Introduction to Philosophy Philosophy studies that which is ultimate

How was Philosophy coined? It asks the most radical question in any area
of research
1. Lover of pleasure
2. Lover of success Its questions go beyond the established areas
3. Lover of wisdom of research.

“philla” = love It probes underneath,

“sophia” = wisdom It unveils the assumptions to other

disciplines
Greek (Pythagoras): men could be divided
into 3 types Philosophy
Universal Science: encompassing the totality
Endless Inquiries & of reality
Speculation
Rejects: myth, hearsay and wishful thinking.
What do we create in the Makes conclusion using: empirical
absence of Science and
evidence.
Technology?
The mere knowledge that ice is cold and that
stone is hard, is not science.
We create Myths in guessing
what the is made of! But the knowledge why ice is cold and why
stone is hard is science.
It is knowing the reasons (causes of things)
Ancient Greeks: Greek Mythology for the fact!
Certitude and not merely probability!
What will happen to the world if no one will
ask a question?
The Object of Philosophy
Philosophy investigates the “Big
Etymology: Greek Word Questions.”
 Philo + Sophia This means that it is concerned with ultimate
 Love + Wisdom questions about the entire universe.
 Love for wisdom
Nevertheless, these questions can be viewed
Philosophy is the science of all things by from different perspectives and philosophy
their ultimate causes and principles known has developed several branches that
in the light of natural reason alone. approach the “Big Questions” differently.

Philosophy is the study of ultimate 3 Main Branches of Philosophy

Metaphysics Epistemology
It is the heart of philosophy. It investigates KNOWLEDGE.
It investigates the existence of the universe Questions:
and of ALL things in it.
What does it mean “to know”?
Questions:
What can we know?
How did the universe come into
What is the difference between knowing
existence?
and believing?
What is existence and non-existence?
How do you know that you know?
What kinds of things exists in the
How much evidence does one need for a
universe?
belief to be considered knowledge?
Does God exist? Do souls exist?
Basic Questions on Epistemology:
Basic questions on Metaphysics:
What is knowledge?
What is the ultimate reality?
Is knowledge acquired exclusively through
Is reality one or may different things? the senses or by some other means?
Can reality be grasped by the senses or is How do we know that what we perceive
it transcendent? through our senses is correct?
We can see things made of matter, such as Is it possible to have reliable knowledge at
book or a chair, but we cannot see the all?
underlying matter itself --- the concept of
Does reason provide us with knowledge of
such matter that is conceived by our minds!
the world independent of experience?
Although we can experience in our mind’s
Does our knowledge represent reality as it
thoughts, ideas, desires and fantasies, we
really is?
cannot observe or experience the mind itself
which is having these thoughts, ideas, and Is it possible to have reliable knowledge at
desires. all?
Does reason provide us with knowledge of
the world independent of experience?
Focus on Surface Focus on Source
Texture, structure, waviness, Quality of image transfer
Does our knowledge represent reality as it
“orange peel” really is?

Appearance as real = result of conditioned

education

False Evidence Appearing Real

 Ethics studies what actions are morally right
and wrong.
Questions:
Is there a right and wrong?
Is right and wrong the same for
everyone?
What makes an action morally right
and wrong?
How can we know what is morally
right or wrong in any given situation?

5 Keys to Remembering:
Basic Questions on Ethics:
What is morally right?
Are there any objective standards of right
and wrong?
Are moral values absolute or relative?
In making crucial decisions, should we
consider only our own good (egoism) or the
good of others (altruism)?
When is an act right or wrong?
What standards should determine the
morality of an act?
Moral Relativism or Subjectivism: Action is
good only on the eye of the beholder.
Moral Objectivism: Morality exists
independently of what anyone thinks is right
or wrong.

