Phys. Chem. Earth (A), Vol.26, No. 4-5, pp.

343-354, 2001
Pergamon © 2001 ElsevierScienceLtd.
All rightsreserved
1464-1895/01/$ - see frontmatter
PII: S 1464-1895(01)00064-3

Magmatic Fabrics in Batholiths as Markers of Regional Strains and Plate

Kinematics: Example of the Cretaceous Mt. Stuart Batholith

K. Benn I, S. R. Paterson 2, S. P. Lund 2 , G. S. Pignotta' and S. Kruse 3

~Ottawa-Carleton Geoscience Centre and Department of Earth Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N6N5,
Canada
2Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0740, U.S.A.
3Department of Earth Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N6N5, Canada

Received 8 June 2000; accepted 28 November 2000

Abstract. The Cretaceous Mt. Stuart batholith was

syntectonically emplaced within amphibolite grade
metasedimentary rocks of the Cascades Crystalline Core,
Washington State. The northern part of the batholith defines
a NW-SE trending antiformal fold. We present fabric data
from that part of the batholith, collected during field mapping
and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS)
measurements. The significance of the data is discussed in
terms of regional tectonic deformation and plate kinematics.
The data were collected from rocks with well preserved
igneous textures and the fabrics therefore formed during
rnagmatie deformation. The AMS provides measurements of
the preferred orientations of Fe-rich minerals (biotite 4-
hornblende 4- traces of pyrrhotite and magnetite) which are
consistent with field measurements of the mesoscopic fabrics
defined by plagioclase, biotite and hornblende crystals. The
magnetic fabrics are also consistent with the orientations of
folds, mineral fabrics and boudinage struetures that record
high-temperature subsolidus deformation in the margin of the
pluton and in its host rocks. The lineations are parallel to the
stretching direction associated with small increments of strain
that occurred during deformation of the magrnatic arc, as the
batholith was crystallizing and deforming in the tectonic stress
field, ca. 93 Ma. The fabrics in the Mr. Stuart batholith are
used to infer emplacement in a magmatic arc during either 1)
plate displacement perpendicular to a NW-SE trending plate
margin, or 2) wrench dominated transpression. In the second
case the analysis suggests a nearly N-S plate vector along the
western North American margin during plutonism. The results
demonstrate the potential usefulness of magmatic fabrics in
syntectonic plutons for plate tectonic analyses of orogenic
belts. © 2001 ElsevierScienceLtd.All rightsreserved
Correspondence to: Keith Benn
1. Introduction
Magnetic anisotopy techniques, especially the anisotropy of
low-field magnetic susceptibility (AMS), are commonly used
to measure the preferred orientations of Fe-rich minerals in
granitoids. The magnetic anisotropy methods are particularly
useful where the mineral fabrics are difficult to determine in
the field, due to poor outcrop conditions or because the shapes
of the fabric-defming crystals are only weakly anisotropic.
Lineation measurements may be hard to make in the field
because, unless they are strongly deformed, granitoids do not
develop a fissile schistosity within which the linear fabrics
could be viewed. The advantage of using magnetic techniques
in fabric studies of plutons lies in the fact that precise and
reproducible foliation and lineation measurements can be
obtained for virtually any outcrop in a pluton (Bouchez, 1997).
Magnetic fabrics yield a maximum of information when they
can be compared with mesoscopic structures within plutons
(foliation, banding, schlieren, folds) and with mesoscopic and
map-scale structures in the country rocks.
One of the earliest studies to compare the AMS fabrics of
a granitoid pluton with the structural data from its country
rocks was of the Riesenfemer tonalitic massif in the Italian and
Swiss Alps. The results showed that the K 1principal direction
of the magnetic susceptibility (the magnetic lineation) is
parallel to the Alpine fold axes and fabrics in the host terrane,
leading to the interpretation that the magnetic fabric records a
N-S Alpine contractional tectonic event that affected the
pluton (Henry, 1975). Several subsequent studies in other
tectonic terranes have also shown that the magnetic fabrics in
weakly deformed or undeformed plutons record synmagmatic,
tectonically induced strains (Archanjo et al., 1994; Bouchez
344 K. Bennet al.: MagmaticFabricsin Batholithsas Markersof RegionalStrains
and Gleizes, 1995; Benn et al., 1997; Gleizes et al., 1997; Benn
et al., 1999; Pignotta and Benn, 1999). In the French Pyrenees,
several studies have proposed that the fabrics in syntectonic
plutons emplaced during Hercynian contraction can be used to
interpret a bulk regional dextral transpression, based on the
oblique orientations of the pluton fabrics with respect to the
orogenic belt and on dextral deflections of the fabrics near the
pluton margins (Leblanc et al., 1996; Gleizes et al., 1997;
Gleizes et al., 1998).
Another example of the application of pluton fabrics to
studying synemplacement tectonics comes from the southern
Slave Province, Canada. There, Berm et al. (1998) suggested )ia
that the pervasive magnetic lineation mapped in the Late
Archean Sparrow pluton indicates the orientations of regional .A.
shortening and stretching directions during a contractional,
possibly transpressive tectonic event. The fabric information
was especially useful since the strain field information could
not be obtained directly from the metamorphic country rocks BS
of the southern Slave Province, which have undergone several
phases of deformation resulting in fold interference patterns m

Fig. 1. Locationmapofthe MountSmartbatholith(MSB)withinthe

and a complicated finite strain picture.
