electronics
Article
High-Voltage Drivers Based on Forming Lines with
Extended Quasi-Rectangular Pulses for High-Power
Microwave Oscillators
Vladislav V. Rostov * , Alexei S. Stepchenko, Pavel V. Vykhodtsev and Ruslan V. Tsygankov






Citation: Rostov, V.V.; Stepchenko,
A.S.; Vykhodtsev, P.V.; Tsygankov,
R.V. High-Voltage Drivers Based on
Forming Lines with Extended
Quasi-Rectangular Pulses for
High-Power Microwave Oscillators.
Electronics 2022, 11, 406. https://
doi.org/10.3390/electronics11030406
Academic Editor: Leonardo Pantoli
Received: 14 December 2021
Accepted: 24 January 2022
Published: 28 January 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Electronics 2022, 11, 406. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11030406
Institute of High Current Electronics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Science, Tomsk 634055, Russia;
stepchenko@lfe.hcei.tsc.ru (A.S.S.); pasha@lfe.hcei.tsc.ru (P.V.V.); tsygankov@lfe.hcei.tsc.ru (R.V.T.)
* Correspondence: rostov@lfe.hcei.tsc.ru; Tel.: +7-3812-491641
Abstract: The paper considers such modifications of an ordinary pulse-forming line (PFL) as double-
width and triple-width forming lines (DWFL, TWFL) built around the PFL by nesting one and
two additional uncharged lines, respectively, into its free volume inside the inner conductor of the
PFL. The theoretical analysis is supported by simulation and experimental data, showing that the
TWFL provides a 3-fold increase in the voltage pulse width and that it can be further increased by
an arbitrary integer factor k. The results of the numerical simulations also show the electric field
behavior and other features, including the edge effect in the TWFL. The proposed method opens up
new opportunities for designing compact high-power microwace (HPM) sources.
Keywords: pulsed power; pulse-forming line; explosive emission; high-current electron beam;
Cherenkov-type oscillator
1. Introduction
High-voltage drivers based on distributed pulse-forming lines (PFLs) [1] are an excel-
lent power supply for high-power microwave (HPM) oscillators. This type of driver can
provide relatively short rise times (of a few nanoseconds) and rectangular voltage pulses
that are, in all respects, more beneficial than those formed by Marx generators or modular
pulse-forming networks (PFNs) [2]. The only worthy exception is an innovative “zigzag”
PFN Marx design that provides a pulse rise time of 5 ns at an output voltage of 400 kV in a
beam diode of 100 Ω (burst mode operation for 10 s at 100 Hz) [3].
Shortening the voltage rise is exceptionally important for stable cathode operation
during explosive electron emission [4–7]. It is likely that this weakens the space charge
effect at emission centers [8]. If the rise time is also sharpened to ≈10−9 s or less [4,9], one
can attain a picosecond EEE accuracy [10] and phase synchronization of parallel microwave
channels [11,12]. In addition, shortening the voltage rise decreases the microwave oscillator
transit time [11] and increases the efficiency of the beam-to-wave energy conversion [13,14].
Finally, constant beam parameters within the pulse plateau are needed for mode selection,
especially in oversized slow wave structures, where one mode should dominate over
competitors for as long as possible [15,16]. The advantages of drivers with distributed
PFLs were proved, even by the first experiments on millimeter-wavelength relativistic
oscillators [17,18] and, later, on Ka, X, and S-band repetitively pulsed backward wave
oscillators [5,12–14,19–22].
For the practical application of gigawatt and sub-gigawatt, repetitively pulsed elec-
tromagnetic sources with pulses longer than 10–20 ns, a decrease in their dimensions is
needed. This is one of the problems that we consider in this paper. The basic features
of pulse-forming lines and innovative ways of dimension reduction are analyzed. Our
attention was focused on pulse extension, for which we further developed the fruitful idea
of pulse width doubling [23] by using an additional, uncharged inner line. This approach
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Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 12

Electronics 2022, 11, 406 2 of 12

of pulse width doubling [23] by using an additional, uncharged inner line. This approach
has shown obvious advantages in experiments with a double-width PFL [14]. To prove
has concept,
the shown obvious advantages
the laboratory in experiments
model with a double-width
of a triple-width PFL and
PFL was created [14]. tested.
To prove the
concept, the laboratory model of a triple-width PFL was created and tested.
2. Basic Properties of a Single FL
2. Basic Properties of a Single FL
The outer dimensions of a single PFL, as a coaxial segment (Figure 1), are determined
The outer dimensions of a single PFL, as a coaxial segment (Figure 1), are determined
by its length LFL and the diameter of its outer conductor 2r2.
by its length LFL and the diameter of its outer conductor 2r2 .

Figure 1. Geometry
Figure 1. GeometryofofPFL
PFLwith
withbuilt
builtinin Tesla
Tesla transformer.
transformer. TheThe main
main partpart of length
of the the length
LFL isLFL is a Tesla
a Tesla
transformer range (hatched area shows the magnetic cores). An additional piece of coaxial
transformer range (hatched area shows the magnetic cores). An additional piece of coaxial line L0 can line L0
can be used to increase the formed voltage pulse
be used to increase the formed voltage pulse width. width.

The wave
The waveimpedance
impedanceofofthe
thePFL
PFLand
and
thethe electric
electric strength
strength at inner
at its its inner conductor
conductor (at (at
diameter 2r
diameter 2r11)) can
canbe
bewritten
writtenas:
as:
ρ = 60
ρ =Λ60
/ε1/2
Λ/ε Ω,1/2
where Λ = ln(r
Ω, where Λ =2/rln(r
1); and
2 /r1 ); and
(1)
(1)

