Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF Anatomy & Physiology

Tenth Edition
Chapter 4: Tissues Lecture Epithelial Tissue
Outline Characteristics
1. Mostly composed of cell
Tissue
2. Covers body surfaces
> A tissue is a group of cells
with similar structure and 3. Distinct cell surfaces
function, plus the
extracellular substance 4. Cell and matrix connections
surrounding them.
5. Nonvascular
> Histology is the study of
6. Capable of regeneration
tissues.
Types of Tissues
1. Epithelial – a covering or
lining tissue
2. Connective – a diverse
primary tissue type that
makes up part of every
organ in the body
3. Muscle – a tissue that Functions of Epithelial Tissues
contracts or shortens, 1. Protects underlying structures
making movement
possible 2. Acts as a barrier

4. Nervous – responsible for 3. Permits passage of substance

coordinating and 4. Secretes substances
controlling many body
activities 5. Absorption of substances

Epithelial Tissues
Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and protects
surfaces, both outside and inside the body.
Included under the classification of epithelial tissue are the
exocrine and endocrine glands.

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 Simple Squamous Epithelium
Classification of Epithelia
Simple squamous epithelium is a single
Epithelial tissues are classified primarily layer of thin, flat cells. Some substances
according to the number of cell layers and easily pass through this thin layer of cells,
the shape of the superficial cells. but other substances do not. The lungs,
simple squamous epithelium, allows for
The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or gas exchange. The kidneys, simple
pseudostratified. squamous epithelium, helps filter wastes
The cell shapes can be squamous, from the blood while keeping blood cells
cuboidal, columnar, or a special inside the blood vessels
transitional shape, that varies with the
degree of stretch.
Simple epithelium consists of a single
layer of cells, with each cell extending
from the basement membrane to the
free surface.

Stratified epithelium consists of more

than one layer of cells, but only the
basal layer attaches the deepest layer to
the basement membrane.

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is

a special type of simple epithelium, that
appears to be falsely stratified.
• It consists of one layer of cells, with
all the cells attached to the
basement membrane.
Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer
of cube-like cells that carry out active
transport, facilitated diffusion, or
secretion. They have a greater secretory
capacity than simple squamous epithelial
cells.

• Due to variations in the shape of

the cells, the epithelia appears
stratified.

There are three types of

epithelium based on idealized
shapes of the epithelial cells:
1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.

2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about

as wide as they are tall.

3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than

they are wide.

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Simple Columnar Epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium is a single
layer of tall, thin cells.
The large size of these cells enables
them to perform complex functions,
such as secretion.
Keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
The outer layer of the skin is comprised of
a keratinized squamous epithelium.
The keratin reduces the loss of water
from the body.

The simple columnar epithelium of the Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous

small intestine produces and secretes
mucus and digestive enzymes.
Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium of the
mouth is a moist nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.

This nonkeratinized stratified squamous

epithelium provides protection against
abrasion and acts as a mechanical barrier.

Water, however, can move across it more

readily than across the skin (keratinized
stratified squamous).
Pseudostratified Columnar Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
secretes mucus, which covers its
free surface.

Cilia in the airways move the mucus and

accumulated debris toward the throat,
where it is swallowed.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified squamous epithelium forms a

thick epithelium because it consists of
several layers of cells.

Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or

columnar and are capable of dividing
and producing new cells, the naming is
based on the shape of the surface cells.

There are two types of stratified

squamous epithelia: keratinized
stratified squamous and nonkeratinized
stratified squamous epithelia.

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Stratified Cuboidal
Epithelium

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

consists of more than one
layer of cuboidal epithelial
cells.

This epithelial type is relatively

rare and is found in sweat
gland ducts, ovarian follicular
cells, and the salivary glands.
It functions in absorption,
secretion, and protection.

