LINGUISTICS

Chapter 1:
The Foundations on the Study of Language

Lesson 1: Definition and Design of Language

Language is defined as speech communication, cognitive process, linguistic

communication, and culture-shaped.
Speech Communication: Language is about the production and reception of sounds.
Through the use of speech organs, humans are capable of transferring information, even in the
shortest amount of time.
Cognitive Process: Language as a cognitive process is professed as an instrument of
thinking where language mirrors the mind.
Linguistic Communication: Language, as linguistic communication, is perceived as
sets of signs and a system of symbols grounded on pure arbitrary concords. The configuration
of language is complex yet methodical.
Culture-shaped: Language is a means of communicating the culture of a particular
community or members of society. Language is cultural because it is a social institution.

Various Views of Language

Structuralists:
They view language as a structured system of components, an idea with a specific
framework. Language, for them, is a system, possesses a structure that governs the aspects of
every element of a whole. A structuralist language teacher provides drills and activities where
students are required to analyze the patterns of sounds, the configurations of word formations,
the arrangement of the words in the sentences. They focus on the students’ mastery of the
codes and system of language.
Transformationalists:
They view language as a generative and creative process. Language pervades creativity
since it is more abstract and has more reflective elements. They maintain the sight of language
as an actual knowledge and use, that language is internalized when language atmosphere is
provided. A transformationalist language teacher allows students to use the language in a
creative way by using their innate multiple intelligences to be creative and at the same time
utilize language. Major Proponent: Noam Chomsky
Functionalists:
They view language as an instrument for communication and a vehicle for expression.
They argue that structure can be best analyzed when referred to the functions they carry-out in
a communicative context. They believe that language is acquired, produced, used, and
structured for interactions. A functionalist language teacher provides authentic tasks that will
allow students to use the language and attain the function of the interaction, and eventually
transmit order in society. Major Proponent: Michael Halliday
Interactionists:
They view language as a product of a human desire to communicate with another and
acquire the language which one desires to learn. They believe that human genetics provides
and individual the capability to produce language and his/her interactions makes him/her master
the language. An interactionist language teacher targets the mastery of the students in a second
language and will allow students to communicate and interact with each other to practice the
use of the target language believing that language is developed through social interaction. Major
Proponent: Vygotsky

The Design of Language: Communication

All human beings use language to communicate. Linguists call this the communicative
function of language.

Structuring the Ingredients of Communication

Whenever linguistic communication takes place, four ingredients are present:
1. users
2. message
3. code
4. signal

In particular, users transmit messages to each other by encoding them into a signal. These four
ingredients expand into the 14 design features listed below:

Design Features of Human Language

Ingredient Design Feature Definition

User 1. Specialized 1. Speech is specialized for communication

2. Interchangeable 2. Users send and receive messages
3. Sensitive to Feedback 3. Users monitor and adjust their production as
4. Interactive necessary
4. Users learn language by interacting with other
users

Message 1. Meaningful 1. Language specifies meanings—i.e.semanticity

2. Productive 2. Language creates new messages—i.e.
3. Displaced from the here Productivity
and the now 3. Language talks about things that are located
elsewhere in time
and space—i.e. displacement

Code 1. Discrete 1. Messages consist of smaller parts or units

2. Arbitrary 2. There is no intrinsic (built-in) connection between
3. Hierarchical the signal and the meaning it conveys
3. Small units (individual sounds) combine to form
larger units (words)—a.k.a. duality of patterning

Signal 1. Modality-specific 1. Spoken language uses the airways to produce

2. One-to-many Broadcast acoustic and visual signals, keeping the hands free
3. Directional Reception for other tasks
4. Rapid fading 2.One sender broadcasts speech signals to many
 receivers at the same time
3.Perceivers identify speech signals as coming from
a single direction and source
4.Speech signals disappear as soon as they are
produced

Additional Design Features of Language by Hocket (1968)

Prevarication: the ability to tell a lie
Learnability: the ability to learn another language
Reflexiveness: the ability to use language to talk about language

Lesson 2: Characteristics and Nature of Language

Characteristics of Language

Conventionality and Non-instinctiveness

Language is brought about by evolution and strengthened with convention. It is a silent
pact that each generation transmits to the next. Like all human institutions, language flourishes
and perishes, it expands and transforms. It adapts with the change of time. Language is
non-instinctive since none is born with the spontaneity to speak any language. It is learned
through interaction and socialization. Language is not biologically automated but culturally
determined.

Productivity and Creativity

Language is productive. It is creative. It keeps on sprouting that with one word emerges
another. As the needs of people change, language evolves as a means of adapting to the
demands of the people who use it. The structural features of human language can be fixed to
create new expressions, which are understood by both speakers and listeners. Man uses
concurrent linguistics to produce complete novel ideas and expressions.

Duality
The duality of patterning is the double articulation and semiotic. Language duality is what
gives language expressive power since meaningless sounds are combined according to rules to
form meaningful words. Significantly in speech production, the individual sounds of p,e,n do not
have intrinsic meaning, but when combined as in ‘pen’, it now has a distinct meaning. The
combination of sounds is based on fixed rules that no word starts with zl, lr, bz, or ng in the
English language. This makes language dual.

Displacement
Human language is context-free. Human beings are capable of narrating events and
situations without actually living them at the moment. For human language, a stimulus is not
directly induced, objects may not necessarily be tangibly present at the place and time of
speaking. This is called displacement. Only humans are capable of recounting events that
occurred before the vision of what happens next. This explains why humans are capable of
recalling stories that happened or even creating stories that may not be realistically posiible,
such as fiction.

Humanness
Language is innate to human beings. No species other than humans are gifted with
language. Humans are endowed with physical attributes for them to acquire language.
Language has complex structures of sounds and meanings, which animals could not
comprehend. A cow’s moo today is similar to the moos centuries ago. Human language is
changeable and extendable. Humans could clearly distinguish concrete identifiable symbols
through the use of language, however, animal communication is often non-discrete. Indeed,
human language is way more intricate than animal communication.

Universality
Although each language has a unique style of functions in terms of sounds, vocabulary,
and structures, language is equal in all the parts of the universe. A linguistic universal is a
systematic occurrence of the linguistic patterns across national languages. All languages have
nouns, although the structural arrangement may vary in the same way that all languages have
vowels and consonants. Linguists identified two universals: the absolute, where all elements
apply to every known language; and the implicational, where only particular features apply to
different languages.