E=U ) 1 Λ)
E 0=/(rU1 0Λ/(r (2)
(2)
where
where εεisisthe
therelative dielectric
relative permittivity
dielectric of liquid
permittivity insulation
of liquid and Uand
insulation 0 is the PFL
U0 is thecharging
PFL charg-
voltage before high-voltage switch operation. The high-voltage switch (not
ing voltage before high-voltage switch operation. The high-voltage switch (not shown in Figure 1 in
shown
to the right) is normally a spark-gap switch operated
Figure 1 to the right) is normally a spark-gap switch operated with N 2 at a pressure of ≈ 1 MPa.
with N2 at a pressure of ≈1
Neglecting the edge effects, the PFL stored energy W and the wave propagation time T are
MPa. Neglecting the edge effects, the PFL stored energy W and the wave propagation time
expressed as:
T are expressed as:
W = TU0 2 /2ρ with T = LFL ε1/2 /c (3)
Wfree
= TU 0 /2ρ with T = LFL ε /c
As it is well known, after the discharge process,(3)
2 1/2
where c is a light speed in space. the
formed at the load voltage pulse width is = 2T. With the field strength
where c is a light speed in free space. As itp is well known, after the discharge process, the
τ and PFL outer
dimension
formed keptload
at the constant,
voltagevarying (or Λ)is
pulser1width gives
τp =the
2T.condition
With theoffieldmaximum stored
strength and energy
PFL outer
Λ* = 0.5 and = 30/ε 1/2 . Thus, for insulation with ordinary transformer oil (ε = 2.25), we
dimension kept constant, varying r1 (or Λ) gives the condition of maximum stored energy
ρ*
have ρ* = 20 Ω [1].
Λ * = 0.5 and ρ* = 30/ε1/2. Thus, for insulation with ordinary transformer oil (ε = 2.25), we
Typically, PFLs are charged with a built-in Tesla transformer, which was originally pro-
have ρ* = 20 Ω [1].
posed by [24] and applied to repetitively-pulsed, high-current SINUS accelerators [1,25,26].
Typically, PFLs are charged with a built-in Tesla transformer, which was originally
In the SINUS accelerators, the transformer comprises cylindrical magnetic cores, a primary
proposed
winding with by one
[24]turn,
and and
applied to repetitively-pulsed,
a secondary winding of approximately high-current 1500 SINUS
turns. Theaccelerators
mag-
[1,25,26]. In the SINUS accelerators, the transformer comprises
netic coupling ratio between the primary and secondary windings is close to unity if thecylindrical magnetic cores,
alength
primary winding with one turn, and a secondary winding of approximately
of the magnetic cores is many times larger than the radial gap width and the length 1500 turns.
The
of themagnetic
coils is nocoupling
greater thanratio
halfbetween the primary
the core length. Another and secondary
feature windings
of the SINUS is close to
accelerators
unity if theversion
(including lengthSINUS-4
of the magnetic
[24]) is thecores
use of is thyristors
many times larger
in the thantransformer
primary the radial gap width
circuit
and the length
for energy of thefrom
switching coilscapacitors
is no greater
chargedthanto ≈500
half theV,core
whichlength.
allows Another
one to feature
power an of the
accelerator
SINUS from commercial
accelerators (including supply linesSINUS-4
version without additional
[24]) is thestep-up
use of transformers. Theprimary
thyristors in the use
of such semiconductor
transformer circuit forswitches in the primary
energy switching from transformer
capacitorscircuit
charged to ≈500 V,
determines thewhich
chargingallows
time t for PFLs as a coaxial capacitor: from a few microseconds
one toch power an accelerator from commercial supply lines without additional at a voltage pulse width
step-up
of 4 ns in compact
transformers. The accelerators
use of such (SINUS-120,
semiconductor r2 =switches
6 cm, LFLin = the
40 cm [20]) totransformer
primary several tens circuit
of
microseconds in large setups (SINUS-7, r 2 = 50 cm, L FL = 500 cm)
determines the charging time tch for PFLs as a coaxial capacitor: from a few microseconds [1]. With a spiral line
instead of L0 (Figure 1), the voltage pulse can be lengthened up to 130 ns [1,13].
at a voltage pulse width of 4 ns in compact accelerators (SINUS-120, r2 = 6 cm, LFL = 40 cm
[20]) to several tens of microseconds in large setups (SINUS-7, r2 = 50 cm, LFL = 500 cm) [1].
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o

Electronics 2022, 11, 406 With a spiral line instead of L0 (Figure 1), the voltage pulse can be lengthened 3 of 12 up to
ns [1,13].
Before proceeding to more complex equivalent circuits, let us consider the discha
circuit of a proceeding
Before single PFLtowith
morean
complex equivalent
electrical lengthcircuits, let us resistance
T and load consider theRdischarge
L (Figure 2).
circuit of a single PFL with an electrical length T and load resistance RL (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Equivalent discharge circuit of single coaxial PFL.

Figure 2. Equivalent discharge circuit of single coaxial PFL.
Upon operation of its switch (S), a current I = U0 /(RL + ρ) arises in the circuit and
Uponpulse
a voltage operation
UL = Uof its switch (S), a current I = U0/(RL + ρ) arises in the circuit an
0 RL /(RL + ρ) at the load. In the same time, a voltage wave of
voltage
amplitude pulse
Ub =UUL 0=ρ/(R
U0RLL+/(R + ρ) at thein
ρ)Lpropagates load. In the
the line. At same time,
t = T, the wavea voltage wavethe
front reaches of amplit
Uopen
b = U 0ρ/(R
end + ρline
of Lthe and goes back
) propagates withline.
in the the same
At t =sign.
T, the t = 2T,front
At wave the formation
reaches of thetheopen end
firstline
the (main)andpulsegoesisback
completed.
with the When RL =
same ρ, there
sign. At tis=no
2T,reflection from theof
the formation load,
theand firstthe
(main) pu
energy stored in the PFL is fully transmitted to the load as a main pulse of duration 2T and
is completed. When RL = ρ, there is no reflection from the load, and the energy stored
amplitude equal to half the charge voltage U0 .
the PFL is fully
It should betransmitted
noted that the to voltage
the load as a width
pulse main pulse of duration
at the load τ p = 2T 2T and amplitude
is about three eq
to half of
orders themagnitude
charge voltage
shorterU 0.
than the PFL charging time tch . Thus, for pulses of 10 ns
It should
and shorter, thebePFLnoted that
length is the
LFL voltage
≤ 100 cmpulse width
[26–29], and atforthe loadofτp100
pulses = 2T ns,isitabout
shouldthree ord
bemagnitude
of 10 times longer. shorterThethan
problem of decreasing
the PFL chargingthe PFL
time tchlength
. Thus,canforbepulses
solvedofby 10using
ns and shor
high-permittivity liquids (treated water, alcohol, glycerol, etc.), but this method involves
the PFL length is LFL ≤ 100 cm [26–29], and for pulses of 100 ns, it should be 10 times lon
two problems. First, it greatly increases the conductivity [30,31], and this necessitates the
The problem of decreasing the PFL length can be solved by using high-permittivity liqu
use of extremely short PFL charging, hence the abandonment of thyristors in the primary
(treated
circuit [1].water,
Second, alcohol,
at UL ≤glycerol,
400 kV, the etc.), but this
optimum diodemethod
impedanceinvolves two problems. Firs
of Cherenkov-type
greatly
relativisticincreases the conductivity
HPM oscillators Ω or higher,
is RL ≈ 100[30,31], and this
and necessitates the usewithout
cannot be decreased of extremely
a sh
PFL
loss incharging, hence[13,32,33].
their efficiency the abandonment
At arbitrary ofPFLthyristors in the primary
and load impedances, there is circuit [1]. Second
an energy
loss: a series of reflected pulses in addition to the main one
UL ≤ 400 kV, the optimum diode impedance of Cherenkov-type relativistic HPM at the load. The efficiency of osc
energy transfer from the PFL to the first pulse is given by:
tors is RL ≈ 100 Ω or higher, and cannot be decreased without a loss in their efficie
[13,32,33]. At arbitrary PFL and η = load
(4 RL ·impedances,
ρ)/(RL + ρ)2 there is an energy loss: a(4)series of
flected pulses in addition to the main one at the load. The efficiency of energy tran
fromAsthecan be seen,
PFL to thethe efficiency
first drops
pulse is when
given by:the permittivity is high and ρ << RL . This
does not exclude the use of modern high-permittivity dielectric liquids, but suggests the
necessity of special measures for ηmatching ρ)/(R
= (4 RL∙the ρ)2the load. For example, such a liquid (4)
L +and
PFL
can be MIDEL 7131, which is a synthetic ester dielectric liquid designed to provide an alter-
Astocan
native be seen,
flammable the efficiency
mineral drops
oil. Since the adventwhen the permittivity
of MIDEL is high
7131 in the 1970s, thisand
liquidρ << RL. T
does
(with not
veryexclude the use of
low conductivity andmodern high-permittivity
higher permittivity dielectric
ε ≈ 3.1, as liquids,oxygen
well as superior but suggests
and moisture stability) has gained an excellent reputation as an effective
necessity of special measures for matching the PFL and the load. For example, dielectric, not only such a
in industrial high-voltage transformers, but also in pulsed power systems
uid can be MIDEL 7131, which is a synthetic ester dielectric liquid designed to provide as well [14,34].
Besides the possibility of decreasing the PFL length by 17% at a specified pulse width,
alternative to flammable mineral oil. Since the advent of MIDEL 7131 in the 1970s,
MIDEL 7131 can provide a gain in the PFL outer dimension due to its high breakdown
liquid
strength(with very
Ebr and thelow conductivity
stability and
of its electric higher permittivity
parameters during long-termε ≈ 3.1, as well
operation [35].as supe
oxygen
For example, if E/Ebr is kept stable at ≈0.37 or a lower level, a lifetime of up to 10 cycles dielec
and moisture stability) has gained an excellent reputation as an effective
8