The documentation of tectonic signatures in the magmatic
fabrics of some syntectonically emplaced plutons raises the
following two important questions. First, can the magmatic
fabrics in plutons and batholiths, which are often mapped using
magnetic anisotropy techniques, be widely applicable as
indicators of regional, synmagmatic deformations? Second, if
pluton fabrics are related to regional deformations, might they
also be used to interpret the kinematics of tectonic plate
interactions at plate margins, during the period when the
plutons were emplaced and the magmatic fabrics were frozen
in as the plutons solidified? Pluton emplacement and
solidification likely occurs in about about 105 years, and
isotopic dating methods allow the crystallization ages of
plutons to be determined precisely. Therefore, pluton fabrics
have the potential to provide a "snapshot" of strain, and
possibly of plate kinematics, during a relatively short period
of orogenic evolution.
To further investigate the tectonic significance of pluton
fabrics, this contribution presents two fabric data sets (field
and AMS measurements) from the Cretaceous Mt. Stuart
batholith, situated within the Cascades Crystalline Core,
Washington State. The Cascades Crystalline Core is
considered to be the southern extension of the Coast Plutonic
Complex (Fig. 1), the largest magmatic arc terrane in the
North American Cordillera. The geology of the country rocks
and of the batholith are well documented providing a
framework within which the pluton fabrics may be analyzed.
Maps of the mesocopic and magnetic foliations and
lineations are presented for the northern part of the Nit. Stuart
CascadesCore,whichis the southernextensionofthe CoastPlutonic
Complex.The CascadesCoreis offsetalongthe TertiaryFraserFault
(FF) - Straight Creek Fault (SCF). IS: Insular Superterrane, IM:
IntermontaneSuperterrane.
batholith, which was deformed into an apparent fold during
magma crystallization. Comparisons of the pluton fabrics with
the structures in the country rocks are used to demonstrate
that the igneous fabrics in the batholith record tectonic
deformation of the Mt. Smart magmas as they were emplaced
and crystallized, and that the magnetic lineation indicates a
stretching direction parallel to regional fold axes. The results
of this study confirm the tectonic significance of the internal
fabrics of the Mt. Smart batholith, and point towards the
general usefulness of the magmatic fabrics in plutons for
terrane analyses. The fabric and structural data from the
batholith and its wall rocks are used to propose constraints on
the kinematics of the plate displacements along the North
American margin during plutonism, c a . 93 Ma.
2. Tectonic setting and geology
The Mt. Stuart batholith is the largest of the mid-Cretaceous
plutons within the Cascades Crystalline Core, in Washington
State (Fig. 1). The Cascades Crystalline Core is considered to
be the southern extension of the Coast Plutonic Complex,
British Columbia (Fig. 1). It is made up of deformed and
variably metamorphosed Upper Paleozoic to Mesozoic rocks,
including sedimentary and volcanic rocks and ophiolitic slices
 K. Benn et al.: Magmatic Fabrics in Batholiths as Markers of Regional Strains
Fig. 2. Geology of the Mount Smart batholith and its host rocks.
that were accreted to the western North American margin
during mid-Cretaceous to Paleogene orogenesis (Brown,
1987; Miller et al., 1993). Accretion may have resulted from
the collision of the Insular and Intermontane superterranes,
resulting in the regional shortening accommodated by the
Northwest Cascades Thrust System and in burial
metamorphism (MeGroder, 1991). Alternative models suggest
the Cascades Crystalline Core represents the exhumed roots of
a mid-Cretaceous magmatie are built upon previously
amalgamated terranes (Brown and Talbot, 1989; Kriens and
Wernicke, 1990; Walker and Brown, 1991). The Cretaceous
tectonics are recorded in the metamorphic rocks of the
Cascades Crystalline Core by thrust faults, by upright to
overturned NW-SE trending gently plunging folds and by
pervasive NW-SE trending extension lineations (Brown and
Talbot, 1989; Miller and Paterson, 1992; Miller and Paterson,
1994).
The Mt. Stuart batholith (93 Ma) crops out as two closely
spaced massifs (Fig. 2). The western portion is an elliptical
body composed oftonalite and granodiorite. The main body of
the Nit. Stuart batholith lies to the east, and has been
informally subdivided into the northern "hook", the central
narrow NW-SE striking portion referred to as "the sill", and
the southernmost part which is referred to as "the mushroom"
because of its shape in map view. The hook region has been
interpreted to be an antiformal fold plunging gently to the
northwest (Paterson et al., 1994; Paterson and Miller, 1998a).
