republican Pres., Warren G. Harding. This also not favor Laurel’s decision and, instead,
ended the term of Gov. Harrison who, in Dec. reinstated the agent. As a reaction, Laurel filed
2, 1920, expressed in his farewell address that his resignation from the Cabinet. For a strong
the time for Philippine independence had come, sign of protest, a mass resignation by the rest of
and that due to the stable Gov’t. that already the Cabinet followed.
exists. Pres. Harding believed otherwise.
From 1924-1930, the Philippines sent
their yearly fourth to the eighth independence
missions. All of them were unable to secure a
THE WOOD-FORBES MISSION law, from the U.S Congress, that would
provide for the independence of the
When Pres. Warren Harding assumed
Philippines. They were already many bills
the presidency he formed a special American
presented but none was chosen.
mission to the Philippines w/c was tasked to
report on the state of affairs of the latter. This THE OS-ROX MISSION
mission was headed by former Gov. Forbes,
and the incoming Gov. Leonard Wood. This was The Os-Rox Mission, w/c was also called the
the Wood-Forbes Mission. After spending four Ninth Independence Mission of 1931, was
months in the Philippines, they were back in the headed by Senate Pres. Pro-Tempore Sergio
U.S on Dec. 8, 1921. The report that they Osmena and House Speaker Manuel Roxas.
submitted to the President concluded that the By this time many American senators and
Filipinos were not yet prepared to assume the congressmen have already creating a law for
responsibilities of independence. Philippine Independence. One of them was
Sen. Harry Hawes who, together w/ Rep. Hare
and Sen. Cutting, created the Hare-Hawes-
Cutting Act. This was favored by the mission.
By 1932, the US Congress had already made
approval signs for the HHC Act. However,
someone was not supportive, Senate Pres.
Quezon.
THE 10TH INDEPENDENCE MISSION The only difference was the title & an
elimination of some military reservations.
Desperate enough to get the credit for Under this law the US shall:
achieving the law w/c would give Filipino
people their independence, Senate Pres. a. Provide a 10 year transition period,
Quezon sent another (10th) independence during w/c time shall be established the
mission. He commissioned Benigno Aquino to Commonwealth of the Philippines;
find him another law from other American b. Draft a constitution that is republican
legislators. To Quezon’s disappointment, by nature w/c includes a Bill of Rights;
Aquino defected to the Os-Rox mission.
c. Retain the Philippines as an
By Jan. of 1933, the Hare-Hawes- American territory during the transition period.
Cutting Act had already passed as a law in
d. Make all the Filipinos owe allegiance
the Congress. However, it was vetoed by Pres.
to the US;
Herbert Hoover on Jan. 13. Persistent, the
Congress passed it again that Jan. Later, it was e. Ensure equal protection of civil &
then signed into law by Hoover. The last political rights & economic privileges among
signature would have to come from the Phil. Filipinos & Americans alike;
Senate Pres. As expected, Quezon made his
f. Have the power, to the US Pres., to
maneuver.
suspend any contract or executive order
Later, Quezon, Himself, left for the 11th made by the Commonwealth once it becomes
Independence Mission. In Paris, he met Roxas contrary to the interest of the US;
and Osmena in oreder to settle an agreement.
g. Have the power, to the approval of US
No result was reached. On Oct. 17, 1933,
Pres., over Commonwealth Laws pertaining to
Quezon officially rejected the Hare-Hawes- currency, coinage, foreign trade ; immigration;
Cutting Law.
h. Create the US High Commission
representing the US Pres. Authorize Philippine
representation to the US through a resident
THE TYDINGS-Mc DUFFIE LAW commissioner;
After the rejection of the Hare-Hawes i. Supervise & control Philippine
Cutting Law under Resolution No. 46, foreign affairs;
Quezon led another mission to the U.S in the
attempt of securing another independence law. j. Empower the US Supreme Court to
On March 24, 1934, a new independence review important cases passed to the
Commonwealth Supreme Court, w/c includes
measure called the Tydings-Mc Duffie Law
cases pertaining to the constitution;
was passed in the congress and signed into law
by US Pres. Franklin Roosevelt. The authors of k. Restrict Filipino immigration in the
this law were Senator Millard E. Tydings and US while not having any limit on the number of
Congressman John McDuffie. The law was Americans who would migrate to the Philippines.
only a revised copy from the original Hare-
Hawes-Cutting Law. The Tydings-McDuffie Law
was finally accepted by the Philippine
Legislature on May 1, 1934. The final
signatures were made by Speaker Sergio
Osmena & Senate Pres. Manuel L.
Quezon.
LESSON XII: THE NATIONAL DEFENSE MEASURES
COMMONWEALTH OF THE In accordance w/ the Philippine Constitution
PHILIPPINES that made the national defense of the state “the
prime duty of the government”, the
 MANUEL L. QUEZON & SERGIO OSMENA Commonwealth took the 1st steps to national
security:
THE 1935 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION
a. Gen. Douglas Mc Arthur, w/ the
On July 10, 1934 the Philippine Legislature permission from the US War Department, was
elected the representative to the appointed as field marshall of the newly
Constitutional Convention, the delegates’ task created Philippine army;
was to draft the Constitution of the Philippines.
On July 30, it was inaugurated at the b. The Philippine Army drafted able-bodied
Legislative Building in Manila. There were 202 20 yr. old men to be enlisted men & officers
members w/ Claro M. Recto as Pres., of the of the armed forces. Army strength was
Convention. more than 40,000;