Nature of Language

Language as something learnt

Language is something that is learned through exposure and practice. Although the
language is genetically programmed in our brain to make distinctions of the different sounds,
things, activities, and notions, language acquisition is produced through active learning and
repetitive interactions. Language learning, therefore, is behavioral, imitative, and learned
through effort.

Language as related to the culture of society

Language influences cultures; the values, the practices, and the interests of people.
Similarly, culture influences language. There is always a cyclical association among language,
society, and culture that is produced due to the interaction. Language is culturally defined. They
are inseparable in a way that culture affects language, and language affects the mental state of
society. It creates a vital foundation in the development of a society.

Language as species-specific, uniformed, and unique to humans

The ability to use and respond to language is genetically inherited by humans. It is
species-uniformed since only human beings are capable of acquiring language, set in the right
environment. All animals communicate, however, language is an important tool for
communication, hence, it is tough to think of a society without language. Language functions in
the left hemisphere of the brain, seated on the cerebral cortex, different from the rest of the
animals.

Language as a hierarchically-organized system

Learning a language is similar to learning mathematics. It needs analysis. This is in
reference to the fact that language is a system of systems. It is a system of sounds and
symbols. There are two distinguishing systemic categories of language:
The sound system
Structures
Meanings
system of symbols
Non- verbal signals.
The receiver of the message who shares the common codes interprets and arrives at the
intended meaning. Language is composed of units that are assembled according to the rules of
grammar. All languages systematically combine units to form larger units, arrange units in a
particular order, and substitute units for each other.

Language as vocal
Language is oral. Speech is primary, writing is secondary. Speech is the fundamental
expression of language. A language without speech is unimaginable. Language is spoken first
before it is written. Through generations, language has been passed on verbally and eventually
in written form. Writing preserves language.

Language as a skill subject

Learning a language is acquiring skills. The macro skills—i.e. listening and viewing,
speaking, reading, and writing, are categorized into receptive and expressive language skills.
Receptive skill is the ability to understand information represented in words and sentences
either through visual or auditory, while expressive language skill is the facility to put forth
sensible ideas into visual and acoustic symbols such as writing and speaking, with accurate
grammatical representations.

Language as a means for communication

Language is a linguistic and speech communication purposely designed to put intended
messages across either spoken or written. It is a tool to express feelings and ideas. Language is
used to communicate concepts and intentions. It is a social phenomenon, programmed with
sets of conventional communicative marks, that allows humans to communicate with precision.
As a whole, language serves as an intermediary between the individual and the community.

Language as something produced and perceived

Human languages are expressed using the human body. When you speak, you use your
lungs, voice box, mouth, tongue, jaw, and even your nose. Of course, it doesn't stop there- you
also move your head, do funny things with your eyebrows, wave your hands, and change your
body posture. In perceiving language, you use your hearing and vision, and even touch, to take
in the linguistic information coming your way. It helps that you are both a producer and a
perceiver of language because you are constantly producing signals that have never been
made before.

Language as arbitrary
Language is arbitrary in the sense that language meanings existed as they are. There
are no plausible explanation or inherent relation as to how meanings are assigned to each
other. It is a structure of conventional symbols. Each symbol embodies a stretch of sounds with
which a sense could be associated. There's no intrinsic relation between a particular set of
sounds and a particular meaning. The sound-meaning relation differs from language to
language: that's a fancy way of saying that different languages have different words to express
the same concept. If language was not randomly created, there could only be one language in
the entire world; fixed and unchanging.

Language as genetically endowed to humans

All humans are born with a roughly equal capacity to acquire language. Evidence for this
genetic, inborn, feature of language includes these facts: a) Language doesn't depend on
intelligence: Someone with a severe cognitive impairment can still use language; b) The
acquisition of language and speech Is fast and easy for humans: Young children learn their
mother tongue rapidly, from babbling at 6 months to speaking sentences by the age of three.
Not even the most sophisticated computers today can learn to use language at anything like the
level of a small child; and c) In learning language, children everywhere follow the same
sequence of steps, no matter which language they're learning or which cultural group or social
class they belong to. And children acquire language much, much better than adults do.

Lesson 3: Language Functions

People use language for specific reasons, whether that is to inform, to, or express desires.
Language is always used to meet certain functions. The purpose of each interaction using
language is called language functions.

General Functions of Language

Interpersonal
The interpersonal function of a language fulfills the human needs to exchange
experiences since humans are social beings. It is interpersonal when the communicators use
grammatical preferences that enable them to perform their interpersonal relations. This is based
on the assumption that a human being does not only talk but is in constant conversation with
others.

Informative
Declarative statements are used in informative languages. Informative language is often
seen in analytical reports, arguments, and directions, or most everyday speeches. Language
then functions as a means in illustrating observable and confirmable reasons.
Performative
When language is used to do things or perform or report an action, the language
function is performative. The performative function of language holds power that can guarantee
the deed or performance of an act. For example, the newly wed couple who just said ‘I do’
during the ceremony manifested a binding statement of their commitment to each other.

Expressive
When one uses language to express feelings, the language function is expressive. The
expressive language function reports attitudes and emotions. The expressive language of a
speaker is oftentimes a way of understanding the speaker’s personality and emotions.

Jakobson’s Functions of Language

Referential Function
It is associated with context. This language function is concerned with the content.
Language describes a situation or an object. It is referred to as denotative, cognitive function
since it pronounces a mental state. It involves both deictic words and specific descriptions to
show things or facts.

Emotive Function
It focuses on the sender, similar to expressive language. This is best illustrated with
interjections, which are phrases spoken to express a burst of emotions or surprise, excitement,
or frustration. It is an expression of the speaker’s internal state.

Conative Function
It is directive and oriented towards the receiver. This is used when the speaker
expresses purposively to persuade or influence the receiver. It used for causing or preventing
an action. It used for commands and requests. The linguistic expressions are evocative and
imperative sentences, which will direct the receiver to act out and do something.

Phatic Function
It is socio-linguistic function used for the sake of interactions. This is set for the ‘channel
or contact’ that establishes, suspends, or prolongs the communication. This function is used to
keep the communication open and maintain contact with the person one is talking with.