Other Branches of Philosophy:

Aesthetic Philosophy of
“Theory
(Philosophy of Art of Knowledge” Religion
and Beauty)
Ethics Logic
Philosophy of
Philosophy of
History
Education
Political Philosophy
Philosophy of
Philosophy of Mathematics
Psychology
Philosophy of Law
 Logic: Detecting Faulty (invalid) arguments
Valid & Sound: Agreement of knowledge
with reality
Mental Representations: Correspond with
the objective world

Logic
Detecting faulty arguments whether it is
valid or invalid in daily discourse.
Aristotle on truth: Empiricism
Agreement of knowledge with reality. All knowledge obtained through senses ---
not inherited
Truth exists when the mind’s mental
representations (ideas) correspond with Process of Induction (Assumption)
things in the objective world.
General Ideas are formed from the
Logic studies right reasoning and examination of particular facts
argumentation.
Perpetual knowing
Questions:
Do all claims have a truth value?
 Inductive Reasoning
What is an argument?
Observation – The X corporation broke the
What is a good or a bad argument? law
Pattern of Observations – Y and Z
corporations broke the law
Basic Questions on Logic:
Hypothesis of Premise – X, Y and Z
What makes an argument valid or invalid?
corporations are corrupt
What is a sound argument?
Conclusion – Corporations are often corrupt
What is the difference between truth and
validity?
The Rationalist Why aren’t natural objects works of art, or
are they?
(Who depends upon his own reason and
thoughts) Is beauty in the eyes of the beholder, or in
the real object?
Real knowledge is based on general laws
that reason develops (deduction) Plato: Beauty is identical with the good
(eternal/perfect)
Gadamer: Beauty is relative (depending on
 Deductive Reasoning
one’s culture)
Hypothesis or Premise – Corporations are
Aristotle: Beauty is symmetry & proportion
often corrupt
(natural law)
Observation(s) and/or Experiment(s) – X, Y,
and Z corporations broke the law
Philosophy of God (Theology/Theodicy)
Conclusion – X and Y are corrupt
If God is omniscient, future.
Division of Logic
If He knows the future, unfold exactly to His
Simple Apprehension
foreknowledge. Otherwise, ignorant!
(“Intuitionism”)
If it’s a necessity, freedom.
1. Intellect grasps the essence of
something.
2. Apprehension (capture):
- Thing is held mentally.
3. Simple:
- without any affirmation or denial
about it.
Judgment
Mental operation that pronounces: the
identity or non-identity between two ideas.
Reasoning
A mental act that proceeds from the Natural Theology (Theodicy)
previously known truth to a new truth.
studies God not by faith but by reason alone
Revealed Theology
Aesthetics
studies God by faith and not by reason
There are various orders of beauty, causing
men to make fools of themselves in various
styles
Basic Questions on the Philosophy of God
(Theodicy)
Does God exist?
What are the proofs for God’s existence?
What is the problem of evil?
How do we reconcile the existence of a
benevolent God and the unmerited misery in
the world?
Primary Features of Philosophy
Articulation: putting your ideas in clear,
concise, readily understandable language.
Argument: supporting your ideas with
reasons from other ideas, principles, and
observations to establish your conclusions
and overcome objections.
Analysis: understanding an idea by
distinguishing and clarifying its various
components.
Synthesis: gathering together different ideas
into a single, unified vision.
Importance of Studying Philosophy
Philosophy provides us with the motivation
and the intellectual abilities required to
explore life’s most challenging issues.
Studying philosophy in a serious and
reflective way will change you as a person.
Studying philosophy will help you develop
the understanding and insight you will need
to make intelligent choices and fulfill your
potential as an individual.
Philosophical Reflection from a Holistic
Perspective (live conference)
What is to Philosophize
Generally, to philosophize means to
theoretically consider all things in a study or
reflection.
It is to speculate and having theories about
fundamental or serious issues, especially in a
tedious or punctilious way. You explain or
you argue a point of idea in terms of one’s
philosophical theory.