On Feb.8, 1935, the Convention formally c. Reserved Officer Training Corps or ROTC
approved a draft w/ 177-1 ratio in favor of courses were introduced in Colleges &
approval. On March 23, it was approved by the Universities;
US Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt & on May d. The National Assembly enacted the 1st
14, it was, through a plebiscite, ratified by the law of the Commonwealth, the National
Filipino people. The Constitution consisted 17 Defense Act.
articles w/c included the Philippine territory,
The Bill of Rights, Citizenship & the three
branches of Gov’t., the executive (vested in GOVERNMENT REORGANIZATION
the Pres., of the Commonwealth as provided
by law); the Legislative (a unicameral National Quezon established the Government Survey
Assembly) & the; Judiciary (vested in the Board to study the existing institution that
Supreme Court). time. Its resulted to the revamping of the
Executive Departments, Offices & Bureaus
THE 1ST COMMONWEALTH w/c were either merged or abolished. The
ELECTIONS Finance Department was Established. By
1914, there were already 9 departments.
The first national election for the
President & the member of the National On economics, the administration put
Assembly was held on Sept. 17, 1935. In the up the National Economic Council for the
Presidential election three parties contested block promotion of industries, crop production,
voting system. This were: the Coalition Party w/ enterprise, tariffs & taxation.
Quezon for Pres. & Osmena for Vice Pres.;
The Nacionalista Social Party w/ Gen. Emilio The National Development
Aguinaldo for Pres.,& Reymundo Melliza for Company was created for the mass
Vice Pres.; The Republican Party w/ Bishop production of staples like rice & corn. The
Gregorio Aglipay for Pres.,& Norberto Nabong Agricultural & Industrial Bank was
for Vice. established to help small farmers w/
The Coalition Party won the elections w/ convenient loans on easy terms. On
Manuel L. Quezon as President & Sergio education, in Feb. 19, 1936, the National
Osmena as Vice President, together w/ an Council of Education was created w/ Rafael
overwhelming majority seat for the members of Palma (former U.P. Pres.) as its
the National Assembly. chairman.
 TRADE & COMMERCE
The Court OF Appeals was likewise Due to the much restrictions that the
created on Feb. 1, 1936 to aid in the speedy
Tyding-McDuffie Law imposed upon the
disposition of cases. Justice Pedro
Commonwealth on Trade & Commerce,
Concepcion became the 1st Presiding Quezon made an official trip to the US to
Justice of this new court.
remedy the problem. In the US., Pres.
Roosevelt created the Joint Preparatory
WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE Commission on Philippine Affair
(JPCPA). This commission dealt on the mutual
When the democratic exercise of voting trade relations between the two countries. As part
began in the Philippines it initially did not of its operation, Commonwealth gov’t sent a
include the women as a part of the voting representative committee w/c would study the
population. The US itself had only recently existing trade relations between the
allowed its women to vote. And this was only Philippines & the US. Francis Sayre, Asst.
during the term of Pres. Wilson. To extend Sec. of State, was named as its 1st chairman.
the stretch of democracy & recognize the
equal right of women in the building of the
nation the government ordered a plebiscite to OTHER EVENTS
be held for the purpose of asking the society
on whether or not the women should be given A monumental event took place in 1936 &
this is the “Arnacal” Flight. For the first time in
the right to vote. On April 30, 1937, the result
history two Filipinos aviators, Antonio
was affirmative, believing that the “Filipinas”
Arnaiz & Juan Calvo, flew all the way from
must also respond to this call of citizenship.
Madrid to Manila establishing a new world
record. The gov’t of the republic of Spain granted
THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE them the highest decorations reserved for
civilians. The 33rd International
Manuel L. Quezon, on Nov. 13, 1936 Eucharistic Congress was held in the
created the institute of National Language. Philippines w/ the celebrated arrival of His
He recommended that the Tagalog language be Holiness Pope Pius XI.
the basis of the National Language as was
The event took place from Feb.2-7, 1937 &
proposed by Jaime C. de Vera, the INL
was the first time that the Pope of Roman
Chairman. On Dec. 30, Quezon made the
Catholic Church visited & was heard in the
proclamation between Filipino, based on
Far East.
Tagalog, as the national language of the
Philippines. Together w/ Filipino, English &
Spanish were also proclaimed as 2nd and 3rd NEW CHARTERED CITIES
languages as proposed by Jaime de Vera, a
Visayan. Before Commonwealth there were only the cities
of Manila & Baguio that exist. By 1941, 9 cities
were added: Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Zamboanga,
Bacolod, Quezon City, Tagaytay, Kawit & San
Pablo.
COMMONWEALTH PLEBISCITE
The plebiscite was in regard to the
restoration of the bicameral legislature, the
Senate & House of Representatives, & the
presidential term w/c was proposed to be 4
years w/ one reelection instead of 6 w/ no
reelection. The yes vote won overwhelmingly.
This was the 1st time Filipino women were
allowed to vote. The plebiscite results gave a
room for Quezon & Osmena to seek for
another election.
THE LAST PRE-WAR ELECTIONS
Adherent to the results of the
plebiscite, general elections were held on
Nov. 11, 1941. At this time, better diplomatic
relations were being reached between Japan &
the USA. The election made Manuel L.
Quezon reelected as President by an
impressive majority over Juan Sumulong
of the popular Front Party, Pedro Abad
Santos of the Socialista & Camilo
Moncado of the Modernist Party. Osmena
also made it to his 2nd term. All 24 senators
came from the Nacionalista w/ Claro M.
Recto leading.

C.The Third Republic FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE THIRD

REPUBLIC
1940 Constitutional Amendment of 1935
Constitution  Manuel A. Roxas (1946-1948)

 Unicameral assembly was abolished EARLY POLITICAL CAREER

and replaced by a bicameral congress  Began his active and prominent role in
 April 23, 1946 Philippine politics as a member of the
legislature
 Congress called for a national election
 Was elected to the senate in 1941
set
 Offered his services to MacArthur as
Prior to this election, worsening relation

military aide
between Osmeña and Roxas reached
breaking point  Acted as liaison officer between the
Army Commander and Philippine
 Liberals won over Nacionalista Party
Government
 Was appointed presidential secretary
INDEPENDENCE AND REPUBLIC by Manuel Quezon
 July 4, 1946
 Independence and inauguration of the EFFORTS TOWARDS REHABILITATION
Third Philippine Republic
 Started on a foundation of a war-damaged
 American Ambassador Paul McNutt- nation
Lowered the American flag  Went to Washington to solicit the help of

 President Manuel Roxas- Raised the US for funds

Philippine flag  Request for immediate loan of $25 million
within 5 years and $1 billion at 1.5%
interest for 30 years
BELL TRADE ACT QUIRINO ADMINISTRATION
 Law authorized by Congressman C.  Elpidio Quirino (1948-1953)
Jasper Bell on April 30, 1946
Provided for free trading relations between
Elpidio Quirino’s Promise

Philippines and the US up to the year 1954
after which, Philippine exports to the US  As vice president, he immediately
would be taxed an ascending tariff of 5% succeeded Roxas as president after the
every year until 1974, when all the latter’s death in 1948
Philippine exports will be paid in full to
US import tax  Promised to accomplish his two
objectives:
 Fixed the exchange rate at Php2 to a $1
- continuation of the country’s economic
 Rebellion problem in Central and recovery
Southern Luzon
- preservation of the faith and confidence of
 Started as a guerilla organization in the people through restoration of peace and
1942 under Luis Taruc and was, above all, order
anti-Japanese
 A peasant organization who believes in
the ideals of protecting the rights of the
BELL MISSION REPORT
poor and the land less  Headed by Daniel W. Bell to survey all
 Finality of conflict came when aspects of the Philippine economy
Magsaysay became president  Cited the existence of inefficient
production, low incomes excessive
volumes of ports, misdirected
investments, mounting deficits,
inefficiency and corruption in the
 Roxas government
Outlawed HUKBALAHAP, referring to them  Recommended reforms in public
as lawless and communists administration, improvement of
production, higher taxes, more foreign
 Quirino exchange and land reforms
Offered them an absolute amnesty after
 Recommended an economic aid of
negotiations with Luis Taruc
$250 million be granted to Philippine
 April 28, 1949 government