not onlycan
or more in industrial
be expectedhigh-voltage transformers,
[14]. The breakdown strength but also incan
(MV/cm) pulsed powerby
be expressed systems
an as w
empirical equation such as that of E for mineral oil, with large-surface
[14,34]. Besides the possibility ofbrdecreasing the PFL length by 17% at a specified pu electrodes in a
weakly MIDEL
width, inhomogeneous
7131 can field. The empirical
provide a gain equation
in the PFL has outer
the form [30]:
dimension due to its high bre
down strength Ebr and the stability of its
Ebr = A/(t eff
electric
0.33
·S0.08 ) parameters during long-term (5) opera
[35]. For example, if E/Ebr is kept stable at ≈0.37 or a lower level, a lifetime of up to
where A
cycles orismore
a constant
can beequal to ≈0.6 at
expected normal
[14]. The pressure
breakdown and ≈strength
1.2 at 1.2 (MV/cm)
MPa [25,31],
canteff be
is expres
the effective time (µs) for which the field strength is higher than 0.63Ebr (teff ≈ 0.25tch ), and
by an empirical equation such as that of Ebr for mineral oil, with large-surface electro
in a weakly inhomogeneous field. The empirical equation has the form [30]:
Ebr = A/(teff 0.33∙S0.08) (5)
where A is a constant equal to ≈0.6 at normal pressure and ≈1.2 at 1.2 MPa [25,31], t
the effective time (µs) for which the field strength is higher than 0.63Ebr (teff ≈ 0.25tch),
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12
S (cm2) is the electrode area. In experiments using MIDEL 7131 [14], Ebr ≈ 0.38 MV/cm and
E ≈ 0.14 MV/cm were provided.
Electronics 2022, 11, 406 For optimum PFL-load matching, it is required that the maximum energy4 at arbitrary
of 12
2) is the electrode area. In experiments using MIDEL 7131 [14], Ebr ≈ 0.38 MV/cm and
RL ≠ ρ be the energy transferred to the first (main) pulse. With constant r2, E, and RL, the
S (cm
E ≈ 0.14 MV/cm
optimum value Λwere
opt isprovided.
determined by Formula (2) in [1], in the form:
For
2 optimum PFL-load
S (cm ) is the electrode area. In matching,
experimentsit is required that the
using MIDEL 7131maximum energy
[14], Ebr ≈ at arbitrary
0.38 MV/cm
R ≠ ρ be the Λ opt = transferred
energy (α/2){[1
and E ≈ 0.14 MV/cm were provided.
L + (4/α)]
to
1/2 – 1} with α = RL ε1/2/60
the first (main) pulse. With constant r 2, E, and RL(6) , the
optimum
Then, for RLΛ≈
value
For optimum opt is determined
PFL-load matching,
100 Ω, the byitFormula
optimum is required(2)that
in [1],
PFL impedance the in
isthe
ρoptform:
maximum energy
≈ 30.6 Ω (byat arbitrary
Equation (4), η
R 6= ρ be the energy transferred to the first (main) pulse. With constant r , E, and R , the
≈ L0.718) at ε = 2.25 Λoptand ρopt ≈+26.9
= (α/2){[1 Ω1/2(η– ≈1}0.668)
(4/α)] with αat= εRL=ε3.1.1/2/60The matching 2 L
efficiency(6) can be
optimum value Λopt is determined by Formula (2) in [1], in the form:
increased by separating high-voltage pulses into several channels, because the number of
Then, for RL ≈ 100 Ω, the optimum PFL impedance is ρopt ≈ 30.6 Ω (by Equation (4), η
channels determines (equals) the factor 1/2of decrease in the1/2 effective load resistance. For
≈ 0.718) at ε = 2.25Λand opt =ρ(α/2){[1
opt ≈ 26.9+Ω(4/α)] − 1} at
(η ≈ 0.668) withε =α3.1.
= RThe /60
L ε matching efficiency(6) can be
example, such an increase in matching efficiency is provided by pulse separation into two
increased by separating high-voltage pulses into several channels, because the number of
[11,12] Then,
andfor four ≈ 100 Ω, the
RL channels withoptimum
a pulsePFL impedance
sharpener is ρoptof≈them
in each 30.6 Ω (by Equation
[36,37]. (4),
With phase-con-
channels determines (equals) the factor of decrease in the effective load resistance. For
≈
trolled0.718) at
parallel = 2.25
channelsand ≈ 26.9 Ω (η ≈ 0.668) at = 3.1. The matching efficiency can
increasein
η ε ρ opt shock-excited, nanosecond microwave oscillators [9], one can
ε
example,
be increased suchby an
separating in matchingpulses
high-voltage efficiency is provided
into several by pulse
channels, separation
because the numberinto two
increase
[11,12] the total
and determines power
four channels and provide
with the
a pulse microwave
sharpener in inbeam
each control similar to that in active
of channels (equals) factor of decrease theof them [36,37].
effective With phase-con-
load resistance. For
antenna arrays
trolled parallel [37].
channels
example, such an increaseininshock-excited, nanosecond
matching efficiency microwave
is provided by pulse oscillators
separation [9],into
one can
Another
increase the method
total power of increasing
and provide the matching
microwave efficiency
beam control
two [11,12] and four channels with a pulse sharpener in each of them [36,37]. With phase- (η up to
similar unit)
to and
that the
in voltage
active
pulse width
antenna arrays
controlled is
parallelto insert
channels in shock-excited, nanosecond microwave oscillators [9], one wave
[37]. additional uncharged lines into a PFL, such that its effective
impedance
Another
can increase will increase
themethod
total power byandanprovide
integer
of increasing number kefficiency
themicrowave
matching beam …. (η up
= 2, 3,control to unit)
similar andinthe
to that voltage
active
antenna arrays
pulse width is [37].
to insert additional uncharged lines into a PFL, such that its effective wave
3.impedance
Results
Anotherwill methodincrease of increasing the matching
by an integer number efficiency
k = 2, 3, …. (η up to unit) and the voltage
pulse width is to insert additional uncharged lines into a PFL, such that its effective wave
3.1. Theoretical Grounds for Extended FLs
3. Results will increase by an integer number k = 2, 3, . . . .
impedance
3.1.1. Double-Width Forming Line
3.1.
3. Theoretical Grounds for Extended FLs
Results
Figure 3 shows a double-width forming line (DWFL) that comprises two series-con-
3.1.1.
3.1. Double-Width
Theoretical GroundsForming LineFLs
for Extended
nected lines L0, L1 that are equal in electrical length T and wave impedance ρ [23]. At the
3.1.1. Figure
Double-Width
3 shows Forming Line
a double-width formingtoline
time of switch operation, line L0 is charged U0,(DWFL)
and linethat L1 iscomprises
uncharged. two series-con-
nectedFigure
lines3Lshows
0, L1 that a double-width forming length
are equal in electrical line (DWFL)
T and wave that comprises
impedance twoρ [23].
series-At the
connected lines L
time of switch operation,0 , L 1 that are equal in electrical length T and
line L0 is charged to U0, and line L1 is uncharged. wave impedance ρ [23].
At the time of switch operation, line L0 is charged to U0 , and line L1 is uncharged.