The host rocks of the Mt. Smart batholith consist of the
345
[ ' 1 Cenozoic sedimentary
rocks
Mt. Stuart batholith
Tonalite and granodiorite
['7"I Granodiorite
Diorite and gabbro
D Metagabbro and metadiorite
(Big Jim complex)
Country rocks
Chiwaukum schist
Ingalls ophiolite
..t_ Foliation
~ . _ Leavenworth Fault
A Windy PassThrust
~ I Axial surface trace
metapelitic and metapsammitic Chiwaukum Schist, and the
Ingalls ophiolite complex which overlies the Chiwaukum
Schist on a thrust contact (Windy Pass Thrust, Fig. 2). The
regional metamorphic grade of the country rocks ranges from
greenschist in the rocks enclosing the mushroom region, to
upper amphibolite in the Chiwaukum Schist that hosts the
hook and sill regions (Miller et al., 1993). Aluminum-in-
hornblende geobarometry on the rocks of the Mr. Smart
batholith suggests the depth of emplacement was between 6
and 12 km (Ague and Brandon, 1992; Anderson, 1997).
The main phases of the Mt. Stuart batholith consist of
biotite (+ hornblende) tonalite and granodiorite with
metaluminous and marginally peraluminous compositions.
Trace element signatures suggest an origin within a calc-
alkaline volcanic arc setting (Anderson, 1992; Paterson et al.,
1994). The tonalite locally grades into diorite and gabbro in
the southern part of the batholith (Fig. 2). A slightly older
(95.5 Ma) mafic unit called the Big Jim complex (Fig. 2) is not
volumetrically significant relative to the main phases of the Mt.
Stuart batholith.
Previous structural studies of the Mt. Stuart batholith
documented a foliation and a mineral lineation that are most
strongly developed near the NE margin of the pluton, where
they record magmatic deformation and a locally developed
high-temperature subsolidus overprint (Miller and Paterson,
1992; 1994). The magmatic and high-temperature subsolidus
fabrics are parallel, and, based on numerous field and
microstructural observations, they are interpreted to record a
346 K. Bennet al.: MagmaticFabricsin Batholithsas Markersof RegionalStrains
continuum in magmatic to subsolidus deformation that
occurred as the batholith crystallized and began to cool from
the solidus. In the hook and the sill, the mesoscopic foliation
generally strikes NW-SE, and at different localities it dips
moderately to steeply either to the NE or to the SW. The
lineation has a shallow plunge, and it is generally parallel to the
axes of magmatic to subsolidus folds documented in the NE
margin of the batholith (Miller and Paterson, 1994). The
foliation, the lineation and the folds within the batholith margin
have orientations similar to tectonic folds and fabrics in the
metamorphic host rocks of the Chiwaukum Schist. The
lineations are also parallel to the direction of the maximum
principal stretch indicated by boudinaged dykes of Mt. Stuart
magmas within the Chiwaukum schist (Miller and Paterson,
1994), and to the NW-SE instantaneous stretching direction
indicated by the preferred orientation of magma-sealed joints
within the batholith (Fig. 18 in Paterson et al., 1994). In the
interior of the hook and sill regions, the foliation and lineation
are of magmatic origin, and they are less intensely expressed
than near the pluton margin.
The magmatic fabrics in the mushroom region of the
batholith define a different pattern from the one observed in Fig. 3. Photomicrographsof (A) the typicaligneoustexturein the
the hook and the sill. We interpret the difference in fabric sampledrocks,and (B) kinkedtwinsin a feldsparcrystal
pattern to be due to the fact that the mushroom region is demonstratingveryminorcrystal-plasticstrain.The long
dimensionof eachphotomicrographis 6 mm.
hosted by greenschist grade ophiolitic peridotites and gabbros
that responded in a less ductile fashion to regional
deformations than the amphibolite grade metasedimentary 1989; Bouchez et al., 1990). They include the preservation of
rocks that host the hook and the sill. Hence in the mushroom well developed crystal faces on early crystallizing minerals
region the magmatic foliations show a concentric pattern such as feldspar, micas and amphiboles, and the lack of
parallel to the pluton margin, suggesting they may record extensive dynamic recrystallization of the minerals. Similar
internal flow of the magmas within an already constructed microstructural criteria are used to identify the presence of
magma chamber (Paterson et al., 1994); the fabrics may have crystallized melt within the leucosomes ofmigmatites (Vernon
been isolated from tectonic stresses by the rigid host rocks. In and Collins, 1988).
this study, we concentrate on the fabrics in the hook and sill Igneous textures are well preserved throughout much of the
regions, which were emplaced within highly ductile country Mr. Stuart batholith (and in all of the studied samples), with
rocks. In those parts of the batholith, the magmatic fabrics only a very weak and locally developed suprasolidus to
have a predominantly tectonic signature, probably due to a subsolidus overprint. Some plagioclase crystals exhibit
small difference in viscosity between the batholith and its concentric igneous zonation, and most have euhedral to
ductile host at the time of fabric formation, which allowed the subhedral crystal habits (Fig. 3A), indicating that the rocks we
magmas to deform with the country rocks. sampled for this study have not been affected by significant
high-temperature subsolidus strain and reerystallization. Some
plagioclase-plagioclase grain boundaries are lobate and
3. Microstructures cnspate suggesting minor plagioclase grain boundary migration
occurred, either during or immediately following the latest
We have studied the magrnatic fabrics that are preserved stages of crystallization. Minor intracrystalline plastic
within rocks with pristine igneous textures, indicating that the deformation is also manifested in a small fraction of the
mineral orientations were frozen into the rocks when they plagioclase crystals by the presence of kinked deformation
solidified and were not subsequently reworked by solid state twins (Fig. 3B). However, since euhedral to subhedral
deformations. The criteria for identifying igneous textures are plagioclase crystal shapes and igneous compositional zonation
well known and have been described in detail (Paterson et al., are well preserved, we interpret that the studied rocks did not
 K. Benn et aL: Magmatic Fabrics in Batholiths as Markers of Regional Strains
undergo extensive subsolidus strain and recrystallization.