Metalingual Function
Also called reflexive, it is the use of language to describe itself (self-referential) or use of
the code as Jakobson calls it. It is used when a language talks about its features. The
metalingual function usually develops from an interruption in the communication process. This
happens when two or more people speak different languages or use different codes within one
language such as dialects, sociolects, and idiolects, or when a language is used to discuss
about a language.
Poetic Function
It focuses on the message and its aesthetic presentation. It is associated with how the
message reflects itself. This refers to the descriptive language used to create a picture in the
mind. It is an aesthetic manipulation of the intrinsic linguistic elements, which focuses primarily
on the splendor of the language itself. The words are arranged and crafted strikingly using
sounds and linguistic features.

Halliday’s Functions of Language

Ideational Function
It involves the natural world and human consciousness. This is concerned with creating
and maintaining a notion of experience, which is both experiential and logical. It denotes the
speaker’s choice of linguistic elements that will help him to make meaning. It also denotes
logical-semantic associations, where the relationship between one clausal unit and another is
established.

Interpersonal Function
It is about the world of people working together. This function seeks to create and uphold
social relationships. This includes sentences and grammatical choices that allow a person to
enact interpersonal relations. This is grounded on the assumption that a speaker always
communicates with another, which shows that language does not only interpret experiences but
also as a vehicle with which to interact.

Textual Function
It comprises all the grammatical systems needed to create relevance to context, through
which ‘language creates a semiotic world of its own’. A text is created that coheres the context
of the situation within itself.

Halliday’s Micro-functions of Language

He proposed 7 functions of language based on the premise that interaction in society is

necessary to master the language. He categorized the 7 functions of language. The first four are
what he referred to as pragmatic, which is to fulfill a child’s social, physical, and emotional
needs. The remaining three functions are what he calls ‘mathematic’, which are used to help a
person come to terms with his physical atmosphere.

Instrumental Function
It refers to the use of language to communicate needs, express desires, choices, and
preferences. Using language as an instrument, the child could get things done. Halliday
illustrates instrumental function as a child’s instrument such as sounds to get what he wants
even before learning a concrete language.

Regulatory Function
 It refers to the use of language to control and regulate behavior. It is concerned with
influencing people to do things for the child.

Interactional Function
It is used to develop a relationship and smoothen interaction. This includes greetings
and responding to calls.

Personal Function
It is demonstrated when it is used to convey information based on a personal level such
as emotions and attitudes and the identity of the speaker.

Heuristic Function
It is used when children explore and desire to learn from their environment. Once a
boundary between them and the environment is established, they start to explore the
environment.

Imaginative Function
It is used by children to generate imaginary construct. This is observed when they talk to
themselves, create a story, and converse with an imaginary friend. The imaginative function of
language is fulfilled when children create and modify the place and the situation that they are in
by using the language.

Representational Function
It used to convey facts, explain ideas, relay, and request information. This is when the
child accurately captures how the world works which usually happens when they start going to
school.

Chapter 2: LINGUISTICS: ITS BRANCHES, THEORIES, AND APPROACHES

Lesson 1: Branches of Linguistics

Linguistics
- the scientific study of the human language.
- the science that studies the rules, systems, principles of human language
- is concerned with human life, behavior, and society

Two Major Divisions of Linguistics:

1. Micro-linguistics (aka theoretical linguistics or general linguistics)
★ studies the nature of language—i.e. what language is all about and how it works.
★ focuses on the structural components of language under the broad level of grammar
★ the following are some of its components:
○ Phonetics:
■ the branch of linguistics that studies the physical properties of
sounds—i.e. how sounds are produced and articulated through the
 interaction of the different vocal organs. Because phonetics deals with the
physical properties of sounds irrespective of the language, the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) comes in here. The goal of the IPA
is to provide unique but generalized symbol for every sound or phoneme
in a language.
○ Phonology:
■ the branch of linguistics that studies the systems of sounds within a
language or between different languages. It is primarily concerned with
the systematic organization of sounds especially in spoken languages. It
studies the patterns of sounds in a language, how speech sounds are
organized, and how they are used to convey meaning. Phonology is
different from phonetics. Phonology focuses on the abstract properties of
sound, such as how sounds are acquired or stored in the human mind.
○ Morphology:
■ the branch of linguistics that focuses on the study of morphemes - the
smallest meaningful unit of a language that cannot be further divided.
Hence, morphology studies different morphological structures of words,
describes how works are formed, and demonstrates how word formation
processes (e.g. derivation and inflection) affect the meaning of words and
their pronunciation.
○ Syntax:
■ the branch of linguistics that focuses on the arrangement of words and
phrases to form sentences. If morphology studies how words are formed,
syntax deals with sentences are structured. The word ‘syntax’ in Greek is
syntaxis, which means arrangement. Hence, it studies how words,
phrases, and clauses are arranged or ordered to form sentences and the
relationship between them. It also describes and sets the rules or
principles that govern the order of words and structures of sentences.
○ Semantics:
■ the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of the linguistic meaning
of words and sentences. It encompasses morphological meaning and the
combined meaning of syntactical structures. It studies language meaning
in terms of words-sentence relationships whether in the lexical or
compositional level. Some semantic relationships between words are
synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, and polysemy.
○ Pragmatics:
■ the branch of linguistics that deals with meaning beyond the surface or
literal level—i.e. it focuses more on the intended meaning of the speaker
rather than what the sentences literally means. Therefore, it analyzes
implied meanings or what people actually mean when they make use of
language.
2. Macro-linguistics
★ views language from a broader perspective
★ it is concerned with how a language is acquired or used and how it relates to society as
a whole.
★ it focuses on the application of language in daily life
★ the following are areas of macro-linguistics:
○ Sociolinguistics:
■ deals with the study of the effects of the different social and cultural
factors on the use of language. It examines the patterns and variations in
language within a society or community. It analyzes how people, or a
certain group of people, make choices in terms of language style or the
way they use language to express their personal and social identity.
○ Psycholinguistics:
■ focuses on the interrelation between linguistic and psychological factors
that enable humans to understand, acquire, and use language. Hence it is
primarily concerned with the processes related to word cognition and
learning in particular and acquisition in general.
○ Computational Linguistics:
■ studies the application of computer science in the analysis of language
and speech and other linguistic studies. It is primarily concerned with how
computational modeling and approaches can be used to help describe
linguistic processes and analyze research data related to linguistic issues
and problems.
○ Historical Linguistics (aka diachronic linguistics):
■ deals with the study of language change or change of a group of
languages over time, including phonological, grammatical, and semantic
changes. It is concerned with tracing the history of language family and
identifying how a particular language develops into its present form.
○ Comparative Linguistics:
■ concerned with comparing languages to establish their similarities and
differences especially in identifying whether or not they have a common
ancestral language.
○ Structural Linguistics:
■ focuses on the study of language as an independent network of formal
systems or structures. It is based on theories and principles that language
is composed of structural units such as lexical and syntactic elements.
○ Biolinguistics:
■ an interdisciplinary study involving other disciplines such as biology,
linguistics, psychology, and neurolinguistics, primarily aims to explain the
evolution and formation of language.
○ Applied Linguistics:
■ concerned with the application of language studies in real life, such as in
language teaching and learning. It is a broad term referring to the range of
activities that involve the solving of some language-related problems and
concerns.
○ Clinical Linguistics:
 ■ focuses on the application of linguistic concepts and theories in the field
of Speech-Language Pathology. It involves the description, analysis, and
treatment of language disabilities and disorders.
○ Developmental Linguistics:
■ studies the development of the linguistic ability of an individual especially
children. It focuses on how children acquire language in childhood, such
as acquisition of syntax and other linguistic elements.
○ Linguistic Typology:
■ aims to classify languages based on their structural and functional
components. It focuses on describing the diversity of the languages in the
world especially in terms of their properties and structures.
○ Neurolinguistics:
■ studies the relationship between language and the structures and
functions of the brain. Its aim is to analyze the different brain functions
and mechanisms that are related to language comprehension, production,
and acquisition.
○ Stylistics:
■ deals with the study on how different individuals or social groups use
language in all types or forms, spoken or written in their communication.
Stylistics is also called literary linguistics because its studies the different
authors and writers especially on their writing styles as they use a variety
of literary techniques and devices to provide distinctness and variety in
their writing especially, but not exclusively, in different literary works and
genres.
○ Etymology:
■ investigates the origins of words, their birth, and development, often
delineating their spread from one language to another and their evolving
changes in form and meaning.