Figure 3. Double width forming line.

Figure3.3.Double
Figure Doublewidth
widthforming line.
forming line.
Obviously, when discharged, the DWFL equivalent impedance is 2ρ, and hence the
Obviously, when discharged, the DWFL equivalent impedance is 2ρ, and hence the
load resistance
Obviously, iswhen to be RL = 2ρ. A
takendischarged, voltage amplitude U20ρ/2, and
pulse ofimpedance and hence
duration 4T
load resistance is taken to be RL = 2ρ. the DWFL
A voltage equivalent
pulse of amplitude U0 /2 is
and duration 4T the
isis provided
load at
resistancethe
is load
taken by
to the
be RDWFL
L = 2ρ . discharge
A voltage circuit
pulse of(Figure 4).
amplitude
provided at the load by the DWFL discharge circuit (Figure 4). U 0 /2 and duration 4T
is provided at the load by the DWFL discharge circuit (Figure 4).

4. DWFL
Figure 4.
Figure DWFLdischarge
dischargecircuit.
circuit.
Figure 4. DWFL discharge circuit.
Immediately after operation of the switch (S), the circuit begins drawing a current
I = U0 /(RL + 2ρ) = U0 /4ρ, which provides a voltage pulse amplitude UL = I·RL = U0 /2 at
 Immediately after operation of the switch (S), the circuit begins drawing a current I
= U0/(R L + 2ρ) = U0after
Immediately /4ρ, which
operation provides
of theaswitch voltage(S), pulse amplitude
the circuit begins UL drawing
= I∙RL = Ua0/2 at theI
current
= U0/(RL + 2ρ) = U0/4ρ, which provides a voltage pulse amplitude UL = I∙RL = U0/2 at
load. Simultaneously, a voltage wave of amplitude U b = I∙ ρ = U 0/4 propagates from right
the
Electronics 2022, 11, 406 to left Simultaneously,
load. in the lines L0, L1.aBy the time
voltage t = T,
wave ofthe wave front
amplitude Ub in= I∙Lρ0 reaches its open end
= U0/4 propagates at 3U
from
5 of 12 0/4,
right
and theinwave
to left front
the lines L0,inL1.LBy
1 reaches
the time the t =short-circuited
T, the wave front endinatL0–U 0/4 and
reaches itsgoes
openback
end with
at 3Ure-
0/4,
versed
and thepolarity.
wave front By thein Ltime t = 2T,the
1 reaches both waves returnend
short-circuited to the
at –U load0/4such that the
and goes back wave
witham- re-
plitude
the load.
versed becomes U0/2
Simultaneously,
polarity. By theintime
La0 voltage
andt = zero
wave
2T, in Lof1waves
both . amplitude
For estimating
returnUb to= Ithe
·ρ =wave amplitudes
U0 /4such
load propagates in
from
that the the two
wave am-
rightat
lines
plitude to the
left in
next
becomes U0/2Lin
the lines
time 0, L
L10. and
points, Bywe the time
can
zero t L=1.T,For
inintroduce theestimating
wave
theirfront in L0wave
transmission
the reaches its open
and endinatthe
reflection
amplitudes coeffi-
two
3U
cients /4,
lines at
0 +and
k the the
andnext wave
k (totime
– front
andpoints, in
from theL 1 reaches
weload, the short-circuited
respectively).
can introduce theirFor end at –U /4
L0 and L1, these
transmission 0 and goes back
coefficients
and reflection are
coeffi-
with reversed
equal and given polarity.
by: By the time t = 2T, both waves return to the load such that the
cients k and k (to and from the load, respectively). For L0 and L1, these coefficients are
+ –
wave amplitude becomes U0 /2 in L0 and zero in L1 . For estimating the wave amplitudes in
equal and given by:
the two lines at the next time k+ =points,
2(RL +we ρ)/[( L + ρ) + ρ]their
canRintroduce = 3/2; and
transmission and reflection
coefficients k+ and k– (to andkfrom L + ρ)/[( RL + ρ) + ρ] = 3/2;0 and 1
the
+ = 2(R load, respectively). For L and L , these coefficients
are equal and given by: k− = [RL + ρ) − ρ]/[ RL + ρ) + ρ] = 1/2
k− = L[R L + ρ) − ρ]/[ RL + ρ) + ρ] = 1/2
Thus, considering that k+ = 2(R
the waveRat
L +0 ρ)/[( L +2T ρ) <+ tρ]<=3T3/2;
is and
divided into series-connected RL
and ρThus,
, we have (3/2)(2/3)(1/2)U
considering that the L0 wave at 2T < t < 3T is divided
0 = U 0 /2 at the load, a uniform decrease in the L0 wave am-
into series-connected RL
k− = [RL + ρ) − ρ]/[ RL + ρ) + ρ] = 1/2
and ρ, we
plitude fromhave U0/2 at 2T to U0/4 at
(3/2)(2/3)(1/2)U 0 =3T,
U0/2 andat U 0/8load,
the + U0/8 = U0/4 throughout
a uniform decrease in the
theL1Lline.
0 wave am-