4. AMS method
Oriented blocks (and a few oriented drill cores) were collected
at seventy-five stations in the study area. Oriented drill cores
were extracted from the blocks using a specially outfitted drill
press at the Geological Survey of Canada, in Ottawa. At least
three drill cores of approximately 7 cm length were obtained
for each sampling station, and two or more cylindrical
specimens of 10.8 em3 were cut from each core, providing a
sample of at least 64.8 cm3 for each station. The AMS
measurements were performed using a Kappabridge KLY-2
instrument (AGICO, Czech Republic) at the University of
Ottawa. The KLY-2 is an a.c. bridge operating at 920 Hz with
an internal field intensity of 300 A/m (r.m.s. value). The
magnetic susceptibility is measured along the axis of the pick-
up coil with the specimen being placed in fifteen predetermined
orientations. The resulting data allow calculation of the
orientation of the anisotropy ellipsoid and the values of the
principal susceptibilities along each of the principal axes (K1>
K2> K3). The average AMS ellipsoid was calculated for each
sampling site using a tensor averaging method (Jelinek, 1978).
5. Magnetic mineralogy
Determination of the magnetic mineralogy is of critical
importance in magnetic fabric studies, since the presence of
certain minerals may lead to anomalous AMS fabrics that
cannot be related to the petrofabrics of interest in a simple and
straightforward way. Anomalous AMS may occur because the
formation of magnetic minerals post-dates (and, therefore,
their orientations may not record) the fabric forming event
(e.g. magnetite of metamorphic or hydrothermal origin; Benn
et al., 1993), or because the intrinsic anisotropies of some
minerals are anomalous, leading to AMS orientations that do
not correspond to the shape preferred orientations of the
igneous minerals (Rochette et al., 1992; Rochette et al., 1994;
Borradaile and Henry, 1997). It is, of course, critical to be
aware of the presence of such minerals in the sample suite
since, in many cases, the AMS is used to measure fabric
orientations that could not be routinely verified by other
means.
Petrographic inspection of thin sections reveals that two
paramagnetic Fe-bearing silicate phases are present in the
studied rocks. Biotite is present in all of the samples and
hornblende is locally present. Opaque minerals were also
observed in some samples. Petrological data suggest the
347
principal igneous Fe-rich opaque phase in the Mt. Stuart
batholith is pyrrhotite (Anderson and Paterson, 1991).
Recently acquired data on the remanenee-bearing magnetic
mineralogy in the batholith (S.P.L. and colleagues, work in
progress) suggest that igneous pyrrhotite is the principal
carrier of the NRM that was acquired during emplacement of
the Mt. Stuart batholith. The data show that the primary NRM
is carried by pyrrhotite, and that a slightly later NRM is
recorded by pyrrhotite and secondary magnetite. Thermal
demagnetization curves that reveal blocking temperatures of
400°C and less, and alternating-field demagnetization spectra
confirm the presence of pyrrhotite. The ongoing study of
magnetic mineralogy in the Mt. Smart batholith suggests that
magnetite is limited to relatively restricted regions, which
might correspond to regions where high oxygen fugacity
magmas crystallized, to zones of deuteric alteration that
occurred shortly after emplacement, or in some eases to
anomalously high paleo-pressures resulting from loading of the
crust above parts of the batholith shortly following its
emplacement (Brown and Walker, 1993; Paterson et al.,
1994).
Based on these data, we conclude that the AMS fabrics in
the studied sample suite are most likely controlled by a
combined contribution of biotite + hornblende + pyrrhotite at
most of the sampling sites. The orientations of those igneous
minerals should record the strain that affected the batholith as
it crystallized, and locally a very minor component of strain
acquired as the rocks cooled from the solidus (see previous
section on microstructure). Fine-grained secondary magnetite
may also contribute to the AMS signal at some of the sites.
6. Fabric results
The mescopic mineral foliation and lineation, and the AMS,
were mapped throughout the hook and sill regions of the Mt.
Stuart batholith, which represent a large-scale, shallowly
plunging antiformal fold that has also been mapped out in the
country rocks (Fig. 2). The orientations of the mesoeopic and
magnetic fabric elements are compiled on the maps and the
accompanying lower-hemisphere equal-area projections in Fig.
4.
