www.studymaterialz.

in
KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
NAMAKKAL- TRICHY MAIN ROAD, THOTTIAM
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
EC8551-COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
UNIT-1 HAND OUTS
PART-A
1. Flow control
Flow control is a technique for speed matching of transmitter and receiver. Flow
control ensures that a transmitting station does not overflow a receiving station with
data.

2. To measure performance of network

The performance of network is measured by the,
 Speed of the network
 Minimum delay
 Less loss of packets
 No damaged packets
3. Computer network
A computer network is a group of interconnected computers. It allows computers to
communicate with each other and to share resources and information.

4. Five components of data communication system.

1. Message 4.Transmission medium
2. Sender 5.protocol
3. Receiver
5. Circuit switching and packet switching.

S. Circuit Switching Packet switching

No
1 Physical connection between sender No physical connection between sender and
and receiver receiver
2 All packets use same path All packets uses different path
3 Waste of bandwidth is possible No waste of bandwidth.
4 Congestion occurs for per minute. Congestion occurs for per packet.

PART-B

1. Error detection and its functionalities

Error Detection
How can errors be detected by using block coding? If the following two
conditions are met, the receiver can detect a change in the original codeword.
1. The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid codewords.
2. The original codeword has changed to an invalid one.
 www.studymaterialz.in

Cyclic Redundancy Check

We can create cyclic codes to correct errors. However, the theoretical
background
required is beyond the scope of this book. In this section, we simply discuss a category
of cyclic codes called the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) that is used in networks
such as LANs and WANs.

Encoder And Decoder

Let us take a closer look at the encoder. The encoder takes the dataword
and augments it with n - k number of as. It then divides the augmented
dataword by the divisor

2. OSI layer

The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational

body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard
 www.studymaterialz.in
that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection model.
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
7.Application layer
6.Presentation layer
5.Session layer
4.Transport layer
3.Network layer
2.Data link layer
1.Physical layer

Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a
physi-
cal medium.
It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.
It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices
and interfaces have to perform for transmission to medium.

Functions:
Physical characteristics of interfaces: between ―devices and transmission media‖
Representation of bits: It encodes bit stream into ―electrical signals‖
Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reli-
able link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network
layer).
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Functions:
Framing: The frames received from network layer is divided into ―manageable data
units‖
Physical Addressing: It adds header to define the ―sender and receiver‖
Flow control: Prevents Overwhelming the receiver
Error control: detect and retransmit damaged or lost frame
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links).
Whereas the data link layer oversees delivery of the packet between two systems on
the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of
origin to its final destination.

Functions:
Logical addressing: packet header includes logical address of sender and
receiver (192.168.2.0)
Routing: route the packets to its final destination
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
mes-sage. A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the
network layeroversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as
though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The
transport layer,

Functions:
port addressing: includes port address eg:8080
Segmentation and reassembling: “sequence number‖
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Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and
network) are not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network
dialog controller.It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.

Functions:
Dialog control
Synchronization
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.

Functions:
Translation: maintains interoperability between the two encoding schemes
Encryption: Transforming sender information into other form
Compression: reduce no of bits

Application layer:
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access
the net-work. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic
mail,remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of
distrib-uted information services.

Functions:
File transfer: allows users to access files in remote computer
Mail services: e-mail forwarding
Directory services: access of global information
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3. Building a network and its requirements.
A computer network is a group of interconnected computers. it allows
computer to communicate with each each other and to share resources and
information.
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur,
the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The
effectiveness
of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery,accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular
forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by
which
a message travels from sender to receiver.
Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represent an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking
French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Applications of computer networks:
1.Business applications
2. Home applications
3. Mobile applications
Requirements:
Application programmer
Network designer
Network provider

4. Operations take place in stop and wait ARQ protocol

o Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 Operation
a) Normal Operation
b) Lost or damaged frame
c) Lost Acknowledgement
d) Delayed Acknowledgement
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ii) Sliding window concept in Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Repeat ARQ.