Lesson 2: Linguistic Theories and Models

The following are the various theories and models in acquiring or learning a language. There
are many known theories in language acquisition, but the following theories have served to be
the foundation of other emerging theories and principles. Each of these theories is approached
in terms of its application in language teaching and learning.

Behaviorism
The behaviorists, like B.F. Skinner, believe that for language learning to occur, imitation,
drills, and constant practice are very important. Behaviorists demand that language teachers
must be proficient enough or possess native-like fluency so that what will be taught to the
learners are only the perfect ones. This is true especially in the teaching of pronunciation.
Teachers have a great role in the early formation of the speech development of the learners.
Teacher’s mispronunciation, for example, could imitated or copied by the learners who would
think that it is correct until someone or through other means teaches them otherwise. The
behaviorist principle of learning as a habit formation has its own weakness, thus, ushering the
birth of innatism or mentalism.

Nativism/Innatism
Noam Chomsky, the main proponent of nativism, criticized the imitation and
stimulus-response learning principles of behaviorism for its failure to explain why, with limited
knowledge of grammatical rules, people are able to generate a limitless number of sentences.
With this notion, Chomsky hypothesized that humans must be born with a Language Acquisition
Device (LAD) in their brain which is the reason why children can acquire language quickly. He
argued that LAD contains the universal rules by which human languages operate. He called this
set of rules Universal Grammar (UG) or mental grammar which allows us to ‘feel’ unconsciously
whether or not our utterance or sentence is well-formed. Under this principle, children try to
have a grasp of the target language by hypothesizing and making generalizations. An example
is the past tense forms of regular verbs are usually added with -ed, but children tend to
generalize the rules and say hurted, but this would later be corrected by them to accommodate
exceptions to their hypothesis. Hence, parents at home and teachers in school play an
important role during this critical period of children’s language development. This theory,
however, has some issues. Some theorists argue that UG is only applicable to children during
the critical period in early childhood when they acquire their native language. When it comes to
learning another language or a foreign language, it would be different. This assumption gave
rise to other theories.

Interactionism
Proponents of interactionism assert that language acquisition has both biological and
social components—i.e. it is the result of the application of the principles propounded by the
behaviorists and nativists. The interactionists believe that there must be a good interplay
between the biological and environmental factors for language acquisition to occur. While it is
true that humans in general, or children in particular have the inclination to acquire a language,
they may never reach their language potential without the support from their social environment.
Under this principle is Lev Vygotsky’s social interaction theory, which states that children’s
language is a by-product of children’s social interactions with the important people in their lives.,
more specifically, their parents and immediate more knowledgeable others (MKO’s). Imagine a
child who has not met other people nor heard anyone talk to him. This is the best illustration of
the importance of children’s socialization or interaction with people around them. According to
Vygotsky, children can only do so much with their own ability (zone of actual development), but
the social environment surrounding them, help and support from their parents, peers, and
teachers (MKO’s), they can soar to greater heights and achieve great things )zone of proximal
development).

Monitor Model
Another idea supporting the principle that acquiring a language has both biological and
social components is Stephen Krahen’s Monitor Model, also known as Input Hypothesis, which
is composed of five hypotheses or components expounding the process of language acquisition.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis.
In this hypothesis, Krashen argued that acquiring a language is different from
learning it. In other words, acquisition and learning are different. Krashen cited the
experience of children when they acquire their first language. They do not go to school
but just naturally and gradually acquire the language. The process is very subconscious,
without them finding on the form of their utterances and the like. They interact with the
people around them and from other meaningful inputs from a context-rich environment.
Then they started to speak and communicate using the language. This is what Krashen
called as language acquisition. Language learning, on the other hand, is a ‘conscious
process’ and usually happens within a formal environment such as in school. Hence, it
can be said that ‘language learning’ results from formal instruction, requiring a conscious
effort to achieve knowledge or competence in the target language . According to
Krashen, between acquisition and learning, acquisition is more important than learning.
The latter only serves as a ‘monitor’ or editor, while the former is
responsible for the fluent production of sounds and utterances.

Natural Order Hypothesis.

Krashen claimed that there is a natural or predictable order by which all learners
acquire language. This order, however, has nothing to do with the simplicity or
complexity of grammatical features and the way these features are taught. The order is
similar to the way children acquire their first language or adults learn a foreign language.
A concrete example for this is that the-ing form of the verb for present continues is
acquired early, certainly much earlier than acquiring the s- inflection of singular present
form of verbs. This is the reason why even if lessons on subject-verb agreement, such
as when to inflect -s or when not to have it in verbs, are introduced to children during
their early years of schooling, they would not or not fully acquire it until they reach the
upper grade levels. Krashen pointed out that attempting to teach or inculcate this
grammatical form, which the learners are not yet ready to acquire, has become the
source of much frustration among teachers and students.