The poles to the mesoscopic and magnetic foliations define
NE-SW point distributions, tending to partial girdles in the
equal-area projections (Fig. 4A,C). The average foliation
orientations are parallel to the axial surface traces of the
NW-SE trending regional folds that have affected the host
rocks and that gave rise to the outcrop pattern of the hook
region of the Mt. Stuart batholith. Hence the igneous foliation
within the batholith is consistent with the NW-SE shortening
348 K. Bean et al.: Magmatic Fabrics in Batholiths as Markers of Regional Strains
C:eoelalton:
Fig. 4. Compiled data for the orientations of the magnetic (A,B) and field (C,D) measurements for the hook and sill regions of the Mr. Stuart batholith.
event that is recorded in its host rocks, and it is in essence an
axial-planar fabric.
The magnetic lineations in the batholith trend NW-SE and,
on average, the plunge is subhorizontal (Fig. 4B). This
orientation is parallel to the shallowly plunging axes of the
regional folds, and to the axes of the small-scale folds
documented in the margins of the batholith (Miller and
Paterson, 1994). The average orientations of the mesoscopic-
scale lineations and magnetic lineations are very similar to the
pole to the best-fit plane calculated for the magnetic foliation
poles (compare equal-area projections in Fig. 4A,B).
Some of the scatter in the orientation distribution of the
magnetic foliation poles might be explained as the effect of
magnetic mineralogy. For instance, the presence of small
amounts of secondary magnetite could result in the
misorientation of the magnetic foliation with respect to the
foliation defined by mineral shapes (Benn et al., 1997; Berm et
al., 1998; Pignotta and Benn, 1999). On the other hand, a
similar degree of scatter of the mesoscopic foliation poles (Fig.
4C), measured in the field, suggests the orientations of the
magnetic and mesoscopic foliations may be more complicated
at a local scale than is suggested by the compiled
measurements for the study area. For instance, small-scale
folding of the magmatic foliation, which is difficult to observe
in most outcrops, has previously been documented in the
Mount Stuart batholith and in other plutons of similar ages in
the Cascades Core (Paterson et al., 1998). Also, somewhat
complicated foliation patterns in parts of the Mt. Stuart
batholith, close to remnants of host rocks that overlie the
pluton and in the vicinity of large stoped blocks (Paterson and
Miller, 1998b), may have escaped reworking by tectonic
deformation of the crystallizing intrusion. It may be that some
of the magnetic and field measurements presented here were
gathered from regions of magmatic folding, or near to
unexposed stoped blocks, or in regions where early-formed
fabrics due to internal convection of the magmas or to
 K. Benn et al.: Magmatic Fabrics in Batholiths as Markers of Regional Strains
emplacement flow were not entirely overprinted by
syncrystallization deformation. The scatter in the magnetic
lineation orientations may also be in part a mineralogical effect,
but a similar orientation distribution exists for the field
measurements of the mesoseopic lineation, defined by
plagioclase and hornblende crystals (Fig. 4D). Therefore we
cannot rule out the presence of an early-formed igneous
mineral lineation, that has not been entirely overprinted by
subsequent deformation of the crystallizing magmas.
In summary, a predominant NW-SE striking foliation and
a subhorizontal NW-SE trending lineation in the study area are
well defined in the equal-area projections. They indicate that
a steeply dipping, NW-SE striking foliation and a shallowly
plunging NW-SE trending mineral lineation are prevalent
throughout the hook and sill regions of the Mr. Stuart
batholith. Those predominant fabric orientations most likely
record synerystaUization tectonic deformation of the batholith.
7. Discussion
The results of this fabric study are consistent with previous
structural and rnicrostructural analyses of the Mt. Stuart
batholith (Miller and Paterson, 1992; 1994). Based on the
parallelism of magmatic and high-temperature subsolidus
fabrics within and adjacent to the NE margin of the batholith,
those authors suggested a continuum in the deformation of the
granitoids and their host rocks during emplacement. They
showed that, within the high-temperature deformed NE margin
of the batholith, the mineral and extension lineations are
parallel to 1) the axes of small-scale folds of the igneous fabric
within the granitoids, 2) the axes of the folded metamorphic
fabrics in the host rocks and 3) a NW-SE stretching direction
indicated by boudinaged granitoid dikes within the country
rocks. They also showed the lineations are perpendicular to the
average orientation of magma-sealed joints within the
batholith, suggesting the lineations are also parallel to the late
increments of stretching during solidification of the batholith.
The present study provides an extensive mapping of the
igneous fabrics throughout the hook and sill regions of the Mt.
Stuart batholith. Application of the AMS technique provided
lineation measurements throughout the hook region, where
outcrop conditions are generally poor, and confirmed the
numerous field measurements of the mineral lineation in the sill
region where the outcrop conditions are more condusive to
field mapping. The results in Figs. 4B,D show that the hook
and sill regions of the Mt. Stuart batholith have an average
magmatic lineation that is parallel to the magmatic and
subsolidus fabrics documented within its deformed NE margin.
It is interpreted that the fabric patterns shown in Fig. 4 were
349
acquired during the syn-crystaUization deformation that
resulted in the present outcrop pattern of the book and sill
regions, which are suggestive of an antiformal fold, and in a
pervasive stretching of the crystallizing magmas parallel to the
fold axis. According to the results of Miller and Paterson
(1992) and Miller and Paterson (1994), the deformation of the
batholith was concentrated along its margins once it had fully
crystallized and begun to cool below the solidus.