5.
(I) HDLC
– Normal Response Mode (NRM)
– Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
– Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

(ii) PPP
• Packet framing - encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
– Multi-protocol - carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not
just IP) at same time ability to demultiplex upwards
• Bit transparency - must carry any bit pattern in the data field (even if underlying
channel can't)
• Error detection - not correction
• Flag: delimiter (framing)
• Address: ignored. (historical)
• Control: ignored. (historical)
 www.studymaterialz.in
KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
NAMAKKAL- TRICHY MAIN ROAD, THOTTIAM
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
EC8551-COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
UNIT-2 HAND OUTS
PART-A

1. Switch and Router.

Switch Router
Operates at data link layer Operates at network layer
Switch does convert protocol Router does not convert protocol

2. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a low-cost, low power, short range wireless technology used in
networking, mobile phones and other portable devices. Although the range of
each Bluetooth device is approximately 10 meters but this distance can be
increased to 100 meters with optional amplifiers placed at strategic locations
in building.
3. Types of error reporting and query messages in ICMP.
Types of Error reporting:
Destination unreachable
Source quench
Time exceed
Parameter problems
Redirection
Types of Query messages
Echo request and reply
Timestamp request and reply
Address mask request and reply
Router solicitation and advertisement

4. Difference between P-Persistent CSMA and Non-Persistent CSMA

Non-Persistent CSMA P-Persistent CSMA

In non-persistent CSMA, when a
collision occurs the transmitting device
sets a timer, waits for a period of time
and checks again to determine if the
media is free.
If the media is free, the station will
immediately transmit the data.
In P-Persistent CSMA, the device
wanting to transmit does not
immediately send data when it detects
that the media is idle.
Instead it uses a random scheme that
gives it a fifty-fifty chance to either send
the data immediately or to want and then
repeat the process.

5. Main function of gateway

A gateway is a protocol convertor.
Gateway connects two dissimilar networks together.
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PART-B

1. IP addressing methods.
i) Class full Addressing
The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These
are:
Class A 1 to 127
Class B 128 to 191
Class C 192 to 223
Class D 224 to 239
Class E 240 to 255
Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved
for multicast and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first
octet determine the classes of IP address.
IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
 Network ID, Host ID
The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID
and the number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP
or network administrator assigns IP address to each device that is connected to its
network.

ii) Class less Addressing

To overcome address depletion and give more organizations
access to the Internet,classless addressing was designed and implemented. In
this scheme, there are no
classes, but the addresses are still granted in blocks.

….

Header format:
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2. Two basic types of wireless communication with architecture of

IEEE 802.11 and MAC layer functions.
Architecture:
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the
extended service set (ESS).

Basic Service Set

IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a
wireless
LAN. A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an
optional
central base station, known as the access point (AP). Figure 14.1 shows two sets in
this
standard.

The BSS without anAP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other
BSSs.
It is called an ad hoc architecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network
without the need of an AP; they can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS.
A
BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an infrastructure network

Extended Service Set

An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In
this
case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is usually a wired
LAN. The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs. IEEE 802.11 does not
restrict the distribution system; it can be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet. Note
that
the extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary. The mobile
stations are normal stations inside a BSS

When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can
communicate without the use of an AP. However, communication between two
stations in two different BSSs usually occurs via two APs. The idea is similar to
communication in a cellular network if we consider each BSS to be a cell and each
AP to be a base station. Note that a mobile station can belong to more than one BSS
at the same time.
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MAC Sublayer
IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers: the distributed coordination function
(DCF) and point coordination function (PCF). Figure 14.3 shows the relationship
between the two MAC sublayers, the LLC sublayer, and the physical layer. We discuss
the physical layer implementations later in the chapter and will now concentrate on the
MAC sublayer.