Mrs. Aurora Quezon, wife of late President

Quezon and their daughter were ambushed
and shot to death in Nueva Ecija
QUIRINO ACCOMPLISHMENTS  Establishment Southeast Treaty
of
 Successful in disabling the powerful
Organization (SEATO) in Manila on
HUKBALAHAP, thereby restoring peace September 1954
and order  Malacañang opened its gates and was
 Worked on the creation of the President’s declared as a “house of the people”
Action Committee on Social March 17, 1957
Amelioration (PACSA) to improve
- Magsaysay was killed in a plane crash
economic condition of the masses
 Established Agricultural Credit
the
Cooperation Financing GARCIA ADMINISTRATION
Administration (ACCFA) to aid farmers  Carlos P. Garcia (1957-1961)
in availing from government low interest
loans GARCIA’S ACHIEVEMENTS:

 Built the Ma. Cristina and Ambuklao  National Economic Council passed the
Dam Projects Resolution No. 204 upon his
endorsement
 Established the Boy’s Town of the
Promulgated “Filipino First” Policy on
Philippines

August 28, 1958
 Downfall: Most damaging was the scam
on the US War Surplus Property  Austerity program was adopted to
encourage budget savings on the part of
the government

RAMON MAGSAYSAY (1953-1957)

 “Man of the Masses” MACAPAGAL ADMINISTRATION
MAGSAYSAY’S ACCOMPLISHMENTS: - Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965)

 Revitalized the Philippine Armed Forces MACAPAGAL’S ACHIEVEMENTS:

by boosting the morale of the soldiers - Took his post December 30, 1961
His policy of attraction among the
- Promised about a “New Era” of peace

masses through personal touch
and prosperity to Filipino people
restored people’s faith in government
- Lifted economic controls
 First president who conducted visits to
the barrios - Under the Decontrol program,
licenses for imports were lifted and peso was
 Upliftment of barrio life as his focus devaluated
First time for Philippine president in his
-Agricultural Land Reform Law was