Stratified Columnar
Epithelium Stratified
columnar epithelium consists
of more than one layer of
epithelial cells; the surface
cells are columnar but the
deeper cells are irregular or
cuboidal in shape.
Like stratified cuboidal
epithelium, stratified columnar
epithelium is relatively rare,
found in the mammary gland
ducts, the larynx, and a portion
of the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out
secretion, protection, and
some absorption.
Transitional Epithelium
Transitional epithelium is a
special type of stratified
epithelium that can be greatly
stretched. The shape of the
cells change as the epithelium
is stretched. Transitional
epithelium lines cavities that
can expand greatly, such as the
urinary bladder. It also
protects underlying structures,
like the urinary bladder, from
the caustic effects of urine.
Transitional Epithelium
Free Cell Surfaces
Most epithelia have a free surface that is not in
contact with other cells and faces away from
underlying tissues. The characteristics of the free
surface reflect its functions.
The free surface can be smooth or lined with microvilli
or cilia. Cilia move materials over the top of the cell.
Microvilli increase surface area.
Cell Connections
Cells have several structures that hold one cell to one
another or to the basement membrane. These
structures do three things: mechanically bind the cells
together, help form a permeability barrier, and
provide a mechanism for intercellular communication.
Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind cells
together.
Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes that anchor
cells to the basement membrane.
Tight junctions prevent the passage of materials
between epithelial cells because they completely
surround each cell, similar to the way a belt surrounds
the waist.

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Materials that pass through the
epithelial layer must pass through the
cells, so those cells regulate what
materials can cross.
Tight junctions are found in the lining
of the intestines.
Gap junctions are small channels that
allow small molecules and ions to pass
from one epithelial cell to an adjacent
one.
Most exocrine glands are multicellular,
comprised of many cells.
Some exocrine glands are composed of a single
cell, like goblet cells, that secrete mucus.
Multicellular exocrine glands can be classified
according to the structure of their ducts and
secretory regions.
Simple glands have a single, non-branched duct,
some have branched ducts.

Most epithelial cells are connected to
one another by gap junctions, and
researchers believe that molecules or
ions moving through the gap junctions
act as communication signals to
coordinate the activities of the cells.
Compound exocrine glands have multiple,
branched ducts.
Glands with secretory regions shaped as tubules
(small tubes) are called tubular, whereas those
shaped in saclike structures are called acinar or
alveolar.

Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.

Glands with a combination of the two are called

tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar.

Exocrine Gland Structures

Glands
Glands are secretory organs that secrete substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or into
the bloodstream.
Glands are composed primarily of epithelium, with a supporting network of connective
tissue.
Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands.
Both the gland and its ducts is lined with epithelium.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they secrete their products (termed hormones) into
the bloodstream.

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Glands
Exocrine glands can also be
classified according to how
products leave the cell.
Merocrine secretion involves
the release of secretory
products by exocytosis.
Apocrine secretion involves the
release of secretory products as
pinched-off fragments of the
gland cells.
Holocrine secretion involves
the shedding of entire cells.
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is a diverse
primary tissue type that makes
up part of every organ in the
body.
Connective tissue differs from
the other three tissue types in
that it consists of cells separated
from each other by abundant
extracellular matrix.
Connective tissue is diverse in
both structure and function.
Connective tissue is comprised
of cells, protein fibers, and an
extracellular matrix.
Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release chemicals,
such as histamine, that promote inflammation.
Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types
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Functions of Connective Tissue
1. Enclose and separate other tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
4. Storing compounds
5. Cushioning and insulating
6. Transporting
7. Protecting
Connective Tissue Cells
The specialized cells of the various connective tissues
produce the extracellular matrix.
The name of the cell identifies the cell functions.
Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain it, and
osteoclasts break it down.
Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous connective
tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it.
Chondroblasts form cartilage and chondrocytes
maintain it.
Connective Tissue Cells
Found in connective tissue are cells associated
with the immune system, such as white blood cells.
Macrophages are large cells that are capable of moving
about and ingesting foreign substances, including
microorganisms in the connective tissue.