Distributed Coordination Function

One of the two protocols defined by IEEE at the MAC sublayer is called the
distributed coordination function (DCF). DCF uses CSMAICA (as defined in Chapter
12) as theaccess method. Wireless LANs cannot implement CSMAfCD for three
reasons:
I. For collision detection a station must be able to send data and receive collision
signals at the same time. This can mean costly stations and increased bandwidth
requirements.
2. Collision may not be detected because of the hidden station problem. We will
discuss
this problem later in the chapter.
3. The distance between stations can be great. Signal fading could prevent a
station at
one end from hearing a collision at the other end.
The point coordination function (PCF) is an optional access method that can
be implemented in an infrastructure network (not in an ad hoc network). It is
implemented on top of the DCF and is used mostly for time-sensitive transmission.

Access method and frame format used in Ethernet

802.3
Ethernet, IEEE 802.3 defines the frame formats or frame structures that are
developed within the MAC layer of the protocol stack.
Essentially the same frame structure is used for the different variants of Ethernet,
although there are some changes to the frame structure to extend the performance of
the system should this be needed. With the high speeds and variety of media used, this
basic format sometimes needs to be adapted to meet the individual requirements of the
transmission system, but this is still specified within the amendment / update for that
given Ethernet variant.
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 Header
 Preamble (PRE) - This is seven bytes long and it consists of a pattern of
alternating ones and zeros, and this informs the receiving stations that a frame
is starting as well as enabling synchronisation. (10 Mbps Ethernet)
 Start Of Frame delimiter (SOF) - This consists of one byte and contains an
alternating pattern of ones and zeros but ending in two ones.
 Destination Address (DA) - This field contains the address of station for which
the data is intended. The left most bit indicates whether the destination is an
individual address or a group address. An individual address is denoted by a
zero, while a one indicates a group address. The next bit into the DA indicates
whether the address is globally administered, or local. If the address is
globally administered the bit is a zero, and a one of it is locally administered.
There are then 46 remaining bits. These are used for the destination address
itself.
 Source Address (SA) - The source address consists of six bytes, and it is used
to identify the sending station. As it is always an individual address the left
most bit is always a zero.
 Length / Type - This field is two bytes in length. It provides MAC information
and indicates the number of client data types that are contained in the data
field of the frame. It may also indicate the frame ID type if the frame is
assembled using an optional format.(IEEE 802.3 only).
Payload
Data - This block contains the payload data and it may be up to 1500
bytes long. If the length of the field is less than 46 bytes, then padding data is
added to bring its length up to the required minimum of 46 bytes.
Trailer
Frame Check Sequence (FCS) - This field is four bytes long. It
contains a 32 bit Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) which is generated over
the DA, SA, Length / Type and Data fields.
Access method:
Ethernet specification:
 10BASE5
 10BASE2
 1BASE5
 10BASET
 10BASEF
 10BOARD36
4. Conversion of IP to MAC using ARP protocol.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for mapping an
Internet Protocol address (IP address to a physical machine address that is recognized
in the local network. For example, in IP Version 4, the most common level of IP in
use today, an address is 32 bits long. In an Ethernet local area network, however,
addresses for attached devices are 48 bits long. (The physical machine address is also
known as a Media Access Control or MAC address) A table, usually called the ARP
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cache, is used to maintain a correlation between each MAC address and its
corresponding IP address. ARP provides the protocol rules for making this correlation
and providing address conversion in both directions.

Encapsulation of ARP Packet:

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5.DHCP with auto configuration functions.
DHCP will assign new IP addresses in each location when devices are
moved from place to place, which means network administrators do not have to
manually initially configure each device with a valid IP address or reconfigure the
device with a new IP address if it moves to a new location on the network. Versions
of DHCP are available for use in Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and Internet
Protocol version 6 (IPv6) DHCP runs at the application layer of the Transmission
Control Protocol/IP (TCP/IP protocol stack to dynamically assign IP addresses to
DHCP clients and to allocate TCP/IP configuration information to DHCP clients.
This includes subnet mask information, default gateway IP addresses and domain
name system (DNS addresses.
DHCP is a client-server protocol in which servers manage a pool of unique IP
addresses, as well as information about client configuration parameters, and assign
addresses out of those address pools. DHCP-enabled clients send a request to the
DHCP server whenever they connect to a network
 www.studymaterialz.in
KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
NAMAKKAL- TRICHY MAIN ROAD, THOTTIAM
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
EC8551-COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
UNIT-3 HAND OUTS
PART-A
1. Multicast
A Multicast Routing Protocol is used to communicate between multicast routers and
enables them to calculate the multicast distribution tree of receiving hosts. Protocol
Independent Multicast (PIM) is the most important Multicast Routing Protocol.
a. Multicast means the sender links to send one packets to more clients. And
same packet to more destinations
2. IPV6
IPV6 consists of address and logical address. Many of them think that there are more
that four billion ip address in IPV6.it is suitable to unicast,multicast or anycast.it
contains 128-byte word size and its 16-bit address.
192C:38BD:EC04:00PI
3. Geographic network in routing table
i. To decrease the size of the routing table even further, it necessary to
extend hierarchical routing to include geographical routing. It divides
the entire address space into a few large blocks.
4. Logic of MTU
i. In computer networking, the maximum transmission unit (MTU) is the
size of the largest network layer protocol data unit that can be
communicated in a single network transaction.
PART-B
1. DVR routing protocol
A distance-vector routing (DVR) protocol requires that a router inform its
neighbors of topology changes periodically.
In distance vector routing, the least-cost route between any two nodes is the
route with minimum distance. In this protocol, as the name implies, each node maintains a
vector (table) of minimum distances to every node. The table at each node also guides the
packets to the desired node by showing the next stop in the route (next-hop routing).
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Initialization
The tables in Figure 22.14 are stable; each node knows how to reach any other
node and the cost. At the beginning, however, this is not the case. Each node can know only
the distance between itself and its immediate neighbors, those directly connected to it. So for
the moment, we assume that each node can send a message to the immediate neighbors and
find the distance between itself and these neighbors. Figure 22.15 shows the initial tables for
each node. The distance for any entry that is not a neighbor is marked as infinite
(unreachable).

Sharing
The whole idea of distance vector routing is the sharing ofinformation between
neighbors. Although node A does not know about node E, node C does. So if node C shares
its routing table with A, node A can also know how to reach node E. On the other hand, node
C does not know how to reach node D, but node A does. Ifnode A shares its routing table
with node C, node C also knows how to reach node D. In other words, nodes A and C, as
immediate neighbors, can improve their routing tables if they help each other. There is only
one problem. How much of the table must be shared with each neighbor? A node is not
aware of a neighbor's table. The best solution for each node is to send its entire table to the
neighbor and let the neighbor decide what part to use and what part to discard. However, the
third column of a table (next stop) is not useful for the neighbor. When the neighbor receives
a table, this column needs to be replaced with the sender's name. If any of the rows can be
used, the next node is the sender of the table. A node therefore can send only the first two
columns of its table to any neighbor.

In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table with its immediate
neighbors periodically and when there is a change.

Updating
When a node receives a two-column table from a neighbor, it needs to update its
routing table. Updating takes three steps:
1. The receiving node needs to add the cost between itself and the sending node to
each value in the second column. The logic is clear. If node C claims that its distance to a
destination is x mi, and the distance between A and C is y mi, then the distance between A
and that destination, via C, is x + y mi.
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2. The receiving node needs to add the name ofthe sending node to each row as
the third column if the receiving node uses information from any row. The sending node is
the next node in the route.
3. The receiving node needs to compare each row ofits old table with the
corresponding row ofthe modified version ofthe received table. a. If the next-node entry is
different, the receiving node chooses the row with the smaller cost. If there is a tie, the old
one is kept. b. Ifthe next-node entry is the same, the receiving node chooses the new row. For
example, suppose node C has previously advertised a route to node X with distance 3.
Suppose that now there is no path between C and X; node C now advertises this route with a
distance of infinity. Node A must not ignore this value even though its old entry is smaller.
The old route does not exist any more. The new route has a distance of infinity.