The Monitor Hypothesis.

Krashen argued that while our acquired competenceis responsible for our
language production such as our utterance, the result of learning (learned competence)
functions as a monitor, editing or self-correcting our language output. While this is very
much possible in correcting our written work, this still holds true in our regular talk or
conversation with people though it is more difficult. The time element, in addition to the
proficiency level of our learned competence, plays a crucial role in ‘monitoring’ our
utterances. Krashen also warned that the ‘monitor’ can sometimes act as a barrier as it
forces the language learner to slow down and focus more on accuracy over fluency,
affecting confidence and contributing or resulting to learner’s anxiety.

The Input Hypothesis.

Here is a question: How should a language, particularly second or foreign
language, be better acquired or learned? As an implied answer to this question, Krashen
 explains that language skills cannot be taught directly, because they should be acquired
through and emergent process, naturally occurring on their own. The best way and
perhaps the only way to acquire a language according to Krashen, is simply to receive
abundant meaningful ‘inputs’ from a context-rich environment. This means that for
students to continue to progress with their language development, they have to be
exposed to comprehensible ‘i+1’ inputs or those that should be a little beyond their
current language ability. According to Krashen, having ‘intakes’ or inputs from
context-rich environment is already enough to acquire a language. Hence, the best thing
to do for formal instruction to be able to contribute to students’ language development is
to provide students with this kind of inputs.

Affective-filter Hypothesis.
Affective-filter acts like a screen or an opening that either facilitates or blocks
meaningful inputs from reaching the language acquisition part of the brain. According to
Krashen, affective variable including anxiety, self-confidence, motivation, and stress play
crucial roles in taking in the ‘inputs’. When the filter is high, which means self-confidence
is low, the lower is the chance for the inputs to be taken in. Teachers should therefore
design a language teaching-learning process that would lower down the affective filter of
the learners —that is, increasing their motivation and confidence, so that better
acquisition of meaningful language inputs can occur.

Communicative Competence Model

The linguist Dell Hymes first coined the term communicative competence in 1972. It was
developed further and expounded by Canale and Swain into a language model composed of
four components: grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence. When
children acquire a language, they do not only acquire grammatical knowledge of sentences, but
also use that knowledge appropriately—that is, children also develop the competence or
awareness such as when and not to speak, what to talk about with whom, where, when, and in
what manner. Hence, this all revolves around the four areas of linguistic competence.
Grammatical Competence, also known as linguistic competence, includes the ability to
create grammatically correct utterances, incorporating the linguistic knowledge of morphology,
phonology, syntax, and semantics.
Sociolinguistic Competence is concerned with the appropriateness of the utterances.
This includes the learners’ ability to apply linguistic knowledge in different communicative
functions in various sociolinguistic contexts—that is, their ability to determine when to speak,
when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, and in what manner.
Discourse Competence is concerned with the learner’s mastery of producing coherent
and cohesive language outputs in the modes of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Strategic Competence refers to the learner’s ability to solve problems during
communication. This includes their compensatory strategies in case of communication
difficulties. In other words, learners must have the ability to fix or solve communication
problems, such as miscommunication, that frequently arise during an interaction.
Lesson 3: Linguistic Approaches

Descriptive versus Prescriptive

The descriptive approach is a linguistic distinction that describes and analyzes language
according to how people verbally use it. It emphasizes on recounting language as it is used and
conventionally understood, not by how it has to be constructed. Modern linguists view
descriptive language as the product of natural speech and observe principles that look at the
language exactly as how it is spoken. An example is how teachers always remind the students
not to split infinitives, however, in many conversations people use split infinitives and are usually
understood. The statement “To boldly go where no man has gone before” instead of saying “To
go boldly where no man has gone before” are examples. A descriptive grammarian focuses on
mental grammar and how it affects the structure of words in a sentence.
The prescriptive approach, on the other hand, lays down the correct way of the structural
arrangement of the words in the sentence. It is an approach based on what is considered to be
structurally correct and accurate as determined by the group of academics. In short, it describes
how language community speaks. Certain forms of language are more accurate than others
based on the social prestige of the users.

The descriptive approach is a linguistic distinction that describes and analyzes language
according to how people verbally use it.
The prescriptive approach, on the other hand, lays down the correct way of the structural
arrangement of the words in the sentence.

Synchronic versus Diachronic

Language may be explored at a particular point in time for a very distant time. This is the
distinction between synchronic and diachronic linguistics. Synchronic and diachronic are words
with Latin origins, where synchronic means synchronous and diachronic means through time.
Thus, when language is studied at a particular time or certain time in history, it is considered
synchronic, while diachronic focuses on language development through time.
When studying the language structures or when exploring how words are combined, the
study is synchronic. Diachronic is focused on historical linguistics. It also concentrates on the
difference between two or more language over the centuries or decades. For instance, when
you study how language evolves through time, and make a comparative analysis of Old English
and the present English language, the study is diachronic. It involves exploring how historical
events affect the language.

When studying the language structures or when exploring how words are combined, the
study is synchronic. The study of a language at a particular time. Descriptive linguistics or
general linguistics.
Diachronic is focused on historical linguistics. The study of the development of a
language over time. Comparative linguistics or historical linguistics

Langue versus Parole

 Langue is the intangible linguistic scheme used by all the members of a speech
community. It refers to the set of rules and patterns which people need to follow. Parole,
however, is the concretization of language through actual use. Langue
is concretize using the rules and set of conventions, while parole is naturally occuring and
concrete.
According to Saussure, langue is nonfigurative, non-verbalized, yet stable and
systematic by nature, while parole is concretized through use, verbalized and composed of a
corpus of unstable facts; therefore, it cannot be studied easily. Saussure further explained that
linguists need to extract langue from parole cases to determine the uniformities that rule all the
cases of parole.

Langue is the intangible linguistic scheme used by all the members of a speech
community. It refers to the set of rules and patterns which people need to follow. The abstract
systematic principles and conventions of a language. The institution of norms that [recedes and
makes speech possible. Independent of the individual user.
Parole is the concretization of language through actual use. Langue is concretize using
the rules and set of conventions, while parole is naturally occuring and concrete. The concrete
use of language, the actual utterances. The usage of the system. The structure of langue is
revealed through the study of parole.