Extracellular Matrix
The extracellular matrix of
connective tissue has three
major components: protein
fibers, ground substance, and
fluid.
Ground substance consists of
non-fibrous protein and other
molecules.
The structure of the matrix is
responsible for the functional
characteristics of connective
tissues—for example, they
enable bones and cartilage to
bear weight.
Matrix Protein Fibers
Three types of protein fibers—
collagen, reticular, and elastic—
help form most connective
tissues.
Collagen fibers, which resemble
microscopic ropes, are very
flexible but resist stretching.
Types of Connective Tissues
The two main types of connective tissue are embryonic
and adult connective tissue.
By eight weeks of development, most of the embryonic
connective tissue has become specialized to form the
types of connective tissue seen in adults. Loose
connective tissue consists of relatively few protein fibers
that form a lacy network, with numerous spaces filled
with ground substance and fluid.
Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue are areolar,
adipose, and reticular.
Areolar connective tissue primarily consists of collagen
fibers and a few elastic fibers. The most common cells in
loose connective tissue are the fibroblasts
Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat cells, which
contain large amounts of lipid for energy storage.
Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of the body and
acts as a thermal insulator.
Reticular tissue forms the framework of lymphatic
tissue, such as in the spleen and lymph nodes, as well as
in bone marrow and the liver.
Areolar Connective Tissue

Reticular fibers are very fine,

short collagen fibers that branch
to form a supporting network.

Elastic fibers have the ability to

return to their original shape
after being stretched or
compressed, giving tissue an
elastic quality.

Matrix Ground Substance

The ground substance consists of non-fibrous molecules and is shapeless. .

It consists of proteoglycans, which are large molecules that consist of a protein core
attached to many long polysaccharides.

Proteoglycans trap large quantities of water between the polysaccharides, which

allows them to return to their original shape when compressed or deformed.

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Adipose Tissue
Types of Connective Tissues
Dense connective tissue has a relatively large
number of protein fibers that form thick
bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular
space.
There are two major subcategories of dense
connective tissue: collagenous and elastic.
Dense collagenous connective tissue
having the collagen fibers oriented in the
same direction is termed dense regular.
Examples of dense regular are tendons
and ligaments.
Dense collagenous connective tissue
having the collagen fibers oriented in the
multiple directions is termed dense
irregular. Examples of dense irregular
are in the dermis of the skin and in organ
capsules.
Dense Regular Collagenous Connective
Tissue
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Types of Connective Tissues
Dense elastic connective tissue has abundant
elastic fibers among its collagen fibers.
The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch
and recoil. Examples include the dense elastic
connective tissue in the vocal cords.
A genetic condition called Marfan syndrome
results from, in part the inability to properly
maintain and form elastic fibers.
Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue
Cartilage
Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes, located in
spaces called lacunae within an extensive matrix.
Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility and
strength. Cartilage is resilient because the
proteoglycans of the matrix trap water. Cartilage
provides support, but if bent or slightly compressed, it
resumes its original shape.
There are three types of cartilage: hyaline,
fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage.
Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of
cartilage and has many functions, such as covering the
ends of bones, where they form joints.
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does hyaline
cartilage and is able to withstand compression and
resist tearing or pulling. Fibrocartilage is found in the
intervertebral
Hyaline Cartilage
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does
hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling.
Fibrocartilage is found in the disks between
the vertebrae (bones of the back) and in
some joints, such as the knee and
temporomandibular (jaw) joints.
Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in
addition to collagen and proteoglycans.
The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers
among bundles of collagen fibers.
Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original shape
when bent. The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory
tube contain elastic cartilage.
Fibrocartilage and Elastic Cartilages
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Bone
Bone is a hard connective tissue that
consists of living cells and a mineralized
matrix. Osteocytes are located within
lacunae. The strength and rigidity of the
mineralized matrix enables bones to
support and protect other tissues and
organs. Two types of bone tissue exist:
spongy bone and compact bone.
Spongy bone has spaces between
trabeculae or plates, of bone and
therefore resembles a sponge.
Compact bone is more solid, with
almost no space between many thin
layers of mineralized matrix.
Bone
Blood is a liquid connective tissue It contains a
liquid matrix, termed the plasma, along with
formed elements. The formed elements are
erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. It
functions in transport of food, oxygen, waste,
hormones, and other substances.
Muscle
The main function of muscle
tissue is to contract, or shorten,
making movement possible.
Muscle contraction results from
contractile proteins located within
the muscle cells.
The three types of muscle tissue
are skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth.
Muscle
Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow
organs; it is also found in the skin and the
eyes. Smooth muscle is responsible for a
number of functions, such as moving food
through the digestive tract and emptying the
urinary bladder. Smooth muscle cells are
tapered at each end, have a single nucleus,
and are not striated.
Smooth Muscle