inauguration to wear the barong enacted by congress on August 8, 1963
tagalog
- Philippine officially filed its claim to
 Philippines entered into a treaty with US, Sabah on June 22, 1962
France, Britain, Australia, New Zealand
and Pakistan to prevent communist - Responsible for transferring the
expansion in Southeast Asia celebration of Philippine Independence day
from July 4 to June 12
MARCOS ADMINISTRATION
 Ferdinand E. Marcos(1965-1986)
MARCOS’ FIRST TERM (1965-1969)
 Took his office on December 30, 1965
 Began his administration with a mountain
of serious problems inherited from the
past administration
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
MARCOS’ ACCOMPLISHMENTS
 Stabilization of government finances
 Greater rice production
 Building of more roads and bridges,
schoolhouses, and other public works
 Philippine National Railways improved
 Intensive operations against smuggling,
crime syndicates and the NPA
 Holding of Manila Summit Conference on
October 24-25, 1966
A. FERDINAND E. MARCOS
ADMINISTRATION (1965-1986)
 From 1946 to 1947 Marcos was a technical
assistant to Manuel Roxas, the first
president of the independent Philippine
republic. He was a member of the House
of Representatives (1949–59) and of the
Senate (1959–65), serving as Senate
president (1963–65).
 In 1965, Marcos, who was a prominent
member of the Liberal Party founded by
Roxas, broke with it after failing to get his
party’s nomination for president. He then
ran as the Nationalist Party candidate
for president against the Liberal
president, Diosdado Macapagal. The
campaign was expensive and bitter.
RE-ELECTION OF MARCOS
 Marcos was the only president of the
republic to be re-elected for a second
term
 Was the first Philippine president to take
his oath of office in the native language
 Rising oil prices
 Prices of prime commodities spiraled
skyward
 Overspending in 1969 elections that led to
higher inflation and floating peso
 Frequent visits of natural calamities
 Marcos won and was inaugurated as
president on December 30, 1965. In
1969 he was reelected, becoming the first
Philippine president to serve a second
term.
 During his first term he had made progress
in agriculture, industry, and education.
 Yet his administration was troubled by
increasing student demonstrations and
violent urban guerrilla activities.
 On September 21, 1972, Marcos imposed
martial law in the Philippines.
 Holding that communist and subversive
forces had precipitated the crisis, he acted
swiftly; opposition politicians were jailed,
and the armed forces became an arm of
the regime.
  Opposed by political
leaders—notably
Benigno Aquino, Jr., who was jailed
and held in detention for almost eight
years—Marcos was also criticized by
church leaders and others.
 In the provinces Maoist communists
(New People’s Army) and Muslim
separatists (notably of the Moro
National Liberation Front) undertook
guerrilla activities intended to bring down the
central government.
 Under martial law the president assumed
extraordinary powers, including the ability
to suspend the writ of habeas corpus.
 Marcos announced the end of martial law in
January 1981, but he continued to rule in
an authoritarian fashion under various
constitutional formats. He won election to
the newly created post of president
against token opposition in June 1981.
 Marcos’s later years in power were marred by
rampant government corruption,
economic stagnation, the steady widening
of economic inequalities between the rich
and the poor, and the steady growth of a
communist guerrilla insurgency active in
the rural areas of the Philippines’
innumerable islands.
 By 1983 Marcos’s health was beginning to fail,
and opposition to his rule was growing.
FERDINAND E. MARCOS
ADMINISTRATION (1965-1986)
 Hoping to present an alternative to both Marcos
and the increasingly powerful New
People’s Army, Benigno Aquino, Jr.,
returned to Manila on August 21, 1983, only
to be shot dead as he stepped off the
airplane. The assassination was seen as
the work of the government and touched
off massive anti-government protests.
 An independent commission appointed
by Marcos concluded in 1984 that high
military officers were responsible for
Aquino’s assassination.
 To reassert his mandate, Marcos called
for presidential elections to be held in
1986.
 But a formidable political opponent soon
emerged in Aquino’s widow, Corazon
Aquino, who became the presidential
candidate of the opposition.
 It was widely asserted that Marcos
managed to defeat Aquino and retain
the presidency in the election of
February 7, 1986, only through massive
voting fraud on the part of his supporters.
 Deeply discredited at home and abroad by
his dubious electoral victory, Marcos
held fast to his presidency as the
Philippine military split between
supporters of his and of Aquino’s
legitimate right to the presidency.
 A tense standoff that ensued between the
two sides ended only when Marcos fled
the country on February 25, 1986, at
U.S. urging. He went into exile in Hawaii,
where he remained until his death.
 EDSA PEOPLE POWER REVOLUTION
 Evidence emerged that during his years in
power Marcos, his family, and his close
associates had looted the Philippines’
economy of billions of dollars through
embezzlements and other corrupt
practices.
 Marcos and his wife, Imelda
Romualdez-Marcos, were
subsequently indicted by the U.S.
government on racketeering charges, but
in 1990 (after Marcos’s death) Imelda
was acquitted of all charges by a
federal court. She was allowed to return
to the Philippines in 1991, and in 1993
a Philippine court found her guilty of
corruption (the conviction was
overturned in 1998).
 IMELDA MARCOS & HER CHILDREN
B. CORAZON COJUANGCO-
AQUINO ADMINISTRATION (1986-
1992)
 Corazon Aquino, in full Maria Corazon
Aquino, née Maria Corazon Cojuangco,
(born January 25, 1933, Tarlac province,
Philippines—died August 1, 2009, Makati),
Philippine political leader who served as
the first female president (1986–92) of the
Philippines, restoring democratic
rule in that country after the long
dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos.
 Corazon Cojuangco was born into a wealthy,
politically prominent family based in
Tarlac province, north of Manila. She
graduated from Mount St. Vincent
College in New York City in 1954 but
abandoned further studies in 1955 to marry
Benigno Simeon Aquino, Jr., who
was then a promising young politician.
Corazon remained in the background
during her husband’s subsequent career,
rearing their five children at home.
 Her husband, who had become a
prominent opposition politician,
was jailed by Marcos for eight years
(1972–80), and Corazon accompanied him
into exile in the United States in 1980.
Benigno was assassinated upon his
return to the Philippines in August 1983.
This event galvanized opposition to the
Marcos government.
 When Ferdinand E. Marcos unexpectedly
called for presidential elections in
February 1986, Corazon Aquino
became the unified opposition’s
presidential candidate. Though she was
officially reported to have lost the
election to Marcos, Aquino and her
supporters challenged the results, charging
widespread voting fraud.
 High officials in the Philippine military
soon publicly renounced Marcos’s
continued rule and proclaimed Aquino the
Philippines’ rightful president. On February
25, 1986, both Aquino and Marcos were
inaugurated as president by their
respective supporters, but that same day
Marcos fled the country.
 In March 1986 Aquino proclaimed a
provisional constitution and soon
thereafter appointed a commission to
write a new constitution. The resulting
document, which restored the bicameral
Congress abolished by Marcos in 1973,
was ratified by a landslide popular vote in
February 1987. Aquino held elections to
the new Congress and broke up the
monopolies held by Marcos’s allies over
the economy, which experienced steady
growth for several years.
 But she failed to undertake fundamental
economic or social reforms, and her
popularity steadily declined as she faced
continual outcries over economic
injustice and political corruption.
 These problems were exacerbated by
persistent warfare between the
communist insurgency and a military
whose loyalties to Aquino were
uncertain. In general, her economic
policies were criticized for being mixed
or faltering in the face of mass poverty.
LESSON V: HISTORICAL CONSTITUTION OF BIAK-NA-BATO
BACKGROUND OF THE PHILIPPINE (1897)
GOVERNMENT  The Katipunan revolution led to the Tejeros
D. COMPARISON OF PHILIPPINE
CONSTITUTIONS
What is a Constitution?
 A Constitution is a body of fundamental
rules and maxims by which the powers of
government are defined by the sovereign
and in accordance with which those
powers are habitually exercised.
 It is the supreme, fundamental law of the
land.
 The fundamental law establishes the
character of a government: by defining
the basic principles to which a society
must conform; by describing the
organization of the government and
regulation, distribution, and limitations
on the functions of different government
departments; and by prescribing the
extent and manner of the exercise of its
sovereign powers.
B. The Evolution and History of the
Philippine Constitution:
MALOLOS CONSTITUTION (1899)
The Constitution of the Philippines (In
Filipino: Saligang Batas ng Pilipinas) is the
supreme law of the Philippines. The
Constitution currently in effect was enacted in
1987, during the administration of President
Corazon C. Aquino, and is popularly known as
the "1987 Constitution".
Philippine constitutional law experts
recognize three other previous constitutions
as having effectively governed the country:
(1) the 1935 Commonwealth Constitution,
(2) the 1973 Constitution, and
(3) the 1986 Freedom Constitution.
Constitutions for the Philippines were
also drafted and adopted during the short-lived
governments of Presidents Emilio
Aguinaldo (1898) and José P. Laurel
(1943).
Convention where, at San Francisco de
Malabón, Cavite, on 22 March 1897, the
first presidential and vice presidential
elections in Philippine history were held—
although only the Katipuneros
(members of the Katipunan) were able to
take part, and not the general populace.
 A later meeting of the revolutionary
government established there, held on 1
November 1897 at Biak-na-Bato in the
town of San Miguel de Mayumo in
Bulacán, established the Republic of
Biak-na-Bato. The republic had a
constitution drafted by Isabelo