Language Competence versus Language Performance

The discrepancy of language competence and performance is related to langue and
parole. According to Chomsky, competence, is the speaker’s knowledge of the grammatical
rules of the language while performance is the actual use of language and application of
grammatical rules. Language competence makes the speakers compose a chain of sentences
in different structural patterns and allows them to recognize errors when they are committed as
well as vague constructions and fragments. Therefore, once the speakers are knowledgeable of
the syntax and sounds, their competence is stable. Stable competence, however, does not
equal to stable performance. Performance is not stable in the sense that it is always dependent
on the circumstances of the speaker, which includes social, psychological, and physical factors.
This means that even the most competent grammarian may not always show a hundred percent
performance. Thus, the speakers’ supposed competence does not always speak of their
performance, nor speaker’s performance is a reflection of their competence. Although, language
competence always gives the speaker an advantage against the non-competent in terms of
performance. Comparatively, language is a shared product and made through conventions of
the sees at language from a societal or sociolinguistic point of view while Chomsky looks at it in
terms of psychology or psycholinguistics.

Competence is the speaker’s knowledge of the grammatical rules of the language. An

idealized capacity.
Performance is the actual use of language and application of grammatical rules. The
actual utterance

Etic versus Emic

 Etic is the approach to language study that denotes the description of a particular
language or language culture that is generally objective in perspective and non-structural. It
refers to the cultural phenomena from the perspective of one who does not participate in the
culture. Etic is used in making distinctions that are behavioral such as the case of phonetic
analysis and phonetic. Etic knowledge according to Morris (1999), is the generalization of
human behavior that is considered universally acceptable. Concerning language, it pertains to
the raw data without considering the data as significant units that are functioning
within the system. Emic, on the other hand, involves speech acts and situations that are
confirmed as real, as perceived by the speech community, instead of the observations of the
investigators and study backgrounds. It is an approach that investigates how people think, see,
and categorize the meaning based on their practices, their rules and behaviors, and how their
imagine things. Etic knowledge as Ager and Loughry (2004) believed, exists within the culture
that is determined by the beliefs of the local.
Etic is the approach to language study that denotes the description of a particular
language or language culture that is generally objective in perspective and non-structural. Focus
on one culture. Subjective and experiential. Looking for culturally specific behavior. Emphasis is
on the uniqueness of the culture. An inside perspective
Emic, on the other hand, involves speech acts and situations that are confirmed as real,
as perceived by the speech community, instead of the observations of the investigators and
study backgrounds. Focus is across cultures. Objective. Looking for universal behaviors.
Emphasis similarities and differences across cultures. An outside perspective.

Syntagmatic versus Paradigmatic

Syntagmatic relation describes the dimensions of language in a horizontal mode such as
sequential orders of phones in the word pen /p/, /e/, /n/ or the linear order of morpheme in the
word impossibility as im-possible-ity. It also looks at the sequence of words that people are
using such as the sentence: “I am here”, which is a subject-verb-adverb combination.
Paradigmatic relation describes the relation of the linguistic elements of the language
outside the utterance. An example is the sentence “I am here” that is viewed as not a set of
words or grammatical unit but a meaningful utterance specifying the speakers as “I” who is at a
certain location “here”. Therefore, syntagmatic involves phonetics, morphology, and syntax,
while paradigmatic involves semantics and pragmatics.

Syntagmatic relation describes the dimensions of language in a horizontal mode such as

sequential orders of phones in the word pen /p/, /e/, /n/ or the linear order of morpheme in the
word impossibility as im-possible-ity.
Paradigmatic relation describes the relation of the linguistic elements of the language
outside the utterance.

Speech versus Writing

Language is primarily oral. If speech is primary, writing is secondary. Writing is the record
of the language represented in letters. Speech involves the articulation of language using the
speech organs and the reception of the message. It is sound- based, and that meaning is
perceived based on how units of sounds are combined. Writing follows a written code, which
gives the language a different characteristic and scope that speech does not have. In writing,
the message is carried through a certain space or channel, which is preserved and used
through time.

Speech involves the articulation of language using the speech organs and the reception
of the message. It is sound-based, and that meaning is perceived based on how units of sounds
are combined. Informal. Synchronous. Unrecorded.
Writing follows a written code, which gives the language a different characteristic and
scope that speech does not have. Formal. Asynchronous. Recorded
Both. rule governed. Consists of symbols. Convey meanings

MULTIPLE CHOICE

In her work with the Kaluli, Shieffelin identified the speech event Elema. This is a speech event
in which:

A. children learn how to tease their elders

B. caregivers teach children what replies are appropriate in particular situations
C. children learn forms of address
D. children learn vocabulary

Which of the following is one teaching technique Kaluli adults use in Elema exchanges with
children?

A. verbal praise
B. reinforcement and positive rewards
C. shaming
D. punishment

The techniques caregivers use during Elema exchanges reinforce which of the following Kaluli
culturally valued behaviors?

A. being passive
B. competition
C. independence
D. being assertive

According to Tomasello, there is one important difference between animal and human
communication. It is:

A. humans can communicate emotions

B. animals can communicate emotions
C. animals communicate to ensure their own welfare
D. humans communicate to ensure their own welfare

Animal communication often uses visual, auditory, chemical, electrical means to convey
information. These are examples of:

A. a symbol
B. a signal
C. a non-verbal gesture
D. nonverbal communication

In some countries, a red heart communicates the emotion love. Objects that are made to
represent something else are:

A. symbols
B. signals
C. gestures
D. vocalizationsOur body posture, gestures, and eye gaze or examples of:

A. signals
B. nonverbal communication
C. verbal communication
D. computer mediated communication

Jenna and Liza are discussing an open, rule governed communication system that uses
symbols to convey meaning. They are discussing:

A. signals
B. symbols
C. grammar
D. language

All languages have a system of rules that helps speakers understand how to combine words to
convey meaning. This system of rules is a:

A. semantic
B. symbol
C. grammar
D. syntax

In many of the Romance languages, the adjective often follows the noun it describes or
modifies. The arrangement of words and sentences is an example of:

A. semantics
B. grammar
C. signal
D. syntax

Some words can have more than one meaning. For example, the word crash can refer to an
auto accident or decline in the stock market. The meaning of words in a particular language
relates to which of the following?

A. semantics
B. grammar
C. signal
D. syntax

What is the term for the smallest meaningful unit of sound in a language?