Having demonstrated the signature of syn-crystaUization
regional deformation preserved by the igneous mineral fabrics
in the Mt. Stuart batholith, we now discuss the usefulness of
the data for establishing interpretations of the regional tectonic
picture, c a . 93 Ma. First, it is argued that the predominant
fabrics within the hook and sill regions can be used to infer
shortening and stretching directions over a short period in the
crystallization history of the batholith, such that the data earl
be used to approximate the principal axes of a small increment
ofsyn-crystallization strain. Then, we speculate that the fabric
data can be used to infer pluton emplacement in an arc that
was characterized by either 1) plate convergence that was
perpendicular to a NW-SE trending plate boundary, or 2)
wrench dominated transpression due to highly oblique plate
convergence. These two proposals are developed by placing
the fabrics from the Mt. Stuart batholith within the context of
previously published structural and plate tectonic studies of the
region.
7.1. Igneous fabrics and strains
The average magnetic lineation trend in Fig. 4B (296 °) is
perpendicular to the average orientation of numerous
extensional fractures within the batholith that are sealed by
late-stage leucogranitic and pegrnatitic dykes. The average
pole to the late dykes is 300 ° (from Fig. 18 in Paterson et al.,
1994). This indicates that the magnetic lineations are parallel
to the maximum principal incremental stretching that caused
the extensional fractures to form during the final stages of
solidification of the batholith. The same parallel relationship
between the incremental maximum principal stretching
direction and magnetic lineations was documented in the
syntectonic South Mountain batholith, Nova Scotia (Benn et
al., 1997), and it is therefore possible that the relationship
occurs in other granitoids emplaced within contractional
orogens.
The interpretation that the magnetic lineation records an
incremental stretching direction implies either that 1) it formed
during a progressive pure shear deformation of the
crystallizing magma body, such that the lineation remained
parallel to the instantaneous stretching axis throughout a finite
350 K Bennet al.: MagmaticFabricsm Batholithsas Markersof RegionalStrains
magmatic strain history (of undetermined duration and
intensity), or that 2) it records a relatively small increment of
non-coaxial strain in the magma, such that the lineation was
not rotated to any significant degree from the instantaneous
stretching axis. Both interpretations are consistent with
detailed studies of the igneous foliation in close proximity to
stoped blocks in the Mt. Stuart batholith, that suggest the
magrnatic foliation formed late in the crystallization history
(Paterson and Miller, 1998b).
The data do not allow us to distinguish whether the
lineations in the Mt. Smart batholith formed during a
progressive pure shear or in response to a small increment of
non-coaxial strain, nor can we determine the magnitude of the
finite strain recorded by the fabrics. However, the parallelism
between the lineations and the average pole to late dykes
allows us to use the average lineation orientation to
approximate the instantaneous stretching axis during the late
stages of crystallization of the batholith. In the following
section, the fabrics are considered within a plate tectonic
context, and we speculate they can be used to suggest
emplacement within an arc that was characterized either by 1)
orthogonal convergence at a NW-SE trending plate boundary,
or 2) by highly oblique plate convergence and associated
wrench-dominated transpression.
7.2. Plate kinematics
In mid- to late-Cretaceous time, the western margin of the arc
represented by the Coast Plutonic Complex (Fig. 1) was part
of a west-verging fold and thrust belt extending from
Washington State (the Northwest Cascades Thrust System) to
southern Alaska (Rubin et al., 1990). A kinematically linked
system of east-verging folds and thrusts representing a back-
thrust system exists along the eastern side of the Coast
Plutonic Complex in southern British Columbia (Rusmore and
Woodsworth, 1991). A predominant WSW-ENE trend of
extension lineations in the bounding thrusts led to
interpretations that the accretionary event involved mainly arc-
perpedicular crustal shortening (Rubin et al., 1990; Rusmore
and Woodsworth, 1991).
On the other hand, a compilation of structural patterns and
geochronology has shown that, within the Coast Plutonic
Complex in British Columbia, orogen parallel displacements
may have been strongly partitioned into a system of steeply
dipping shear zones, suggesting a possible transpressive
tectonic environment (Chardon et al., 1999). Those authors
propose the arc system may have undergone first sinistral, then
dextral transpressional deformations due to oblique
convergence of the Farallon and/or Kula plates with respect to
North America (Chardon et al., 1999, and references therein).
The onset of the proposed earlier sinistral transpression is
poorly constrained but it would have terminated c a . 106 Ma,
whereas the proposed dextral transpressive event would have
begun between 106 Ma and 93 Ma ago (Chardon et al., 1999).
The switch from sinistral to dextral transpression could be
linked to an anticlockwise rotation (from E to N) of the
relative displacement vector of the Farallon plate between 125
and 75 Ma, or to the formation of the Kula plate during this
period, which had a nearly N-S oriented displacement vector
with respect to North America (Engebretson et al., 1985). We
can use the data from the Mt. Stuart batholith to propose some
further constraints on possible plate kinematics along the part
of the western margin of North America corresponding to the
Cascades Crystalline Core c a . 93 Ma, during the emplacement
of the batholith.