Early attempts to write a universal definition
of philosophy failed because mankind never
shared a common idea of what it is, which is
why philosophy is broad.
Is it valid to define philosophy as the science
of beings, of their ultimate causes or
principles as known by the light of natural
reason? Perhaps so, but then, what would
happen to Existentialism (We are
responsible for creating meaning and
purpose in our lives. Our individual meaning
is not given to us by God, the government,
teachers nor other authorities. They are not
basically interested in the problem of the
ultimate principle) or Indian philosophy
(They are also not concerned in the problem
of the ultimate principle. But rather,
basically concerned with the truth arrived at
the light of the natural reason. They also
have different beliefs from different
perspectives. This philosophy is focused on
the ultimate goal of liberation of individual
from Dutta and Satischandra through diverse
range of spiritual practices)?
We have these theories, definition, and
explanation of what philosophy is.
Existentialism and Indian Philosophy have
their own philosophy. Whatever explanation
that they have when it comes to how they
philosophize; it will depend on their philosophize because of his uncertainties,
philosophy. which manifests themselves as doubts.
Therefore, we may say that philosophy
Existentialism is not interested in the
begins and ends with man. We see in the
problem of the ultimate principles; neither is
history of ideas, how a man tried to
Indian philosophy concerned with the truth
construct philosophical ideas, and how
arrived at by the light of natural reason.
others tried to destroy them. One system of
Shall we then define philosophy as the thought is raised and another system refutes
individual’s quest for authentic existence, or it.
as the search for the Ultimate Being by the
Generally, to philosophize means to
use of one’s intuitive faculty? But what
theoretically consider all things in a study or
would happen to Chinese philosophy whose
reflection. But philosophizing is a complex
main interest is to know how man can live in
process of thought. The history of humanity
harmony, unity, peace, prosperity, if indeed,
has shown how man struggled to come up
perpetuity! Should philosophy then be
with a genuine, indigenous worldview.
defined as a way of life? But then it could
Through the different periods of history, he
easily be rejected by those who believe that
has used his natural powers to pursue
it is a way of thought!
various philosophical ends. I see generally
It seems that behind the many definitions, three ends, namely: The Knowledge of the
whatever degree of validity each one has, Absolute Truth; the Knowledge of the
rests a more fundamental question: What is Reasoned Truth; and the Knowledge of
to philosophize? Practical Truth or what is also known as the
Knowledge of the Art of Living.
Man is a universal phenomenon. He
cogitates, contemplates, and interprets the
same world and yet he comes up with varied
To philosophize means:
opinions regarding it. History has indeed
shown us that the diversity of human A methodic exercise of the faculty of
experiences has created diversified cultures intuition for the transcendental grasp of the
which have brought about distinct Absolute Truth
interpretations of the world.
A methodic exercise of the faculty of reason
The complex enterprise of philosophizing with the use of a logical paradigm for the
has been a monopoly of man ab initio. God, attainment of ontological or epistemic truths
being omniscient, has no need for either
A methodic exercise of practical reason
reason or intuition in order to know. He is
based on man’s experience for the practical
the Repository of truth and the Fountainhead
ability of man to live in dignity as a moral
of wisdom. The angels possess a natural
person
knowledge of God and know other things by
merely contemplating their angelic essence.
The brutes do not philosophize for their
sentient level simply cannot allow them to Partial vs Holistic View
do so. Only man can and needs to Partial – Existing only in part; incomplete
Holistic – relating to or concerned with Acceptance Exploring options,
complete systems rather than with individual new plan in place,
parts moving on