A. morpheme
B. semantics
C. phoneme
D. syntax
Ye-jun is a young Korean child learning about the importance of honorifics when speaking to
others. The term for honorifics that relate to the person about who one is speaking is:

A. a signal
B. a symbol
C. referent honorifics
D. addressee honorifics

The Korean language has six levels of honorifics that speakers must master. Which honorific
relates to the speakers’ relationship to the listener?

A. a signal
B. a symbol
C. referent honorifics
D. addressee honorifics

You believe that humans learn language the way they do some other skills and abilities -
through experience. With which theorist would you agree?

A. Chomsky
B. Piaget
C. Vygotsky
D. Skinner

Skinner argued that children would be likely to repeat sounds if they were followed by a
pleasurable response. This viewpoint has its foundation in:

A. the language acquisition device

B. the nativist theory
C. operant conditioning
D. observational learningYou believe that human beings are born with the capacity to acquire
language. Your belief aligns with which of the following models?

A. operant conditioning
B. nativism
C. the language acquisition device
D. reinforcement

Chomsky believed that individuals were able to extract the rules of a language simply from
hearing a language spoken and without any type of learning. The ability to do this connects to
which of the following?

A. operant conditioning
B. reinforcement
C. radical behaviorism
D. the language acquisition device

Which of the following supports the nativist position in language acquisition?

A. children repeat sounds they hear

B. children imitate adult language speakers
C. all infants coo and babble
D. children acquire vocabulary through selective reinforcement
When infants and very young children live in environments where they have no exposure to or
experience with language, their language development is severely limited. These limitations
are not reversible. This supports which of the following terms?

A. sensitive periods of development

B. semantics
C. syntax
D. nativism

The ability to communicate in particular cultural learning environments is an example of:

A. syntax
B. semantics
C. communicative competence
D. radical behaviorism

You live in a community that emphasizes directness, logical thinking, gathering facts, and the
value of autonomy. Your community is most likely a:

A. high context culture

B. low context culture
C. traditional community
D. rural community

You live in a community that emphasizes interdependent relations, establishing trust,

conforming to social norms, and indirect communication. Your community is most likely a

A. high context culture

B. low context culture
C. traditional community
D. rural community

Individuals who live in high context cultures rarely used direct communication strategies.
Rather they rely on:

A. verbal cues
B. contextual cues
C. direct confrontation
D. direct eye contact

Which of the following is a high context culture?

A. Germany
B. the United States
C. Norway
D. Japan

Which of the following is a low context culture?

A. Japan
B. China
C. India
D. Sweden

Which of the following is likely to occur in a high context culture?

A. asking a boss “are you sure this is what you want and meant?
B. directly confronting a colleague at work
C. questioning a boss’ decision
D. avoiding a verbal argument to save a colleague at work from embarrassment

Clancy’s work illustrates how cultural settings shaped the way children construct their speech
and gestures to reveal motives and desires. What is one salient cultural difference between
Japanese and English speakers?

A. most Japanese speakers use more command words that most English speakers do
B. most Japanese speakers use more declarative words than most English teachers do
C. most Japanese speakers speak considerably less than most English speakers do
D. most Japanese speakers used direct forms of communication more than most English
speakers do

According to Clancy, children learn cultural scripts through their language exchanges with
caregivers and adults. Japanese children learn that arguing and giving someone a direct order
will not meet with adult approval because it violates the principle of empathy. Which concept
reflects the Japanese experience of empathy?

A. omiyari
B. amae
C. lonne
D. tatemae

In the Japanese experience, amae relates to obligation and kindness to indulge another’s
request. Amae is a social strategy in which the requester asked for a very atypical favor. Amae
is important in Japanese communication exchanges because:

A. it reinforces empathy
B. reinforces respect for elders
C. reinforces group harmony
D. helps speakers learn to anticipate that listeners will be able to understand the speaker’s
feelings and motives

In their study on Argentinian, Japanese, French, and American mother-infant conversational

exchanges, Bornstein and colleagues found:

A. as a group, Argentinian mothers used more indirect speech than any other group
B. as a group US mothers used more commands as a way to structure learning context in
conversation than any other group
C. mothers in all cultural groups converse more with older children than with their infants
D. Japanese mothers were less responsive to their children than mothers in any other group

Crying, cooing, and babbling are all examples of which stage of language development?

A. pre-linguistic
B. linguistic
C. referential
D. expressive

Around 2 to 3 months of age, infants are capable of producing open vowel sounds. These
sounds are examples of:
A. babbling
B. cooing
C. one-word utterances
D. morphemes

Enrique is a seventh month old infant. He is now making vocalizations that combine
consonants and vowels. He is communicating using which of the following?

A. cooing
B. phonemes
C. linguistic speech
D. babbling

Which of the following IS TRUE regarding infants abilities to discriminate sounds?

A. infants never acquire the ability to recognize sounds that do not belong to their native
language
B. infants can only recognize the sounds of their native language when they hear verbal
speech
C. somewhere between 2-3 months infants are able to distinguish sounds they hear frequently
in their native language from other unfamiliar sounds
D. somewhere between 10-12 months babies are better at distinguishing sounds they hear
frequently while weeding out unnecessary sounds

Isabella is fluent in six different languages. Her language ability makes her a:

A. bilingual speaker
B. polyglot
C. monolingual speaker
D. linguist

Katie is thinking about taking a foreign language while she is a university student. Which of
the following IS TRUE about language learning?

A. all individuals are similar in their ability to learn different languages

B. you can only learn a language while you are young
C. you can learn a language at any age but it is easier to do so while you are younger
D. you can only learn two languages throughout your lifetime

Neuroscience has contributed to our understanding of language acquisition. Which of the

following IS TRUE?

A. learning a language later in life has no cognitive benefits

B. if you learn different languages at birth, the same brain region will process those languages
C. language learning decreases gray matter
D. language learning leads to white matter decay in the brain

The process by which children are socialized both through and to use language within a
community relates to:

A. enculturation
B. assimilation
C. accommodation
D. language socialization
Language socialization functions to teach children all of the following EXCEPT:

A. knowledge about cultural norms

B. knowledge about mind in culture
C. knowledge about cultural practices
D. how to produce speech

A caregiver is talking to a young child and using simple speech, a higher pitch, and changes in
intonation. This is an example of:

A. cooing
B. babbling
C. linguistic speech
D. child directed speech

In their work on language socialization, Ochs and Schieffelin believe that across cultures adults
and older children engage in which of the following with younger children:

A. cooing
B. babbling
C. child directed speech
D. over-regulation

In English, to make a noun plural you typically add an S. There are exceptions. For example
the plural for the noun foot is feet. When a child uses the word foots instead of feet, the child’s
speech reflects which of the following?