Kinematic considerations suggest that in large-scale
orogenic belts such as the Mesozoic to Tertiary western North
American margin, predictable relationships should exist
between relative plate motions, finite strain axes and
instantaneous strain axes (Tikoffand Teyssier, 1994; Teyssier
et al., 1995). The theoretical predictions of those authors'
kinematic modelling have been favorably compared to several
natural examples of transpressive plate boundary
environments, including Sumatra (Tikoffand Teyssier, 1994),
the San Andreas fault system and the South Island of New
Zealand (Teyssier et al., 1995; Yeyssier and Tikoff, 1998) and
the Coast Plutonic Complex in British Columbia (Fossen and
Tikoff, 1998).
In a zone of homogeneous transpression (i.e. diffuse
deformation over a broad area without strain partitioning into
transurrent shear zones) a distinction is made between, on the
one hand, wrench dominated transpression where the
instantaneous stretching axis ( s1 ) makes an angle greater than
35 ° with the zone boundary, and pure shear dominated
transpression where Sl makes an angle less than 35 ° to the
zone boundary (Tikoff and Teyssier, 1994). In wrench
dominated transpression, g 1, and the maximum finite stretch,
S l , are both horizontal at low strains, and s 1 becomes
vertical at higher strains. In pure shear dominated
transpression, both s1 and s1 are predicted to be vertical
throughout the strain history. In the special case oforthogonal
convergence at a plate boundary, a pure shear deformation is
expected with both Sl and s 1 vertical, and the instantaneous
and finite flattening planes (and, presumably, regional foliation
strikes) parallel to the plate boundary.
Based on these considerations and on our data, we can
construct two plate kinematic models. In the first model, the
 K. Benn etal.:MagmaticFabricsin Batholithsas Markersof RegionalStrains 351
bulk homogeneous pure shear, steeply plunging lineations are
A
| expected to develop. The fabrics within the Mt. Smart
batholith and structures, such as boudinaged dykes, in its wall
rocks suggest that S l , and s 1 , were both horizontal at least
during the small increments of strain that they record. The
horizontal lineations preserved in the Mt. Stuart batholith
might be reconciled with the plate kinematic model in Fig. 5A
if vertical crustal thickening resulting from are-perpendicular
shortening in the Cascades Crystalline Core were
accommodated by thrusts in the metamorphic country rocks,
such as the Northwest Cascades Thrust System (McGroder,
Kulaplate p ~ ; ~ i
1991), where NE-S W trending stretching lineations have been
vector " "i
documented. Then, the lineatious in the batholith might
indicate lateral, arc-parallel flow of the crystallizing magmas
induced by the regional shortening.
A second kinematic model calls for emplacement and
crystallization within a ductile crust undergoing wrench
dominated transpression. Fig. 5B presents the schematic
model, assuming a homogeneous transpression. It is
constrained by values of 0, the angle between the maximum
instantaneous stretching axis and the plate boundary, and by (x,
the angle between the relative plate displacement vector and
the plate margin (Tikoff and Teyssier, 1994). For wrench
dominated transpression, 0 should have a value between 35 °
and 45 °, and cx should have a value of 20 ° or less (Tikoff and
Teyssier, 1994). In Fig. 5B, we take Sl to be approximated
by the average trend of the magnetic lineation (296°). To
Fig. 5. Two possibleplatekinematicmodelsfor the NorthAmerican demonstrate the proposed model, a value of 0 = 35 ° (the
marginin the regionof the CascadesCrystallineCore,for the period c a . lowest predicted value for wrench dominated transpression) is
93 Ma. (A) Orthogonalconvergenceof the Farallonor Kulaplate with arbitrarily chosen in Fig. 5B, which suggests a paleo-plate
respectto NorthAmerica.(B) Highlyobliqueconvergenceof the boundary trending 331 ° , similar to the trend of the Coast
Farallon or Kulaplatewithrespectto NorthAmerica,resultingin
Plutonic Complex and of several major regional shear zones
wrenchdominatedtranspression.
within it (Chardon et al., 1999). In Fig. 5B, the maximum
possible angle of 20 ° is chosen for (x, and a plate displacement
Mt. Stuart batholith was emplaced within the mid-crustal parts vector of 351 ° is derived. Note that if a value of 45 ° was
of an arc undergoing NE-SW arc-perpendicular shortening (as chosen for 0, the determined plate boundary trend would be
previously proposed by Paterson and Miller, 1998a). This 341 o, and then the interpreted plate displacement vector would
model, shown schematically in Fig. 5A, would require the plate be oriented 001 °.
margin to be parallel to the predominant fabrics in the Plate reconstructions suggest that between 100 Ma and 75
batholith, that record NE-SW syn-emplacement tectonic Ma, the displacement vector of the Farallon plate with respect
shortening perpendicular to the predominant foliation and to North America underwent a clockwise rotation from about
lineation in the batholith. It would also suggest that the 035 ° to about 028 ° (Engebretson et al., 1985; Kelley and
Cascades Crystalline Core, and the Mt. Stuart batholith, would Engebretson, 1994). During the same period, the Kula plate
have undergone a bulk pure shear deformation. One advantage may have been formed and would have undergone a relative
of this model is that the interpreted plate displacement vector displacement trending about 005 ° (Engebretson et al., 1985).