When to Share
The question now is, When does a node send its partial routing table (only two
columns) to all its immediate neighbors? The table is sent both periodically and when there is
a change in the table.
Periodic Update A node sends its routing table, normally every 30 s, in a periodic update.
The period depends on the protocol that is using distance vector routing.
Triggered Update A node sends its two-column routing table
to its neighbors anytime there is a change in its routing table.
This is called a triggered update.
 www.studymaterialz.in
KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
NAMAKKAL- TRICHY MAIN ROAD, THOTTIAM
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
EC8551-COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
UNIT-4 HAND OUTS
PART-A
1. Delay and Jitter.
Delay:
Delay is a time, when the packet transfer across the network from
source to destination with intervals of time.
Jitter:
Jitter been the fluncations end to end protocol with one packet to
another packet as delay arises.

2. QoS
On the Internet and in other networks, QoS (Quality of Service) is the
idea that transmission rates, error rates, and other characteristics can be
measured, improved, and, to some extent, guaranteed in advance. QoS is of
particular concern for the continuous transmission of high-bandwidth video
and multimedia information.
3. Congestion control
Congestion is an important issue that can arise in packet switched
network. Congestion is a situation in Communication Networks in which too
many packets are present in a part of the subnet, performance degrades.
Congestion in a network may occur when the load on the network (i.e. the
number of packets sent to the network) is greater than the capacity of the
network (i.e. the number of packets a network can handle.)
4. QoS and the parameters
Quality of service (QoS) is the description or measurement of the
overall performance of a service, such as a computer network service,
particularly the performance seen by the users of the network. To
quantitatively measure quality of service, several related aspects of the
network service are often considered, such as packet loss, bit
rate, throughput, transmission delay, availability, jitter, etc.
5. Congestion and flow control
Flow Control is done by server machine
Flow control cannot block the bandwidth of medium
Flow control affects less on network performance
Congestion control is done by router
Congestion control controls the blocks the bandwidth of the medium.

PART-B
1. Functionalities of RVSP.
RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol)
 Reservation Protocol
 Another important characteristic of RSVP is that it aims to support
multicast flows just as effectively as unicast flows
 Initially, consider the case of one sender and one receiver trying to get
a reservation for traffic flowing between them.
 There are two things that need to happen before a receiver can make
the reservation.
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 First, the receiver needs to know what traffic the sender is likely to
send so that it can make an appropriate reservation. That is, it needs to
know the sender’s TSpec.
 Second, it needs to know what path the packets will follow from
sender to receiver, so that it can establish a resource reservation at
each router on the path. Both of these requirements can be met by
sending a message from the sender to the receiver that contains the
TSpec.
 Obviously, this gets the TSpec to the receiver. The other thing that
happens is that each router looks at this message (called a PATH
message) as it goes past, and it figures out the reverse path that will be
used to send reservations from the receiver back to the sender in an
effort to get the reservation to each router on the path.
 Having received a PATH message, the receiver sends a reservation
back ―up‖ the multicast tree in a RESV message.
 This message contains the sender’s TSpec and an RSpec describing the
requirements of this receiver.
 Each router on the path looks at the reservation request and tries to
allocate the necessary resources to satisfy it. If the reservation can be
made, the RESV request is passed on to the next router.
 If not, an error message is returned to the receiver who made the
request. If all goes well, the correct reservation is installed at every
router between the sender and the receiver.
 As long as the receiver wants to retain the reservation, it sends the
same RESV message about once every 30 seconds.
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2. UDP protocol
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a connectionless,
unreliable transport protocol. It does not add anything to the services of IP except to
provide process-to-process communication instead of host-to-host communication.
IP UDP UDP data
Header(20 bytes) Header(8 bytes)

User datagram format:

Port numbers:

Applications of UDP:
UDP is used for some route updating protocols such as RIP.
UDP is used for multicasting.
It is suitable for a process with interval flow and error control.
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3. QoS, policing and integrated service.
A communications network forms the backbone of any successful organization. These
networks transport a multitude of applications and data, including high-quality video and delay-
sensitive data such as real-time voice. The bandwidth-intensive applications stretch network
capabilities and resources, but also complement, add value, and enhance every business process.
Networks must provide secure, predictable, measurable, and sometimes guaranteed services.
Achieving the required Quality of Service (QoS) by managing the delay, delay variation (jitter),
bandwidth, and packet loss parameters on a network becomes the secret to a successful end-to-end
business solution. Thus, QoS is the set of techniques to manage network resources.

4. Adaptive flow control with congestion control mechanisms.

 Additive Increase Multiplicative Decrease

 TCP maintains a new state variable for each connection, called
CongestionWindow, which is used by the source to limit how much data it is
allowed to have in transit at a given time.
 The congestion window is congestion control’s counterpart to flow control’s
advertised window.
 TCP is modified such that the maximum number of bytes of unacknowledged
data allowed is now the minimum of the congestion window and the
advertised window
 TCP’s effective window is revised as follows:
 MaxWindow = MIN(CongestionWindow, AdvertisedWindow)
 EffectiveWindow = MaxWindow − (LastByteSent − LastByteAcked).
 That is, MaxWindow replaces AdvertisedWindow in the calculation of
EffectiveWindow.
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 Slow Start
 The additive increase mechanism just described is the right approach to use
when the source is operating close to the available capacity of the network,
but it takes too long to ramp up a connection when it is starting from scratch.
 TCP therefore provides a second mechanism, ironically called slow start, that
is used to increase the congestion window rapidly from a cold start.
 Slow start effectively increases the congestion windowexponentially, rather
than linearly.
 Specifically, the source starts out by setting CongestionWindow to one packet.
 When the ACK for this packet arrives, TCP adds 1 to CongestionWindow and
then sends two packets.
 Upon receiving the corresponding two ACKs, TCP increments
CongestionWindow by 2—one for each ACK—and next sends four packets.
 The end result is that TCP effectively doubles the number of packets it has in
transit every RTT.
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 Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery
 The mechanisms described so far were part of the original proposal to add
congestion control to TCP.
 It was soon discovered, however, that the coarse-grained implementation of
TCP timeouts led to long periods of time during which the connection went
dead while waiting for a timer to expire.
 Because of this, a new mechanism called fast retransmit was added to TCP.
 Fast retransmit is a heuristic that sometimes triggers the retransmission of a
dropped packet sooner than the regular timeout mechanism.

Nagle Algorithm:
When the application produces data to send
if both the available data and the window ≥ MSS
send a full segment
else
if there is unACKed data in flight
buffer the new data until an ACK arrives
else
send all the new data now
Adaptive Retransmission:
Original Algorithm
Measure SampleRTT for each segment/ ACK pair
Compute weighted average of RTT
EstRTT = a x EstRTT + (1 - a )x SampleRTT
a between 0.8 and 0.9
Set timeout based on EstRTT
TimeOut = 2 x EstRTT
Karn/Partridge Algorithm

Main problem with the original computation is that it does not take variance of
Sample RTTs into consideration.
If the variance among Sample RTTs is small
Then the Estimated RTT can be better trusted
There is no need to multiply this by 2 to compute the timeout

Jacobson/Karels Algorithm:
Difference = SampleRTT − EstimatedRTT
EstimatedRTT = EstimatedRTT + ( × Difference)
Deviation = Deviation + (|Difference| − Deviation)
TimeOut = μ × EstimatedRTT + ϕ × Deviation
where based on experience, μ is typically set to 1 and ϕ is set to 4. Thus, when the variance
is small, TimeOut is close to EstimatedRTT; a large variance causes the deviation term to
dominate the calculation
 www.studymaterialz.in
KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
NAMAKKAL- TRICHY MAIN ROAD, THOTTIAM
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
EC8551-COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
UNIT-5 HAND OUTS
PART-A
1. Terminal network
Terminal network:
Telnet is a protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to
provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual
terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control information in
an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

2. File transfer protocol

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the commonly used protocol for exchanging
files over the Internet. FTP uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols to enable data
transfer. FTP uses a client-server architecture, often secured with SSL/TLS.