plitudeThus,
On theconsidering
from interval
U0/2 at 3T
2Tthat
< tthe
to U<0/4L0atwave
4T, the at 2TU<0L/8
0 and
3T,Land t1<waves
+3TU0is/8divided into series-connected
=propagating
U0/4 throughoutto thetheload RL
occupy
L1 line. in-
and
creasingly
ρ, we
On the have
less (3/2)(2/3)(1/2)U
space,3T
interval providing
< t < 4T, U
0 = U /2
0/2Lat
the 0 at the load,
the Lload.
0 and 1 waves
a uniform
Thus, decrease in
the PFL comprising
propagating the L wave
to the loadaoccupy
0 short-cir-
in-
amplitude
cuited segment U0 /2 aatwave
from with U0 /4 at 3T, and
2T to impedance ρ andU0 /8 + U0 /8 length
electrical = U0 /4 Tthroughout
can double L1 line.
thethe load pulse
creasingly less space, providing U0/2 at the load. Thus, the PFL comprising a short-cir-
On the interval 3T < t < 4T, the L0 and L1 waves propagating to the load occupy
U0 /2 atρthe
width
cuited and halvewith
segment the load
a wave power.
impedance andload.
electrical
increasingly less space, providing Thus,length
the PFLT comprising
can double athe load pulse
short-
width
circuitedandsegment
halve the
withload power.
a wave impedance ρ and electrical length T can double the load
3.1.2.
pulse width and halve the loadLine
Triple-Width Forming power.
3.1.2.Figures
Triple-Width
5 and 6Forming
show a Line triple-width forming line (TWFL) and its discharge circuit,
3.1.2. Triple-Width
respectively. Forming Line
Figures 5 and 6 show a triple-width forming line (TWFL) and its discharge circuit,
Figures 5 and 6 show a triple-width forming line (TWFL) and its discharge circuit,
respectively.
respectively.

Figure 5. Simplified TWFL schematic.

Figure 5. Simplified TWFL schematic.
Figure 5. Simplified TWFL schematic.

Figure6.
Figure TWFL discharge
6. TWFL dischargecircuit.
circuit.
FigureAt6. the
TWFL discharge
initial circuit.
time point, L0 is charged to U0 while L1 and L2 are uncharged. The
electrical lengths of L0 , L1 , andL0L2isare
At the initial time point, charged
equal to to T;
U0thewhile waveL1 impedance
and L2 are uncharged.
of L0 is ρ. The The elec-
trical lengths
At
coefficient of L0,extension
theofinitial
pulse L1, and
time Lk2 =are
point, equal
L30determines
is charged to T;the the
to Uwave
0 while
load impedance
L1 and
resistance RL = L23ρ.
are 0 is ρ. The that
of Considering
Luncharged. coefficient
The elec-
of pulse
the
tricalload extension
wave of
lengths L0,kL=1, 3and
amplitude determines
at 0 L<2tare
< T equal
is Uthe0 /2 load
to and resistance
that
T; the the current
wave RL =is3Iρ=. U
impedance Considering
/(R
0of + ρρ.+The
LL0 is ρthat the load
1 ), coefficient
the
impedance
wave
of pulseamplitudeof L
extension can
1 at 0 k <= t3<determines
be estimated as
T is U0/2 and ρ =
1the 2ρ
that and
load current isRIL==U30ρ/(R
the current
theresistance as I = U L + ρ + ρ1), the
/6ρ. The
. 0Considering backward impedance
that the load
wave1 amplitudes
be in
estimated L 0 and
as ρ 1 L=1 are
2ρ –Iρ
and =
the − U /6
current
0 and as–IρI =1 =
U 0−
wave amplitude at 0 < t < T is U0/2 and that the current is I = U0/(RL + ρ + ρ1), the impedance
of L can /6Uρ.
0 /3,
The respectively.
backward Thus,
wave ampli-
by the point t = T, the wave amplitude is − U /3 in L , zero in L , and 5/6U in L . The
tudes
of L1 canin Lbe0 and L1 are –I
estimated asρ ρ=1 −U
= 2ρ0/6and
andthe –Iρcurrent
0
1 = −U0/3, 1
I = U0/6ρ. TheThus,
asrespectively. 2 0 0
by thewave
backward pointampli-
t = T,
backward voltage wave in L0 reaches the plane with a circuit break and goes back with the
tudes in L0 and L1 are –Iρ = −U0/6 and –Iρ1 = −U0/3, respectively. Thus, by the point t = T,
same polarity.
Electronics 2022, 11, 406 6 of 12

The reflected wave amplitude U can be estimated in L2 for T < t < 2T by reasoning
that the resulting amplitude at the load should be U0 /2: U− − U0 /3 + 2/3U0 = U0 /2. We
obtain U− = U0 /6. Thus, the voltage across L1 is UL1 = −U0 /3 + U− = −U0 /6. However,
this is possible at a definite reflection coefficient k− = (ρ2 − ρ1 )/(ρ2 + ρ1 ) whose value from
−k − U0 /3 = U0 /6 is k− = −1/2. Hence, ρ2 = ρ1 /3 = 2ρ/3. By the time point t = 2T, the
wave amplitude in L1 and in L2 is −U0 /6, and in L0 , it is 2/3U0 . The next time points
are only important for estimating the wave amplitudes in each line. For such estimation,
the transmission and reflection coefficients at two boundaries are used. Omitting simple
calculations, we obtain that by the point t = 3T, the wave amplitudes in L1 and L2 become
equal to zero, and the wave amplitude in L0 is 1/2U0 . Upon completion of the processes at
3T < t < 4T, the wave amplitudes in L1 and L2 are U0 /6, and the wave amplitude in L0 is
1/3U0 .
By the time point t = 5T, the wave amplitude in L1 and in L2 increases to U0 /3, and in
L0 , it decreases to 1/6U0 . Finally, at t = 6T, the voltage amplitudes in all lines are equal to
zero. Table 1 presents the voltage amplitudes in each line at different time points.