(Fig. 5A) is similar to the one proposed for the Farallon plate If the plate kinematic analysis in the previous paragraph is
with respect to North America, between 100 and 75 Ma, based correct, it would suggest that at 93 Ma, the relative
on plate reconstructions (Engebretson et al., 1985). A displacement vector for the plate lying outboard of that part of
disadvantage is that kinematic models predict that during a the North American margin corresponding to the Cascades
352 K. Benn et aL" Magmatic Fabrics in Batholiths as Markers of Regional Strains
Crystalline Core would have been trending between 351 o and
001 o. Comparing to the interpretations of Engebretson et al.
(1985): 1) if the Farallon plate was outboard of the study area
during emplacement of the Mt. Stuart batholith, then our
analysis would suggest the plate displacement vector may have
undergone a greater rotation than proposed by the plate
reconstructions, 2) if the Kula plate was outboard of the study
area at that time, then our interpretations suggest a similar
plate displacement vector to the one indicated by the plate
reconstructions, which is 005 ° . Hence our analysis of the
wrench dominated kinematic model, summarized above and in
Fig. 5B, would be most compatible with a northward
displacement of the Kula plate with respect to the southern
extension of the Coast Plutonic Complex at 93 Ma.
The above plate kinematic analyses and the derivations of
possible plate displacement vectors are based mainly on the
fabric and structural analysis of the Mr. Stuart batholith, and
they assume either a homogenous bulk regional pure shear, or
a homogeneous transpression, c a . 93 Ma within the Cascades
Crystalline Core. Furthermore, the second kinematic model
(Fig. 5B) excludes partitioning of the transpression into
transurrent shear zones (Teyssier et al., 1995). If one or more
of the major transcurrent shear zones, such as the Coast shear
zone, that may have accommodated plate boundary-parallel
displacements in the Coast Plutonic Complex in Cretaceous
time (Hollister and Andronicos, 1997; Chardon et al., 1999)
extended as far south as the Cascades Crystalline Core, then
plate boundary-parallel displacements could have been
partitioned into the shear zones during possible Cretaceous
transpression. As a result, the plate boundary would be
constrained to be oriented more closely to the maximum
instantaneous strain axis ( s 1 ) (Teyssier et al., 1995), i.e. it
would be rotated clockwise with respect to the plate boundary
indicated in Fig. 5B. However, to our knowledge, no large-
scale transcurrent shear zones of Cretaceous (or earlier) age
have been mapped as far south as the present study area.
Therefore, if a wrench dominated transpression model is
applicable to the Cascades Crystalline Core, then we interpret
Fig. 5B to be a reasonable approximation of plate kinematics
at the time of emplacement of the Mr. Stuart batholith, based
on the present data set.
8. Conclusions
Magnetic and field measurements of the pervasive magmatic
foliation and lineation in the Cretaceous Mt. Stuart batholith
suggest it underwent a NE-SW shortening and NW-SE
stretching, parallel to regional folds, during emplacement and
solidification c a . 93 Ma. Comparison of the results with
previous structural and fabric analyses within and adjacent to
the Mt. Smart batholith suggests that the magnetic fabrics may
record a small increment of finite strain, and that the fabric
orientations can be interpreted to approximate the orientation
of the instantaneous strain during the final stages of
crystallization. The fabric and structural data have been used
to fit the Mt. Stuart batholith, and the Cascades Crystalline
Core, into the plate tectonic history along the North American
margin, c a . 93 Ma. The results may indicate that the Mt. Stuart
batholith was emplaced within part of an arc subjected to NE-
SW shortening, orthogonal to a NW-SE trending plate
boundary. Alternatively, based on considerations of the
kinematics of transpressional deformations, the fabrics may
indicate a boundary between either the Farallon or Kula plate
and North America that had a NNW-SSE trend, and a NNW
to N relative displacement vector for the outboard plate at the
time of crystallization of the batholith.
The results demonstrate the potential usefulness of igneous
fabrics and other magrnatic structures in syntectonic plutons
for analyses of regional deformations in orogenic belts, and
possibly for determinations of plate kinematics associated with
orogens. An extension of this type of tectonic analysis could
involve mapping the magmatic fabrics in plutons of different
ages within an orogenic belt, in order to investigate the strain
history during succesive short periods corresponding to the
emplacement and crystallization of the magma bodies. Such
future studies may provide information on the incremental
strain histories of orogens.
Acknowledgements
The field and laboratory work was funded by Research Grant 105990 awarded
to K.B. by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
K.B. thanks the Geological Survey of Canada - Ottawa for access to the drill
press in the paleomagnetics laboratory. Comments by two anonymous
reviewers helped improve the paper. Special thanks to the Guest Editors for
their efforts putting this issue together.
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