3. Email security
Email security refers to the collective measures used to secure the access and
content of an email account or service. It allows an individual or organization to
protect the overall access to one or more email addresses/accounts.
An email service provider implements email security to secure subscriber email
accounts and data from hackers - at rest and in transit.

4. Browser architecture with entities.

5. Types of HTTP messages.

 http request
 http response
 HTTP header fields are components of the header section of request and
response messages in the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). They define
the operating parameters of an HTTP transaction.
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PART-B
1. E- mail protocols
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic mail (email)
transmission. First defined by RFC 821 in 1982, it was last updated in 2008 with
Extended SMTP additions by RFC 5321, which is the protocol in widespread use today.
... SMTP communication between mail servers uses TCP port 25.

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an Internet standard that extends the
format of email to support: Text in character sets other than ASCII. Non-text
attachments: audio, video, images, application programs etc. Message bodies with
multiple parts.

2. POP3 and IMAP protocol.

POP is short for Post Office Protocol, a protocol used to retrieve e-mail from a
mail server. Most e-mail applications (sometimes called an e-mail client) use the
POP protocol, although some can use the newer IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol).

In computing, the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is an

Internet standard protocol used by e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail
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messages from a mail server over a TCP/IP connection. IMAP is defined
by RFC 3501.

3. Working of WWW.
The WWW today is a distributed client/server service, in which a client using
a browser can access a service using a server. However, the service provided is
distributed over many locations called sites.
Client (Browser)
Server
Uniform Resource Locator
Cookies

4. Network management protocol

SNMP-Simple Network Management protocol
We can say that the functions performed by a network management
system can be divided into five broad categories: configuration management, fault
management, performance management, security management, and accounting
management.
The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a framework
for managing devices in an internet using the TCP/IP protocol suite. It provides a set
of fundamental operations for monitoring and maintaining an internet.

SNMP defines the format of packets exchanged between a manager and an

agent. It reads and changes the status (values) of objects (variables) in SNMP packets.
 www.studymaterialz.in

5. HTTP with their uses, state strengths and weakness

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of HTTP,
the protocol over which data is sent between your browser and the website that you
are connected to. The 'S' at the end of HTTPS stands for 'Secure'. It means all
communications between your browser and the website are encrypted. HTTPS is
often used to protect highly confidential online transactions like online banking and
online shopping order forms.

Web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and Chrome also display a
padlock icon in the address bar to visually indicate that a HTTPS connection is in
effect.
HTTPS pages typically use one of two secure protocols to encrypt
communications - SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security).
Both the TLS and SSL protocols use what is known as an 'asymmetric' Public Key
Infrastructure (PKI) system. An asymmetric system uses two 'keys' to encrypt
communications, a 'public' key and a 'private' key. Anything encrypted with the
public key can only be decrypted by the private key and vice-versa.

As the names suggest, the 'private' key should be kept strictly protected and
should only be accessible the owner of the private key. In the case of a website, the
private key remains securely ensconced on the web server. Conversely, the public key
is intended to be distributed to anybody and everybody that needs to be able to
decrypt information that was encrypted with the private key.

6. Role of DNS
i) Components of DNS
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To be unambiguous, the names assigned to machines must be carefully selected from

a name space with complete control over the binding between the names and IP
addresses.
Hierarchy of Name Servers
Zone
Root Server
Primary and Secondary Servers

ii) Domain Name Space

A primary server loads all information from the disk file; the secondary server
Loads all information from the primary server.
When the secondary downloads information from the primary, it is called zone
Transfer.