Artacho and Félix Ferrer and based
on the first Cuban Constitution. It is
known as the "Constitución
Provisional de la República de
Filipinas", and was originally written in
and promulgated in the Spanish and
Tagalog languages.
 The Malolos Constitution was the first
republican constitution in Asia. It
declared that sovereignty resides
exclusively in the people, stated basic
civil rights, separated the church and
state, and called for the creation of an
Assembly of Representatives to act
as the legislative body. It also called for a
Presidential form of government with
the president elected for a term of four
years by a majority of the Assembly.
 It was titled "Constitución política",
and was written in Spanish following the
declaration of independence from Spain,
proclaimed on January 20, 1899, and
was enacted and ratified by the Malolos
Congress, a Congress held in Malolos,
Bulacan.
COMMONWEALTH AND THIRD SECOND REPUBLIC (1943)
REPUBLIC (1935)
 The 1943 Constitution was drafted by a
 The 1935 Constitution was written in 1934, committee appointed by the Philippine
approved and adopted by the Executive Commission, the body
Commonwealth of the Philippines established by the Japanese to
(1935–1946) and later used by the Third administer the Philippines in lieu of the
Republic of the Philippines (1946– Commonwealth of the Philippines which
1972). It was written with an eye to had established a government-in-
meeting the approval of the United exile. In mid-1942 Japanese Premier
States Government as well, so as to Hideki Tojo had promised the Filipinos
ensure that the U.S. would live up to its "the honor of independence" which
promise to grant the Philippines meant that the commission would be
independence and not have a premise to supplanted by a formal republic.
hold onto its "possession" on the
 The 1943 Constitution remained in force
grounds that it was too politically immature
and hence unready for full, real in Japanese-controlled areas of the
independence. Philippines, but was never recognized as
legitimate or binding by the
 The original 1935 Constitution provided for governments of the United States or of
unicameral National Assembly and the Commonwealth of the Philippines
the President was elected to a six-year and guerrilla organizations loyal to
term without re-election. It was amended them.
in 1940 to have a bicameral Congress
 In late 1944, President Laurel declared a
composed of a Senate and House of
Representatives, as well the creation of an state of war existed with the United
independent electoral commission. The States and the British Empire and
Constitution now granted the President a proclaimed martial law, essentially ruling
four-year term with a maximum of two by decree. His government in turn went
consecutive terms in office. into exile in December, 1944, first to
Taiwan and then Japan.
 A Constitutional Convention was held
 After the announcement of Japan's
in 1971 to rewrite the 1935 Constitution. surrender, Laurel formally proclaimed the
The convention was stained with
manifest bribery and corruption.
Second Republic as dissolved.
Possibly the most controversial issue was
removing the presidential term limit so that
Ferdinand E. Marcos could seek
election for a third term, which many felt
was the true reason for which the
convention was called. In any case, the
1935 Constitution was suspended in
1972 with Marcos' proclamation of
martial law, the rampant corruption of
the constitutional process providing him
with one of his major premises for doing
so.
THE NEW SOCIETY AND THE THE SIXTH AMENDMENT AUTHORIZED
FOURTH REPUBLIC (1973) THE PRESIDENT TO LEGISLATE:
 The 1973 Constitution, promulgated after Whenever in the judgment of the
Marcos' declaration of martial law, was President there exists a grave emergency or a
supposed to introduce a parliamentary- threat or imminence thereof, or whenever the
style government. Legislative power Interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular
was vested in a National Assembly National Assembly fails or is unable to act
whose members were elected for six- adequately on any matter for any reason that in
his judgment requires immediate action, he may,
year terms. The President was ideally
in order to meet the exigency, issue the
supposed to be elected as the symbolic
necessary decrees, orders or letters of
and purely ceremonial head of state
instructions, which shall form part of the law
from the Members of the National
of the land.
Assembly for a six-year term and could
be re-elected to an unlimited number of The 1973 constitution was further
terms. Upon election, the President ceased
amended in 1980 and 1981. In the 1980
to be a member of the National amendment, the retirement age of the
Assembly. members of the judiciary was extended to 70
 During his term, the President was not years. In the 1981 amendments, the false
allowed to be a member of a political parliamentary system was formally modified
party or hold any other office. into a French-style semi-presidential system:
Executive power was meant to be 1. Executive power was restored to the
exercised by the Prime Minister who President;
was also elected from the Members of
the National Assembly. The Prime 2. Direct election of the President was
restored;
Minister was the head of government
and Commander-in-Chief of the armed 3. An Executive Committee composed of the
forces. This constitution was Prime Minister and not more than fourteen
subsequently amended four times members was created to "assist the
(arguably five depending on how one President in the exercise of his
considers Proclamation No. 3 of 1986). powers and functions and in the
 On 16–17 October 1976, A Majority Of performance of his duties as he may
Barangay Voters (Citizen Assemblies) prescribe;" and the Prime Minister was a
Approved That Martial Law Should Be mere head of the Cabinet.
Continued And Ratified The
Amendments To The Constitution 4. Further, the amendments instituted
Proposed By President Marcos. electoral reforms and provided that a
natural born citizen of the Philippines who
has lost his citizenship may be a
The 1976 amendments were: transferee of private land for use by him
(1) an Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) as his residence.
substituting for the Interim National Assembly5. The last amendments in 1984 abolished the
(2) the President would also become the Executive Committee and restored the
Prime Minister and he would continue to position of Vice-President (which did not
exercise legislative powers until martial law exist in the original, unamended 1973
should have been lifted. Constitution).
 In actual practice, while the 1973 SIGNIFICANT FEATURES OF THE 1987
Constitution was ideally supposed to set up a CONSTITUTION
true parliamentary system, the late President
Marcos had made use of rather than devolving  The Constitution establishes the Philippines
executive powers to subterfuge and
manipulation in order to keep executive
power for himself,the Parliament, as headed by
the Prime Minister.
The end result was that the 1973
Constitution - due to all amendments and subtle
manipulations - was merely the abolition of the
Senate and a series of cosmetic text-changes
where the old American-derived terminologies
such House of Representatives became known
as the "Batasang Pambansa" (National
Assembly), Departments became known as
"Ministries", cabinet secretaries became
known as "cabinet ministers", and the
President's assistant - the Executive Secretary -
became known as the "Prime Minister."
Ultimately, Marcos' so-called
"Parliamentary System" therefore
functioned as an authoritarian-run
Presidential System due to the series of
amendments and other modifications put in place
after the 1973 Constitution was ratified.
"THE 1986 FREEDOM CONSTITUTION"
 Following the EDSA People Power
Revolution that removed President
Ferdinand E. Marcos from office, the new
President, Corazon C. Aquino issued
Proclamation No. 3 as a provisional
constitution. It adopted certain provisions
from the 1973 constitution and granted the
President broad powers to reorganize this
government and remove officials from
office, and mandated that the president
would appoint a commission to draft a
new constitution.
as a "democratic and republican State",
where "sovereignty resides in the people
and all government authority emanates
from them" (Section 1, Article II).
 Consistent with the doctrine of separation of
powers, the powers of the national
government are exercised in main by
three branches — the Executive
branch headed by the President, the
Legislative branch composed of
Congress and the Judicial branch with
the Supreme Court occupying the
highest tier of the judiciary.
 The President and the members of
Congress are directly elected by the
people, while the members of the
Supreme Court are appointed by the
President from a list formed by the
Judicial and Bar Council.
 As with American system of
the
government, it is Congress which
enacts the laws, subject to the veto
power of the President which may
nonetheless be overturned by a two-thirds
vote of Congress (Section 27(1), Article
VI).
 The President has the constitutional duty
to ensure the faithful execution of the
laws (Section 17, Article VII), while the
courts are expressly granted the power
of judicial review (Section 1, Article VIII),
including the power to nullify or interpret
laws. The President is also recognized
as the commander-in-chief of the armed
forces (Section 18, Article VII).
  The Constitution also establishes limited
political autonomy to the local
government units that act as the
municipal governments for provinces,
cities, municipalities, and barangays.
(Section 1, Article X) Local
governments are generally considered
as falling under the executive branch,
yet local legislation requires enactment
by duly elected local legislative bodies.
The Constitution (Section 3, Article X)
mandated that the Congress would
enact a Local Government Code.
The Congress duly enacted Republic Act
No. 7160, The Local Government Code
of 1991, which became effective on 1
January 1992.
F. Description of the Present
Philippine Government:
and ART. 2, Declaration of Principles
and State Policies
1987 Philippine Constitution & Preamble
Parts of the 1987 Constitution
The Constitution is divided into 18 parts,
excluding the Preamble, which are called Articles.
The Articles are as follows:
Article I - National Territory