Skeletal muscle attaches to the

skeleton and enables the body to
move. Skeletal muscle cells are
striated, or banded, because of the
arrangement of contractile proteins
within the cells.
Skeletal Muscle

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord,
and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities. Nervous tissue
consists of neurons and support cells, termed glial
cells. The neuron is responsible for conducting
action potentials. It is composed of three parts: a
cell body, dendrites, and an axon.
Nervous Tissue
Muscle
Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the
heart; it is responsible for pumping
blood. Cardiac muscle cells are
cylindrical but much shorter than
skeletal muscle cells. Cardiac muscle
cells are striated and usually have one
nucleus per cell. They are often
branched and connected to one another
by intercalated disks.
Cardiac Muscle

Tissue Membranes
A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or layer of tissue that
covers a structure or lines a cavity.

Most membranes consist of epithelium and the

connective tissue on which the epithelium rests.

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There are four tissue membranes Internal Membranes
in the body: cutaneous, mucous,
serous, and synovial. The skin,
termed the cutaneous
membrane, is an external body
surface membrane.

The mucous membranes line

cavities that open to the outside
of the body, such as the
digestive, respiratory, and
reproductive tracts. Mucous
membranes consist of epithelial
cells, their basement membrane,
and a thick layer of loose
connective tissue. Many, but not
all, mucous membranes secrete
mucus. The functions of mucous Tissue Inflammation
membranes include protection, Inflammation is usually a beneficial process occurring when
absorption, and secretion. tissues are damaged. When viruses infect epithelial cells of
the upper respiratory tract, inflammation and the symptoms
Serous membranes line cavities of the common cold are produced. The inflammatory
that do not open to the exterior process occurs in stages.
of the body, such as the Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses and isolates
pericardial, pleural, and and destroys microorganisms, foreign materials, and
peritoneal cavities. Serous damaged cells so that tissue repair can proceed.
membranes consist of three Inflammation produces five major symptoms: redness, heat,
swelling, pain, and disturbance of function.
components: a layer of simple
squamous epithelium, its Inflammation
basement membrane, and a
delicate layer of loose
connective tissue. Serous
membranes do not contain
glands, but they secrete a small
amount of fluid called serous fluid,
which lubricates the surface of the
membranes.

Tissue Membranes

Synovial membranes line the cavities

of freely movable joints. They are
made up of only connective tissue and
consist of modified connective tissue
cells. Synovial membranes produce
synovial fluid, which makes the joint
very slippery, thereby reducing friction
and allowing smooth movement within
the joint.

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Tissue Repair

Tissue repair involves substitution of dead cells for viable cells.

Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or by fibrosis. In regeneration, the new cells
are the same type as those that were destroyed, and normal function is usually
restored.

In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of tissue develops that eventually causes scar
production and the loss of some tissue function. Regeneration can completely repair
some tissues, such as the skin and the mucous membrane of the intestine. In these
cases, regeneration is accomplished primarily by stem cells.

Stem cells are self-renewing, undifferentiated cells that continue to divide throughout
life.

Tissue repair occurs in sequential steps.

Tissue Repair

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