Table 1. Voltage amplitudes in TWFL.

t U L0 /U 0 U L1 /U 0 U L2 /U 0
0 1 0 0
T 5/6 −1/3 0
2T 2/3 −1/6 −1/6
3T 1/2 0 0
4T 1/3 1/6 1/6
5T 1/6 1/3 1/3
6T 0 0 0

Thus, the PFL configuration with two nested lines provides a rectangular voltage
pulse of amplitude UL = U0 /2 at a matched load and width t = 6T. The effective internal
impedance of the TWFL is 3ρ.

3.1.3. Forming Line with k-Fold Extension

The possibility of two- and three-fold pulse lengthening and the similarity of DWFL
and TWFL discharge processes suggest that a configuration with a higher integer factor
of pulse extension k can be designed in which the number of additional lines is k − 1. In
this case, the matched load resistance should increase to RL = kρ. The impedance of L1
(additional line) is expressed as:

ρ1 = RL − ρ = (k − 1)ρ (7)

The discharge current after the switch operation is I = U0 /(RL + ρ1 + ρ) = U0 /(2kρ).

At the load, UL = I ·RL = U0 /2. The backward wave amplitude in L0 is −Iρ = −U0 /2k, and
in L1 , it is −Iρ1 = −U0 (k − 1)/2k. The impedance of L2 is chosen for T < t < 2T from the
condition that the load voltage is U0 /2. Similarly, we estimate the impedance of L3 for
2T < t < 3T. Omitting intermediate calculations, we obtain:

ρ2 = ρ1 (k − 2)/k (8)

The impedances of nested lines can be written in the form of a recurrence formula for
k ≥ 3 as a generalization of the TWFL case with k = 3:

ρn = ρn−1 {(k − n)/(k + 2 − n)} (9)

where n = 2, . . . , (k − 1), k ≥ 3.
It is noteworthy that the time behavior of voltage amplitudes in each line obeys rather
simple laws that can easily be written, even from the data in Table 1. In particular, the
voltage across the main line (L0 ) decreases by 1/2k from its initial value U0 on each interval
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12

Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12

Electronics 2022, 11, 406 7 of 12

voltage across the main line (L0) decreases by 1/2k from its initial value U0 on each interval
T, and the
voltage voltage
across the mainamplitude
line (L0)across the by
decreases nested lines,itsbeing
1/2k from initialkeptvalueinUthe range (±1/k)∙U0,
0 on each interval
increases
T, and
and the by 1/2k
the voltage from
voltage amplitude its value at
amplitude across the previous stage.
T, across the
the nested
nested lines,
lines, being
being keptkept inin the
the range
range (±1/k)∙U
(±1/k)·0U , ,
0
increases by 1/2k from its value at the previous
increases by 1/2k from its value at the previous stage. stage.
3.2. Simulation Results for TWFL
3.2. Simulation Results
Resultsfor
Our computations
Simulation TWFL
forand experiments were performed for a dielectric with a relative
TWFL
permittivity ε = 2.25,
Our computations
Our computationsand which corresponded
andexperiments
experimentswere to transformer
were performed
performed oil.
for The
for forming
a adielectric
dielectric line
with was
with a arelative
TWFL
a relative
with a length
permittivity
permittivity εε ==L2.25,
FL = which
2.25, 120
whichcmcorresponded
and main-line
corresponded conductor
tototransformer
transformer radii
oil.
oil.Ther2 =forming
The 15.6 cm,
forming lineand
was
line wasra1 =TWFL
a9.8 cm
TWFL
(Figure
with a 7).
length L = 120 cm and main-line conductor radii r = 15.6
with a length LFL = 120 cm and main-line conductor radii r2 = 15.6 cm, and r1 = 9.8 cm
FL 2 cm, and r 1 = 9.8 cm
(Figure 7).
(Figure 7).

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Simulation
Simulation results on field
results on field distribution
distribution in
in real
real TWFL
TWFL at
at discharge
discharge point
point of
of 10
10 ns.
ns.
Figure 7. Simulation results on field distribution in real TWFL at discharge point of 10 ns.
The discharge
dischargeprocesses
processeswere weresimulated
simulated in in
thetheenvironment
environment of CST Studio
of CST SuiteSuite
Studio soft-
The discharge
ware withwith schematic processes
andand were
3D 3D simulated
programs. ForFor in the
thethe
TWFL environment
parameters of CST
used,Studio
thethe Suite
impedance soft- of
software schematic programs. TWFL parameters used, impedance
ware with schematic and 3D programs. For the TWFL parameters used, the impedance of
the
of main
the mainlinelinewas
wasρ ρ= =18.6
18.6Ω.Ω.The
Theswitch
switchwas wasperfect,
perfect,withwithaa series-connected
series-connected resistance
the main line was ρ = 18.6 Ω. The switch was perfect, with a series-connected resistance
18.6∙3
equal to 18.6 Ω. According
·3 = 55.8 Ω. According to to Equations
Equations (7) (7) and
and (8), the wave impedance of two
equal to 18.6∙3 = 55.8 Ω. According to Equations (7) and (8), the wave impedance of two
nested lines should be ρρ11 = = 37.2 Ω and ρρ22 = 12.4 Ω, respectively. In the simulation, the
nested lines should be ρ1 = 37.2 Ω and ρ2 = 12.4 Ω, respectively. In the simulation, the
charging voltage was U00 == 794 794 kV, for
for which
which Equation
Equation (2) (2) gave
gave EE== 0.175
0.175 MV/cm
MV/cm in the
charging voltage was U0 = 794 kV, for which Equation (2) gave E = 0.175 MV/cm in the
line before
main line beforedischarging.
discharging.According
Accordingtoto electrostatic
electrostatic computations,
computations, thethe local
local fieldfield at
at the
main line before discharging. According to electrostatic computations, the local field at
the right
right electrode
electrode end,end, rounded
rounded to a to a radius
radius of 0.8ofcm,
0.8 cm,
waswas no greater
no greater thanthan
0.24 0.24
MV/cm.MV/cm.
the right electrode end, rounded to a radius of 0.8 cm, was no greater than 0.24 MV/cm.
In the experimental
experimental configuration,
configuration, the the gap
gap ofof the
theinner
innercoaxial
coaxialdeviated
deviatedfrom fromits itstheo-
the-
In the experimental configuration, the gap of the inner coaxial deviated from its the-
retical
oreticalvalue
value such
suchthat
that ρρ was
was 10.8
10.8ΩΩ (13%
(13% lower
lower than
than the
the needed
needed value for ρ
ρ ). Therefore,
Therefore,
oretical value such that ρ22 was 10.8 Ω (13% lower than the needed value for ρ2).2Therefore,
2 2
the same
same computations
computationswere wereperformed
performedfor fortwotwo configurations:
configurations: theoretical
theoretical (ideal)
(ideal) and and
the same computations were performed for two configurations: theoretical (ideal) and ex-ex-
experimental
perimental (real).
(real).
perimental (real).
As can be seen from Figure 8, the voltage pulse in the real TWFL revealed two steps, steps,
As can be seen from Figure 8, the voltage pulse in the real TWFL revealed two steps,
deviating by no more than ±5%
± 5% from
from the
the amplitude
amplitude
deviating by no more than ±5% from the amplitude of the first third.
of
of the
the first
first third.
third.