Article II - Declaration of Principles and

State Policies
Article III - Bill of Rights

Article IV - Citizenship

Article V - Suffrage

 Article VI - Legislative Department
 Article VII - Executive Department
 The Supreme Court has noted that the
Bill of Rights "occupies a position of
primacy in the fundamental law". The Bill
of Rights, contained in Article III,
enumerates the specific protections against
State power. Many of these guarantees are
similar to those provided in the American
constitution and other democratic
constitutions, including the due process
and equal protection clause, the right
against unwarranted searches and
seizures, the right to free speech and
the free exercise of religion, the right
against self-incrimination, and the right
to habeas corpus. The scope and
limitations to these rights have largely
been determined by Philippine Supreme
Court decisions.
 Article VIII - Judicial Department
 Article IX - Constitutional Commission
Article X - Local Government

 Article XI - Accountability of Public
Officers
Article XII - National Economy and

Patrimony
Article XIII - Social Justice and Human

Rights
Article XIV - Education, Science and

Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports
Article XV - The Family

Article XVI - General Provisions

Article XVII - Amendments or Revisions

Article XVIII - Transitory Provisions

 PREAMBLE ARTICLE II: DECLARATION OF
“We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the
PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES
aid of almighty God, in order to build a just and
humane society, and establish a government that
A. PRINCIPLES
shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote 1. SECTION 1. The Philippines is a
the common good, conserve and develop our democratic and republican state.
patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our Sovereignty resides in the people and all
posterity, the blessings of independence and government authority emanates from
democracy under the rule of law and a regime of them.
truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace,
do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.”  The Philippines, is a democratic and
republican state.
Meaning of Preamble
 A) a republican government is a
 The term preamble is derived from the latin democratic government by
term preambulare, which means, “to representatives chosen by the
walk before.” It is an invocation or the people at large. The essence
opening prayer in any activity or the therefore, of a republican state is
prologue of the constitution, invoking indirect rule.
the highest sovereign god almighty to  B) it embodies some features of a
bless this instrument. pure or direct democracy such as
 If we looked deeper into the preamble, this is initiative, referendum, and recall.
not an integral part of the constitution
Manifestations of a democratic and
and could not enforced, however its
significance is that studies made republican state:
showed that almost all of the 1. The existence of a bill of right;
constitution made to contain a
preamble. 2. The observance of the rule of majority;

Objectives of the Preamble 3. The observance of the principle that ours

is a government of laws, and not of
 It is generally considered that a preamble is men;
not a necessary part of a constitution,
but as an introductory part, it is needed 4. The presence of election through
in the Philippine constitution. popular will;

 The preamble of the Philippine 5. The observance of the principle of

Constitution shows its framers and to separation of powers and the system of
whom it is addressed to and also the checks and balances;
general purposes and basic principles 6. The observance of the principle that the
of the charter. legislation cannot pass irrepealable
 As interpreted, the preamble has a value in laws;
the interpretation of vague or not clear 7. The observance of the law on public
provisions of the constitution like the officers;
promotions of the constitution like that
of the general welfare and not for private 8. The observance of the principle is that the
purposes. state cannot be sued without its
consent.
 Sovereignty implies the supreme 3. SECTION 3. Civilian authority is, at all
authority to govern, thus the Filipino people,
being sovereign people have the right to
constitute their own government, to change it,
and define its jurisdiction and powers.
Exercised indirectly through public officials.
Exercised directly through suffrage.
Section 1 above impliedly recognizes
that the people, as the ultimate judges of their
destiny, can resort to revolution as a matter of
right. A provision in the Constitution, however,
expressly recognizing the people’s right to
revolt against an oppressive or tyrannical
government is not necessary and proper.
2. SECTION 2. The Philippines renounces
war as an instrument of national policy,
adopts the generally accepted principles
of international law as part of the law of
the land and adheres to the policy of
peace, equality, justice, freedom,
cooperation, and amity with all nations.
 The declaration refers only to the
renunciation by the Philippines of
aggressive war, not a war in defense of
her national honor and integrity. Thus, 4. SECTION 4. The prime duty of the
when provoked and attacked the Philippines
can retaliate and engage into war.
 Renunciation of war as an instrument
of national policy. Adoption of the
generally accepted principles of
international law as part of our law.
International law refers to the body of
rules and principles which governs the  “… the foremost duty of the government
relations of nations and their respective
peoples in their intercourse with one
another.
 The doctrine of incorporation is the Prime duty of the Government
automatic adoption of international law as  Defense of the State by the people against
part of the law of the Philippines.
 The Philippines seeks only peace and
friendship with her neighbors and all
countries of the world, regardless of race,
creed, ideology, and political system, on
the basis of mutual trust, respect, and
cooperation.
times, supreme over the military. The
Armed Forces of the Philippines is the
protector of the people and the State. Its
goal is to secure the sovereignty of the
State and the integrity of the national
territory.
 Supremacy of civilian authority over the
military is:
 Inherent in a republican system. As a
republican government, it is that civilian
authority is above the military and is
internationally recognized. This is a
traditionally accepted principle as one of
the separation of powers which is significant
during periods of martial law or suspension of
the writ of habeas corpus. (Article III, sec. 15;
art. VII, sec. 18)
 it is a safeguard against military
dictatorship. To safeguard the abuses
of the military civilian government like the
republican and democratic government
has the authority to appoint and control
the military, like the president who is the
commander-in-chief of the armed forces of
the Philippines.
Government is to serve and protect the
people. The Government may call upon
the people to defend the State and, in the
fulfillment thereof, all citizens may be
required, under conditions provided by
law, to render personal military or civil
service.
is to serve and protect the people. The
government exists for the people and
not the people for the government.”
foreign aggression …the government
may call upon the people to defend the
State. For self-preservation and to
defend its territorial honor and integrity,
the Philippines can engage in a
defensive war. The defense of the State
is one of the duties of a citizen.
Section 4:
Military and civil service by the people:
1. Defense of State performed
through an army. The joint obligations of
the government and the people cannot be
performed without an army. It is apparently
clear that an army should be organized, thus,
military and civil service. Military services here
means the armed forces involvement while
civil service means employment of the
citizens to munitions plants or related
employment of the Armed forces of the
Philippines.
2.Compulsory. Compulsory is the
compulsion of citizens to render military, or
civil service. Any citizen recruits cannot
refuse to render military or civil service
according to law.
3.Personal. Personal means rendering of
service not through another.
4.By Law. This point to preventive
arbitrariness on the part of public officials to
render military or civil service.
5. SECTION 5. The maintenance of peace
and order, the protection of life, liberty,
and property, and the promotion of the
general welfare are essential for the
enjoyment by all the people of the
blessings of democracy.
 Only when peace and order, security, and a
life of dignity are established and
maintained will political stability and
economic prosperity become attainable
and the people truly enjoy the
“blessings of independence and
democracy.”
6. SECTION 6. The separation of Church and
State shall be inviolable.
NOTE: This Section will be discussed in
another Lesson.
7. SECTION 7. The State shall pursue an
independent foreign policy. In its relations
with other states the paramount
consideration shall be national
sovereignty, territorial integrity, national
interest, and the right to self-
determination.
 Foreign policy is a set of guidelines
followed by a government of a country
in order to promote its national
interest through the conduct of its
relations with other countries.
 Foreign Policy of the Philippines. -
Foreign policy is the interaction of
states with each other. States could
not exist without the other since trade
and exchange of culture and
technology is the basis of its
development. It is the objective of a
State to promote international
relationships for national interest.
 Pursuit of an independent foreign
policy. - An independent foreign policy
means one that is not subordinate or
subject to nor dependent upon the
support of another government.
 An independent foreign policy, however,
is not one that completely rejects
advice or assistance from without. In
general, our basic foreign policy
objective is to establish friendly
relations with all countries of the
world regardless of race, religion,
ideology and social system and to
promote as much beneficial relationship
with them particularly in economic and
trade activities.
Paramount consideration. - In its

