Higher Education Research & Development

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English as a symbol of internationalization in

higher education: a case study of Vietnam

Van Anh Duong & Catherine SK Chua

To cite this article: Van Anh Duong & Catherine SK Chua (2016) English as a symbol of
internationalization in higher education: a case study of Vietnam, Higher Education Research &
Development, 35:4, 669-683, DOI: 10.1080/07294360.2015.1137876

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HIGHER EDUCATION RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, 2016
VOL. 35, NO. 4, 669–683
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2015.1137876

English as a symbol of internationalization in higher

education: a case study of Vietnam
Van Anh Duong and Catherine SK Chua
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Vietnam universities have experienced remarkable changes brought Received 24 July 2014
about by their internationalization policies. The switch to English as Accepted 18 June 2015
a medium of instruction (EMI) for some academic programs was one
KEYWORDS
of these critical changes. Literature has reported numerous issues Curriculum reform; EMI;
related to EMI, including inadequate language proficiency of institutional change;
teaching staff. This paper looks at a qualitative research study on internationalization;
how a government university from Vietnam employs different leadership; teacher learning
strategies to enhance teachers’ English proficiency. The study
reveals that the introduction of new supporting systems,
assessment bodies, recruitment criteria and institutional strategies
on training, monitoring and motivation have created cultural
change within the teacher community. This cultural change, which
includes elements such as self-directed learning, peer learning,
professionalism, and ‘open-to-change’ attitudes, has been
perceived by both leaders and teachers to be conducive to
teachers’ language learning. The findings presented in this paper
seek to contribute to the formulation or adjustment of policies
related to educational reforms, such as curriculum reform, teacher
recruitment and teacher professional development in non-English-
speaking countries.

Introduction
The internationalization of educational policies has brought about radical changes in
higher education over the past decades. The spread in the use of English as a medium
of instruction by many higher education institutions (HEIs) in Asia (Mok, 2007) is an out-
standing example of internationalization. At the same time, there have been scholarly
arguments against adopting EMI in non-English-speaking countries. Critics argue that
EMI creates unwelcome cultural and social changes, including the erosion of national
identity (Mok, 2007). Furthermore, the adoption of EMI not only endangers the role of
Asian languages in academia but also impedes the development of social sciences and
humanities in the region (Chapman, Cummings, & Postiglione, 2011). However,
despite such arguments, growing numbers of Asian HEIs, many of which are national
institutions, have adopted EMI to increase their international competitiveness (Mok,
2007), and more Asian governments have supported this curriculum reform for the
sake of integration into the global economy (Chapman et al., 2011). An example of

CONTACT Van Anh Duong saochiva@yahoo.com

© 2016 HERDSA
670 V. A. DUONG AND C. SK. CHUA

such government support can be found in Taiwanese and Korean universities where major
government projects have been implemented: ‘Aiming for the Top University and Elite
Research Center Development Plan’; ‘Teaching & Learning Excellence’ (Chang, 2010)
and the Study Korea Project of 2004 (Byun & Kim, 2011).
Likewise, the government of Vietnam (GOV) has also promoted the adoption of EMI as
part of the curriculum internationalization campaign in higher education. On the basis of
its curriculum reform in 2005, Vietnam National University, Hanoi (VNU-HN) has
experienced success for its four academic programs in terms of ASEAN University
Network (AUN) Quality Standard accreditation by the end of 2010. However, VNU-
HN also had to deal with those challenges that confronted HEIs that adopted EMI as
part of their curricula reforms. One of the major challenges has to do with the willingness
and ability of teachers to use English as part of their professional and pedagogical practice.
Against this background of the conditions of education reform, this qualitative research
study explores what VNU-HN leaders have done to enhance teachers’ English proficiency.
The study looks at the Bachelor Program in International Economics – Honor Program
(BAPIE-HP), one of the four AUN accredited undergraduate programs, to be a case.
BAPIE-HP was one of the first undergraduate programs at VNU-HN undergoing the
internationalization process. Two research questions have been formulated to anchor
this study: (1) what means have been used by VNU-HN leadership to improve teachers’
English proficiency? (2) How have these means been used to enhance teacher learning?