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Computed
Computed voltage
voltagepulse
pulseshapes
shapesininideal
shapes idealTWFL
TWFLwith
TWFL with
withρ ρρ
2 = 12.4 Ω (blue) and real TWFL with
= 12.4 Ω
Ω (blue) and real TWFL with
22 =
ρ 22 == 10.8
ρ 10.8 Ω
Ω (red).
(red).
ρ2 = 10.8 Ω (red).

The simulation showed that the field strength at the electrodes of all coaxial lines and
in all discharge stages corresponded to the time variation of their potential, exactly as given
in Table 1. In particular, a significant issue can be the electrical strength of the inner gap of
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12

The simulation showed that the field strength at the electrodes of all coaxial lines and
Electronics 2022, 11, 406 The simulation showed that the field strength at the electrodes of all coaxial lines and
8 of 12
in all discharge stages corresponded to the time variation of their potential, exactly as
in all discharge stages corresponded to the time variation of their potential, exactly as
given in Table 1. In particular, a significant issue can be the electrical strength of the inner
given in Table 1. In particular, a significant issue can be the electrical strength of the inner
gap of the line with the lowest impedance. Figure 9 demonstrates the field distribution at
gap of the line with the lowest impedance. Figure 9 demonstrates the field distribution at
theline
the timewith
point
the25 ns, which
lowest lay in the
impedance. range
Figure 4T < t < 5T (Tthe
9 demonstrates = 6field
ns, distribution
see Table 1) at
andthecorre-
time
the time point 25 ns, which lay in the range 4T < t < 5T (T = 6 ns, see Table 1) and corre-
sponded
point to which
25 ns, the maximum potential
lay in the range 4Tdifference in =this
< t < 5T (T part
6 ns, seeofTable
the structure.
1) and corresponded to
sponded to the maximum potential difference in this part of the structure.
the maximum potential difference in this part of the structure.

Figure 9. Field distribution in TWFL at discharge point 25 ns.

Figure9.9. Field
Figure Fielddistribution
distributionin
inTWFL
TWFLat
atdischarge
dischargepoint
point25
25ns.
ns.

ItIt is
is seen
seen that
that the
the field
field in
in this
this TWFL
TWFL part
part and
and atat the
the rounded
rounded electrode
electrode end
end was
was not
not
It is seen that the field in this TWFL part and at the rounded electrode end was not
higher than 0.23 MV/cm. By considering the time of insulation
higher than 0.23 MV/cm. By considering the time of insulation exposure to the field exposure to the field and
higher than 0.23 MV/cm. By considering the time of insulation exposure to the field and
fromfrom
and the electrode surface
the electrode areasareas
surface (see Equation (5)), it(5)),
(see Equation could be concluded
it could that the
be concluded break-
that the
from the electrode surface areas (see Equation (5)), it could be concluded that the break-
down strength
breakdown of theofcomposite
strength the compositeversions was approximately
versions was approximately the same at theatsingle
the same PFL.
the single
down strength of the composite versions was approximately the same at the single PFL.
WhatWhat
PFL. was was intriguing is that
intriguing thisthis
is that conclusion held
conclusion heldfor
forallallinner
innerelectrode
electrode surfaces, despite
despite
What was intriguing is that this conclusion held for all inner electrode surfaces, despite
the decrease in the transverse
the decrease in the transverse dimensions.dimensions.
the decrease in the transverse dimensions.
3.3.
3.3. Laboratory
Laboratory Model
Model of
of SINUS-Type
SINUS-TypeDriver
DriverBased
BasedononTWFL
TWFL
3.3. Laboratory Model of SINUS-Type Driver Based on TWFL
Figure
Figure10
10shows
showsaa laboratory
laboratory model
model of
of aa TWFL,
TWFL, which
which is a modification of the SINUS-
330 Figure
setup 10 shows
based on a a laboratory
PFL of outer model of a33TWFL,
diameter cm. which is a modification of the SINUS-
330 setup based on a PFL of outer diameter 33 cm.
330 setup based on a PFL of outer diameter 33 cm.

Figure10.
Figure 10.TWFL-based
TWFL-basedSINUS
SINUS driver
driver for for
lowlow
pulsepulse repetition
repetition rates: rates: 1–Tesla
1–Tesla transformer
transformer with
with TWFL;
Figure 2–gas-gap
TWFL; 10. TWFL-based
switch SINUS
chamber;driver for
3–primarylow pulse repetition
transformer circuit rates: 1–Tesla transformer
with thyristors, capacitors, with
and
2–gas-gap switch chamber;
TWFL;elements.
2–gas-gap 3–primary
switch chamber; transformer
3–primary circuit with
transformer circuitthyristors, capacitors,
with thyristors, and other
capacitors, and
other
elements.
other elements.