relations with other states, the paramount
consideration of the Philippines shall
be
 a) national sovereignty,
 b) territorial integrity,
 c) national interest, and
 d) the right to self-determination.
8. SECTION 8. The Philippines, consistent 10. SECTION 10. The State shall promote
with the national interest, adopts and social justice in all phases of national
pursues a policy of freedom from nuclear development.
weapons in its territory.
 In the fulfillment of this duty, the State
 The Philippines is not known or believed must give preferential attention to the
to possess weapons of mass welfare of the less fortunate members of
destruction. Article II Section 8 of the the community, those who have less in
Philippine Constitution explicitly forbids the life.
presence of nuclear weapons in the
Philippines.
11. SECTION 11. The State values the dignity
 The Philippines, as a ratifier to the of every human person and guarantees
Biological Weapons Convention, bans full respect for human rights.
all production and import of biological
weapons in the country. It also signed the  …the individual enjoys certain rights
Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon- which cannot be modified or taken away
Free Zone Treaty, thus promoting a by the lawmaking body.”
nuclear-weapons-free Southeast Asia.  These rights are protected or guaranteed
because of the belief in the inherent
dignity and basic moral worth of every
9. SECTION 9. The State shall promote a just human person.
and dynamic social order that will ensure
the prosperity and independence of the  ..the human person is the end of every
nation and free the people from poverty social organization…
through policies that provide adequate  The value accorded to human dignity is
social services, promote full employment, measured by the extent of respect for
a rising standard of living, and an human rights, principally the rights to
improved quality of life for all. life, liberty and property.
 All the advanced countries that had
achieved a developed status had
undergone the same process of 12. SECTION 12. The State recognizes the
economic development. sanctity of family life and shall protect and
strengthen the family as a basic
 The core of this process is the autonomous social institution. It shall
training, education and full equally protect the life of the mother and
employment of its people. the life of the unborn from conception.
The natural and primary right and duty of
 Indeed, the development of the parents in the rearing of the youth for
human resource of a country civic efficiency and the development of
ensures the employment of its citizens moral character shall receive the support
who will then be productive of the Government.
contributors to the society and
economy.
Section 12
 Right to life of unborn from conception.
According to the Catholic Moral Code,
the unborn child is already considered a
human being and subject to human
rights. It is the obligation of the State to
protect the unborn child.
This provision of the Constitution is a

preventive measure of the possibility of
abortion being legalized by future
legislation. The youth’s participation in
nation building must be maintained as a
joint action by the State and family.
13. SECTION 13. The State recognizes the
vital role of the youth in nation-building
and shall promote and protect their
physical, moral, spiritual, intellectual, and
social well-being. It shall inculcate in the
youth patriotism and nationalism, and 15. SECTION 15. The State shall protect and
encourage their involvement in public and
civic affairs.
 The youth as future leaders. - The
youth are the backbones of the
Philippine society and comprise the
great majority of our people and
therefore is the concern of the State to
promote and protect their well-being. It
could not be denied that today’s youth
are more informed and articulate and
politically informed.
 It is for this reason that more youth today
are involved in radicalism and in policy- 16. SECTION 16. The State shall protect and
making decisions of the country.
14. SECTION 14. The State recognizes the
role of women in nation-building, and
shall ensure the fundamental equality
before the law of women and men.
Section 14.
 Women participation in nation-
building. - It is generally accepted that
the role of women both in business and
politics cannot be over-emphasized. It
must be recalled that Filipino women
during the past decades especially
during the colonization days took active
part in nation-building, much more the
current events that women played an
important role in politics. Men compared to
women are more susceptible to graft
and corruption, the reason that
confidence on women had evolved.
 It is on this aspect that the Constitution
gives recognition of the role of women
not only in the management of the
homes but also in nation-building.
promote the right to health of the people
and instill health consciousness among
them.
 Right to health. - Since people are the
basic social unit of government, it is the
obligation of the State to promote and
protect the right of the people to health.
Healthy people mean productivity and
consciousness to their participation in
nation-building. (Article XIII, Secs. 11-13)
advance the right of the people to a
balanced and healthful ecology in accord
with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
 It is the constitutional right of the
people to have a balance and
healthful ecology. - Ecology refers to
the branch of science that deals with the
study of the relationships of living
things (organisms, plants and animals)
and their environments. (Article XII. Sec.
3)
17. SECTION 17. The State shall give priority  The State shall promote the principle of
to education, science and technology, shared responsibility between workers
arts, culture, and sports to foster and employers and the preferential use of
patriotism and nationalism, accelerate voluntary modes in settling disputes,
social progress, and promote total human including conciliation and shall enforce
liberation and development. their mutual compliance therewith to
foster industrial peace.
 Art. XIV: Education, Science and
Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports  The State shall regulate the relations
between workers and employers,
 Specially, the State shall protect and recognizing the right to labor to its just
promote the right of all citizens to quality share in the fruits of production and the
education at all levels. right to enterprises to reasonable returns
 Towards this end, the Constitution provides of investments and to expansion and
the exercise of academic freedom. growth.
Academic Freedom, in Lovejoy’s The Constitutional rights of labor are the
Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, is the following:
freedom of the teacher or research worker in
higher institutions of learning to investigate  Right to self-organization
and discuss the problem of his science and to
express his conclusions, whether through  Right to security of tenure
publication or in the instruction of  Right to strike in accordance with law
students, without interference from
political or ecclesiastical authority, or  Right to just share in fruits of production
from administrative officials of the  Right to collective bargaining and
institution in which he is employed, negotiation
unless his methods are found by qualified
bodies of his profession to be clearly  Right to peaceful and concerted activities
incompetent or contrary to professional
 Right to humane conditions of work and
duties.
living wages
 Right to participate in decision-making
18. SECTION 18. The State affirms labor as a process affecting them
primary social economic force. It shall
protect the rights of workers and promote
their welfare. 19. SECTION 19. The State shall develop a
self-reliant and independent national
 The State shall afford full protection to
economy effectively controlled by
labor, local, and overseas, organized and
Filipinos.
unorganized, and promote full
employment and equality of employment  Economic development is the
opportunities for all. It shall guarantee the ultimate goal of the State. - In the
rights of all workers to self-organization, declaration, Section 19 outlines the
and peaceful concerted activities, including constitutional guidelines in the
the right to strike in accordance with law. development of the economy as a policy
They shall be entitled to security of tenure, in order to achieve economic self-reliance,
humane condition of work, and a living independent national economy and
wage. They shall also participate in policy effective Filipino control of the economy.
and decision-making processes affecting (Article XII, National Economy and
their rights and benefits as may be Patrimony, Sec. 1)
provided by law.
20. SECTION 20. The State recognizes the 21. SECTION 21. The State shall promote
indispensable role of the private sector, comprehensive rural development and
encourages private enterprise, and agrarian reform.
provides incentives to needed
 This is the Constitutional basis of the
investments.
present Agrarian Reform Program
 The Public-Private Partnership (PPP) started by former Pres. Corazon Aquino
can be broadly defined as a contractual known as CARP (Comprehensive
agreement between the Government and Agrarian Reform Program) aimed at
a private firm targeted towards promoting “social justice and
financing, designing, implementing and
industrialization.”
operating infrastructure facilities and
services that were traditionally provided
by the public sector.
22. SECTION 22. The State recognizes and
 It embodies optimal risk allocation promotes the rights of indigenous cultural
between the parties – minimizing communities within the framework of
cost while realizing project national unity and development.
developmental objectives. Thus, the
 “Cultural minorities” refers to that
project is to be structured in such a way
groups of Filipinos with cultural
that the private sector gets a reasonable
inferiority. This is so because these
rate of return on its investment.
groups had shied away from civilization
 PPP offers monetary and non- of Philippine society.
monetary advantages for the
public sector. It addresses the limited
funding resources for local 23. SECTION 23. The State shall encourage
infrastructure or development projects non-governmental, community-based, or
of the public sector thereby allowing the sectoral organizations that promote the
allocation of public funds for other local welfare of the nation.
priorities. It is a mechanism to distribute  NGO activities include, but are not limited to,
project risks to both public and private environmental, social, advocacy and
sector. PPP is geared for both sectors to human rights work. They can work to
gain improved efficiency and project promote social or political change on a
implementation processes in delivering broad scale or very locally. NGOs play a
services to the public. critical part in developing society,
improving communities, and promoting
 Most importantly, PPP emphasizes
citizen participation.
Value for Money – focusing on
reduced costs, better risk allocation,
faster implementation, improved
services and possible generation of
additional revenue.