Philosophy
Philosophy is, first of all, reflection.
It is stepping back, listening to yourself and
other people and trying to understand and
evaluate what it is that you hear, and what it
is that you believe.
“Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and
philosophy begins in wonder”
- SOCRATES
“Happiness can only exist in acceptance.” -
George Orwell
What is Reflection?
Reflection (Merriam-Webster)
It is consideration of some subject matter,
idea, or purpose.
It is a thought, idea, or opinion formed or a
remark made as a result of meditation.
Reflection (Philosophy)

Break Human self-reflection is the capacity of

humans to exercise introspection and the
It is a discontinuity, or a jarring disturbance, willingness to learn more about their
in our everyday life. fundamental nature, purpose and essence.
Life is not consistent. 39:42

If we do not face challenges, what is there to

learn?
Kubler-Ross Grief Cycle

(Five Stages of Grief)

Kubler-Ross Grief Cycle
(Five Stages of Grief)
Denial Avoidance,
confusion, elation,
shock, fear
Anger Frustration,
irritation, anxiety
Bargaining Struggling to find
meaning, reaching
out to other, telling
one’s story
Depression Overwhelmed,
helplessness,
hostility, flight

Opinion and Common Fallacies
Opinion
a statement of judgment of a person about
something in the world.
a statement of judgment that is in need of
further justification.
Argument
It is a group of statements that serve to
support a conclusion.
It is made up of a claim (the conclusion of
an argument) and premises (the reasons used
to support the conclusion).
Not all arguments are good arguments.
Fallacies
We call fake arguments “fallacies”.
Fallacies are groups of statements that
appear to be arguments, but fail to support
the conclusion.
Common Fallacies
Ad Baculum
(Appeal to Fear)
This occurs when one appeals to force or the
threat of force to bring about the acceptance
of a conclusion.
Threat =/= Argument
Composition
This arises when one infers that something is
true of the whole from the fact that it is true
of some part of the whole.
"This tire is made of rubber, therefore the
vehicle to which it is a part is also made of
rubber."
Division
This is an error in logic that occurs when
one reasons that something that is true for a
whole or a class must also be true of all or
some of its parts.
"The Twelfth Grade in in General De Jesus
College eats a lot of ice cream. Carlos is a
12th grader in General De Jesus College.
Therefore, Carlos eats a lot of ice cream."
Ad Hominem
(Attack the Person)
This occurs when an author attacks his
opponent instead of his opponent’s
argument.
"Trina thinks guns should be outlawed but
Trina doesn’t go to church, so we shouldn’t
listen to her."
Ad Populum
(Bandwagon)
It attempts to prove an argument as correct
simply because many people believe it to be
so.
"80% of people are for the death penalty,
therefore, the death penalty is moral."
Ad Verecundiam
(Appeal to Authority)
The author claims his argument is right
because someone famous or powerful
supports it.
"We should change the drinking age because
Einstein believed that 18 was the proper
drinking age."
Petitio Principii
(Begging the Question)
This happens when the author’s premise and
conclusion say the same thing.
"Fashion magazines don’t hurt women’s
self-esteem because women’s confidence is
intact after reading the magazine."
Spotlight Fallacy
It occurs when the author assumes that the
cases that receive the most publicity are the
most common cases.
"90% of news reports talk about negative
events. Therefore, it follows that 90% of
events that occur in the real world are
negative."
Fake/False Dichotomy
This fallacy rests on the assumption that
there are only two possible solutions.
"The teacher gives too many 90’s and
therefore must be fired because grade
inflation is unfair to other students."
Hasty Generalization
It occurs when the proponent uses too small
of a sample size to support a sweeping
generalization.
"Sally couldn’t find any cute clothes at the
boutique and neither could Maura, so the
boutique doesn’t have any cute clothes."
Post Hoc
(X follows Y. X is caused by Y.)
This fallacy assumes that correlation equals
causation.
"The chess team gets better grades than the
basketball team, therefore playing chess
makes you smarter than playing basketball."
Ignoratio Elenchi/Non Sequitur
(Missing the Point)
It occurs when the premise of the argument
supports a specific conclusion but not the
one the author draws.
"Antidepressants are overly prescribed
which is dangerous, so they should clearly
be made illegal."
Straw Man Reductio ad absurdum
The author puts forth one of his opponent’s (Slippery Slope)
weaker, less central arguments forward and
In this fallacy, a party asserts that a
destroys it, while acting like this argument is
relatively small first step leads to a chain of
the crux of the issue.
related events culminating in some
"My opponent wants to increase teachers’ significant effect.
pay but studies have shown that professors
"If I loan you a peso today then you will
with tenure don’t work as hard at their job to
eventually ask me for one hundred pesos and
improve themselves."
then one million pesos. I do not want that to
happen, so I cannot give you the one-peso
loan."
Tu Quoque
(You Too)
Discussion technique that intends to
discredit the opponent's argument by
attacking the opponent's own personal
behavior and actions as being inconsistent
with their argument, therefore accusing
hypocrisy.
Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to
"Gee, Mom and Dad, how can you tell me Ignorance)
not to do drugs when you both smoke
cigarettes and drink alcohol?" Concluding that something is true since you
can't prove it is false.
Argumentum Ad Passiones
"God must exist, since no one can
(Appeal to Emotion) demonstrate that she does not exist."
This is characterized by the manipulation of
the recipient's emotions in order to win an
argument, especially in the absence of Ad Misericordiam
factual evidence. (Appeal to Pity)
"Power lines cause cancer. I met a little boy
with cancer who lived just 20 miles from a
power line who looked into my eyes and a fallacy in which someone tries to win
said, in his weak voice, “Please do whatever support for an argument or idea by
you can so that other kids won’t have to go exploiting one's opponent's feelings of pity
through what I am going through." or guilt. It is a specific kind of appeal to
Therefore, we must tear down all power emotion.
lines."
“Oh, come on, I've been sick. That's why I
missed the deadline.”