Originally, the SINUS-330 setup (a single FL with ρ0 ≈ 19 Ω and LFL ≈ 120 cm) was
designed for experiments with Cherenkov-type microwave oscillators with a millimeter
wavelength range. A typical waveform of the cathode voltage is shown in Figure 11.
 Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12

Electronics 2022, 11, 406 Originally, the SINUS-330 setup (a single FL with ρ0 ≈ 19 Ω and LFL ≈ 120 cm) was 9 of 12
designed for experiments with Cherenkov-type microwave oscillators with a millimeter
wavelength range. A typical waveform of the cathode voltage is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Voltage waveform at
Voltage waveform atthe
theresistive
resistiveload
loadfor
forsingle
singlePFL
PFLcharged
charged
toto −600kV
−600 kV(time
(timebase
base 4
4 ns/div).
ns/div).
Such research does not require high pulse repetition rates due to the use of impulse
magneticSuch systems
research doescapable not of
require high pulse
providing a fewrepetition
pulses per rates due tofor
minute thebeam
use offormation
impulse and
magnetic systems capable of providing a few pulses per minute for beam formation and
transport. Compared to high repetition rates, the total number of pulses producible within
transport. Compared to high repetition rates, the total number of pulses producible within
a limited time is many (e.g., four) orders of magnitude lower. Therefore, the ratio E/Ebr
a limited time is many (e.g., four) orders of magnitude lower. Therefore, the ratio E/Ebr
may be increased; e.g., through increasing the charging voltage U0 by 30–40% [1,26]. In
may be increased; e.g., through increasing the charging voltage U0 by 30–40% [1,26]. In
addition, no forced gas circulation is needed for the gas-gap switch (2) and the primary
addition, no forced gas circulation is needed for the gas-gap switch (2) and the primary
transformer circuit(3)
transformer circuit (3)isissimplified
simplified asas well.
well.
With
With aa fixed
fixedgapgapininthethegas-gap
gas-gap switch,
switch, thethe charging
charging voltage
voltage U0 could
U0 could be varied
be varied from from
580 to 670 kV, by varying the gas (nitrogen) pressure
580 to 670 kV, by varying the gas (nitrogen) pressure in the chamber. in the chamber.
With theoriginal
With the original PFL
PFL (Figure
(Figure 11), 11), the voltage
the voltage pulse pulse
duration duration
across theacross the load
load was ≈13 was
≈ns13at ns at aoflevel
a level 0.5Uofmax.0.5U
The max . The
voltage voltage
rise and fallrise
timesand fall times
at 0.1–0.9U maxat 0.1–0.9U
were about 4maxns.were
Thus,about
4the
ns.pulse
Thus, hadthe pulse hadshort
a relatively a relatively
quasi-flatshort ≈10 ns. The
top ofquasi-flat of ≈
topload 10 ns. The
comprised load comprised
high-voltage
high-voltage
resistors with resistors with a total
a total resistance of 80resistance of 80 Ω voltage
Ω in the operating in the operating
range. voltage range.
With its
its TWFL
TWFLversion
versionatat the
the same
same stored
stored energy
energy (Figure
(Figure 12),flat
12), the thetop
flatoftop
theof the pulse
pulse
increased more than three times, and the voltage rise time decreased
increased more than three times, and the voltage rise time decreased to about 3 ns. The to about 3 ns. The
voltage waveform
voltage waveform was wasquite
quiteclose
closetotothat
thatobserved
observed in in
thethe
simulation.
simulation. TheThe
overshot, afterafter a
overshot,
a rise time of about 3 ns, was due to the presence of a low-impedance
rise time of about 3 ns, was due to the presence of a low-impedance piercing of the initial piercing of the initial
part of
part of the
the transmission
transmissionline, line,which
which was wasnotnot
usedusedin the simulation.
in the simulation.The diode
The diodevoltagevoltage
amplitude U L ≈ 380 kV corresponded to the charging voltage (U0 ≈ 650 kV) and the value
amplitude UL ≈ 380 kV corresponded to the charging voltage (U0 ≈ 650 kV) and the value
of the
the load
load (R L + ρeff), where ρeff ≈ 56 Ω. Equation (4) calculates the
of
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW (RLL ≈≈8080Ω):Ω):ULU= U=0RUL/(R
L 0 RL /(RL + ρeff ), where ρe ff ≈ 56 Ω. Equation (4) calculates
10 of 12
matching efficiency of the high-voltage
the matching efficiency of the high-voltage driver driver
and theand loadthe 96.9%.
load 96.9%.

Figure 12. Voltage waveform across resistive load for TWFL charged to −650 kV (time base 10
Figure 12. Voltage waveform across resistive load for TWFL charged to −650 kV (time base 10 ns/div).
ns/div).

4. Discussion
At equal stored energies, TWFLs (k = 3) have the same advantages as DWFLs over
conventional PFLs [23] when high-resistance loads are used. The pulse extension allows
Electronics 2022, 11, 406 10 of 12

4. Discussion
At equal stored energies, TWFLs (k = 3) have the same advantages as DWFLs over
conventional PFLs [23] when high-resistance loads are used. The pulse extension allows
one to decrease the driver dimensions at a specified load pulse duration, to increase the
efficiency of matching the driver and the load, and to shorten the pulse rise time. It was
supposed that the decrease in the voltage rise time was associated with the spark-channel
dynamics, depending on the internal generator impedance [25].
Obviously, passing to longer high-voltage pulses needs a careful consideration of the
reliability of the transmission-line insulation, including the solid-state vacuum insulator.
The proposed method of 4-fold voltage pulse extension (k = 4) has the prospect of
increasing the duration of microwave pulses in the millimeter wavelength range, at moder-
ate and low accelerating voltages (≈320 kV and less) when the e-beam diode impedance
should measure ≈120 Ω or higher [12,17].

5. Conclusions
The proposed method allowed a many-fold extension of a high-voltage pulse by
nesting additional lines into the free volume of the inner electrode of an ordinary PFL. For
the first time, the general requirements for such lines have been formulated. The method
has been given theoretical grounds. Its efficiency has been proven in a practice earlier for an
X-band repetitively pulsed HPM relativistic backward wave oscillator [14] that was driven
by a double-width pulse-forming line: for a fixed microwave pulse duration (20 ns), the
total length of the source was decreased by approximately two times. The expectations of
high efficiency of driver-load matching were confirmed in the described experiment with a
triple-width forming line.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.V.R. and A.S.S.; Data curation, V.V.R., A.S.S., P.V.V.
and R.V.T.; Formal analysis, V.V.R., A.S.S. and R.V.T.; Investigation, R.V.T.; Methodology, V.V.R.
and A.S.S.; Software, A.S.S. and R.V.T.; Validation, A.S.S., P.V.V. and R.V.T.; Visualization, A.S.S.;
Writing—original draft, V.V.R. and A.S.S.; Writing—review and editing, V.V.R. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the
Russian Federation (No FWRM-2021-0002).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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