A. cooing
B. over-regularization
C. babbling
D. pre-linguistic speech

The idea that language determines the way we think about and perceive the world relates to:

A. the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

B. linguistic relativity
C. language socialization
D. language acquisition

Which of the following IS TRUE about the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

A. language and culture are separate and independent

B. language is not necessary to help people organize their world
C. this hypothesis is widely unsupported today
D. if a language possessed no term for an object speakers would have no trouble in thinking
about that object

The view that language reflects rather than determines our thinking and perceptions relates
to:

A. the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

B. linguistic relativity
C. language socialization
D. language acquisition
The Pirahā speak a language that provides no numerical terms beyond the number two. Many
Pirahā speakers experience difficulty when trying to learn new numerical concepts. This
supports which of the following positions?

A. the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

B. linguistic relativity
C. language learning through reinforcement
D. nativism

Contemporary researchers are proposing new ways to study the relationship between
language, culture, and cognition. These include all the following EXCEPT:

A. culturally situated thinking styles

B. language biases
C. environmental influences
D. language vocabularies

Guiora and colleagues studied the relationship between children’s acquisition of gender identity
and their languages’ gender terms. Child native speakers in Finland, Israel and the United
States were participants. They found:

A. the Finnish language had the most gender terms

B. Hebrew had the least gender terms
C. Hebrew speaking children acquired gender identity earlier than the other two groups
D. Finnish speaking children acquired gender identity earlier than the other two groups

According to Sohn, one important function of language is:

A. to help convey meaning about our social relationships

B. to teach cultural norms
C. to teach about gender roles
D. language socializationCorsaro and Rizzo studied which of the following cultural routines to
learn how Italian children use language to convey social status and power?

A. child directed speech

B. discussione
C. peer culture
D. preschool activities

According to Corsaro and Rizzo, participating in simple discussions at play time help children
do all the following EXCEPT:

A. share their experiences

B. develop a sense of belonging with peers
C. learn grammatically correct responses
D. construct and produce meaning about friendship

You have an interest in studying topics such as code-mixing, code-switching, children’s

language, and secret languages. Which of the following disciplines studies these topics?

A. sociology
B. sociolinguistics
C. anthropology
D. cultural psychology
In Portugal, there are numerous regional variations of Portuguese that standard Portuguese
speakers can understand. These regional variations relate to:

A. code-mixing
B. code-switching
C. dialects
D. sociolinguistics

When monolingual speakers move from formal to informal modes of speech in the same
spoken or gestured idea, they are engaging in:

A. sociolinguistics
B. code-switching
C. code-mixing
D. dialects

Tomás was speaking in Spanish to his peers in his classroom. When his teacher called on him,
he immediately replied to her in English. This is an example of:

A. code-switching
B. sociolinguistics
C. code-mixing
D. dialects

Which of the following IS NOT a reason why an individual would code switch?

A. people opt for the language with which they are most comfortable
B. to highlight the native language
C. for group solidarity
D. to help people construct their cultural identity

Sometimes people combine elements of different languages in the same sentence. This is an
example of:

A. sociolinguistics
B. code-switching
C. code-mixing
D. dialects

Which speaker would be most likely to engage in code-mixing?

A. Jack, a monolingual adult

B. Jane, a bilingual adult
C. Abby, a bilingual child
D. David, a monolingual chil

dThere are many French speaking residents of Québec, Canada who refuse to speak English
even though English is Canada’s primary language. Why might this be so?

A. speaking French solidifies their cultural identity

B. not every speaker can be bilingual
C. all public and government information in Canada is in French
D. French is widely spoken throughout Canada

Morris and Jones’ work in language socialization in the United Kingdom suggests that:
A. there is no support for the Welsh language from schools and the government
B. the number of Welsh speaking children is increasing
C. fathers are responsible for teaching their children the Welsh language
D. caregivers raised in Welsh speaking households highly value the Welsh language and
provide opportunities for their children to learn and speak it

Chen’s first language was Mandarin. Since arriving to the United States he no longer speaks
Mandarin and only speaks English. When the new second language completely replaces the
native language this is an example of:

A. bilingualism
B. subtractive bilingualism
C. code-mixing
D. code-switching

Bilaniuk studied language attitudes in the Ukraine. Which of the following IS TRUE?

A. contemporary Ukrainians connect language to Ukrainian ethnic identity

B. Ukrainian is the official language in most schools
C. most government officials are fluent in pure Ukrainian
D. speaking pure Ukrainian leads to better jobs and greater prestige

Ochs and Schieffelin’s work with Haitian children in New York City supports which of the
following statements?

A. maintaining fluency in Kreyol is extremely important to Haitian parents

B. maintaining fluency in Kreyol connects to academic success
C. Haitian children are becoming less fluent in Kreyol due to their parents emphasis upon
learning and speaking English
D. speaking Kreyol does not connect to Haitian ethnic identity

Which of the following IS NOT an example of nonverbal communication?

A. eye gaze
B. hand gesture
C. body posture
D. a video chat

Individuals who are blind from birth display the same facial expressions as cited individuals
when presented with emotional stimuli or prompts. This supports which of the following
statements?

A. there is some support for universal facial expressions

B. nonverbal communication is mediated exclusively by cultural factors
C. there is no interaction between facial expressions and biological mechanisms
D. nature and nurture do not interact in shaping our nonverbal behaviors

Many researchers agree that the connection between nonverbal behavior and cultural
experiences begins?

A. in infancy
B. at birth
C. in childhood
D. later in life
When communicating on social media, individuals lose the ability or opportunity to read all of
the following EXCEPT:

A. facial expressions
B. body posture
C. eye gaze
D. text

What is one difference between face-to-face interactions and electronic communication?

A. they involve a sender and receiver

B. you cannot access contextual cues
C. they are similar with respect to voice quality
D. it is easy to distinguish if an individual is serious or joking

Which of the following IS TRUE about eye gaze?

A. it requires a verbal component

B. it is a cultural universal behavior
C. it does not occur along with body posture
D. it is culture specific

In Pakistan, it is proper to look at individuals without turning away for a long period of time
during social interactions. The duration and direction of your stare relates to:

A. sociolinguistics
B. eye gaze
C. dialects
D. body posture