24. SECTION 24. The State recognizes the
vital role of communication and
information in nation-building.
 In every society, public and private
institutions and individuals undertake
internal and external communication for
many reasons. There is often no over-
arching idea or vision to help coordinate
or rationalize these various actions,
probably because policy-makers and
planners do not see how they can be
related.
 A national policy on information and
communication for development
provides a necessary conceptual and
institutional framework for the
coordination and integration of
technical and social interventions
undertaken by institutions ranging from
agricultural extension to education and
health ministries, from NGOs such as
women’s resource groups and human
rights activists, to private sector
interests such as chambers of
commerce or banks.
 The contribution of a national policy is to
articulate principles, values and norms
that are applicable to communication at
all levels of government, to civil society 26. SECTION 26. The State shall guarantee
and the private sector, within the context of
the development goals of the nation.
 An approach that considers information
and communication as a «sector» for
25. SECTION 25. The State shall ensure the
autonomy of local governments.
 Pursuant thereto, Congress enacted RA
7160,[227] otherwise known as the
"Local Government Code of 1991"
(LGC), wherein the policy on local
autonomy had been more specifically
explicated as follows:
 Sec. 2. Declaration of Policy. – (a) It is
hereby declared the policy of the State
that the territorial and political
subdivisions of the State shall enjoy
genuine and meaningful local autonomy
to enable them to attain their fullest
development as self-reliant communities
and make them more effective partners
in the attainment of national goals.
Toward this end, the State shall provide
for a more responsive and accountable
local government structure instituted
through a system of decentralization
whereby local government units shall be
given more powers, authority,
responsibilities, and resources.
 The process of decentralization shall
proceed from the National Government
to the local government units.
equal access to opportunities for public
service, and prohibit political dynasties as
may be defined by law.
 Citizen has all the opportunities to public

development planning would also help to service (Article VI, Secs. 4, 5 and 7 and
rationalize investments as well as Article X, Sec. 8).
provide a basis for integrating
 In a democratic system of government,
information and communication
it is a constitutional policy that prohibits
interventions within national
political dynasties. This is so because
development strategies.
when political dynasties exist there is
no equal access to opportunities for
public service.
27. SECTION 27. The State shall maintain
honesty and integrity in the public service
and take positive and effective measures
against graft and corruption.
28. SECTION 28. Subject to reasonable
conditions prescribed by law, the State
adopts and implements a policy of full
public disclosure of all its transactions
involving public interest.
- The essence of democratic system of
government is that the people have the right
to examine all government transactions. In a
society like ours, where democratic principles
are adhered to all transactions by the
government which involve public interest
must be publicly presented and discussed to
the Filipino people.
The Filipino people have all the rights to
know such public transactions, especially
involving expenditures of public funds.
However, for reasons of government systems
management, limitations are made like
records involving the security of the State or
those which are classified as confidential.
(Article II, Section 7)
G. SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND
STATE
- ART. II, Sec. 6 of the Philippine
Constitution, “The separation of Church and
State shall be inviolable.”
 Principle of separation of the church
and state. - The principle simply
means that the church is not to interfere
in purely political matters or temporal
aspects of man’s life and the state, in
purely matters of religion and morals,
which are the exclusive concerns of the
other.
 The state shall have no official religion;
the state cannot set up a church,
whether or not supported with funds;
nor aid one religion, aid all religions, or
prefer one religion over another; every
person is free to profess belief or
disbelief in any religion;
 Meaning of “establishment of religion
clause. - Every religious minister is
free to practice his calling; and the state
cannot punish a person for entertaining
or professing religious beliefs or
disbeliefs. Preamble – the command
that church and state be separate is not
to be interpreted to mean hostility to
religion.
 Respect of religion. - Our Constitution
and laws exempt from taxation,
properties devoted exclusively to
religious purposes; No hostility towards
religion.
 The use of public money or property
is not prohibited when a priest,
preacher, minister, or dignitary as such
is assigned to the armed forces, or to
any penal institution, or government
orphanage or leprosarium; Optional
religious instruction in public
elementary and high school is by
constitutional mandate allowed;
Thursday and Friday of Holy Week,
Christmas Day and Sundays are made
legal holidays because of the idea that their
observance is conducive to beneficial moral
results; and the law punishes polygamy
and bigamy, and certain crimes against
worship are considered crimes against
the fundamental laws of the State.
 Reason underlying the principle. It is
significant that the separation of the
State and the Church is to protect
Philippine society from using each other
for their self-interest.