Internationalization of higher education and the global role of English

English has been characterized as a language that has achieved a genuinely global status in
that it plays ‘a special role that is recognized in every country’ (Crystal, 1997, p. 2). Con-
sequently, English is seen as the priority foreign language in many non-English-speaking
countries. English as a lingua franca has been prominent in higher education. In the 1980s,
over 50% of the academic papers each year were published in English (Swales, 1987). Over
the years, English has become a language of communication in various disciplines
(Kuteeva & Airey, 2014). For example, 98% of German physicists now use English as
their working language, followed by chemists (83%), biologists (81%), and psychologists
(81%) (Nunan, 2003).
As a response to globalization, higher education systems around the world have
adopted various strategies to internationalize. Internationalization of higher education
is the integration of an international or intercultural dimension into the tripartite
mission of teaching, research and service functions (Knight, 2004). Maringe (2009) cate-
gorized five broad groups of internationalization strategies; namely, curriculum, student
recruitment, staff recruitment, staff professionalization and funding. The internationaliza-
tion of curriculum ranges from minor changes in content to fundamental redesign of
objectives, teaching methods and assessment, including the change of instructional
language from native language to English.
The adoption of EMI has been a significant and growing phenomenon across HEIs
worldwide, including Asian education systems such as China, Japan, Korea and Taiwan
(Byun & Kim, 2011; Choi, 2010; Huang, 2006; Lo & Weng, 2005; Song & Tai, 2006).
Several studies have highlighted the challenges these countries faced when implementing
EMI programs. First, the inadequate English language skills of teachers and the low
 HIGHER EDUCATION RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 671

adaptability of learners impeded students’ ability to grasp course content (Smith, 2004). A
case study of a Korean university by Byun and colleagues (2011) showed that many stu-
dents failed to understand the lectures due to their low English proficiency. The second
problem resided in the lack of skilled teachers who were proficient in both English and
knowledge content (Kilickaya, 2006), and the language deficiencies of teachers had an
adverse effect on students’ comprehension of lectures (Byun et al., 2011). Together with
factors such as longer time for lesson preparation and ideological beliefs, teachers’ low
English ability contributed to higher teacher resistance to EMI. Third, the lack of insti-
tutional support created difficulties for the implementation of EMI. Smith (2004) listed
at least five hindrances; namely lack of uniformity and availability of teaching materials;
inadequate language preparation for both instructors and learners; weak administration;
insufficient budget and other organizational problems.
In light of the challenges to EMI implementation in the context of Asian higher edu-
cation, several studies have proposed possible solutions. Byun and colleagues (2011)
suggested that students and teachers’ language proficiency needed to be taken into
account before launching EMI programs. Universities should increase resources to
support students’ English language learning, and this support should be oriented
toward academic rather than general English (Chang, 2010). They should offer voluntary,
non-credit-bearing English for Academic Purposes language courses. Participation in EMI
courses should be restricted to only students who had sufficient proficiency in English, and
EMI curriculum should be designed with great caution. Most importantly, universities
should exercise careful selection of teachers for EMI courses and provide them with
better resources and support. They ought to be offered training programs not only in
oral English presentation skills but in various teaching strategies as well.

EMI in the context of Vietnam and VNU-HN

Vietnam is a Southeast Asian country, with a centralized network of schools, colleges and
universities. Vietnamese is the national language and instructional language of its edu-
cational institutions (London, 2011). From the 1960s until late 1980s, the period spanning
the Vietnam War and its aftermath, Vietnam’s higher education was strongly influenced
by the Soviet model, and curricula were based on those developed in the Soviet Union or
Eastern Europe (Dang, 2009). However, the failure of the Soviet economic model triggered
the GOV’s major economic reform in 19861 which then led to the country’s economic
boom in the next decades. This fast growing economy required the backward higher edu-
cation system to respond (Harman & Nguyen, 2010). As a result, decentralization policies
along the lines of marketization and internationalization were introduced in the late 1980s
and in 2000, respectively, to allow HEIs to expand their training capacity, diversify their
training programs and commercialize their educational activities (Mok, 2008). English
became a key foreign language and was widely taught at both government and private edu-
cational institutions (Nunan, 2003).
The acceleration of regional integration and globalization forced the GOV to intensify
the process of internationalizing its local higher education services. In 2004, the GOV
directed top universities in Vietnam to benchmark their curricula against the curricula
currently used by the top 200 prestigious universities in the world. In this movement,
VNU-HN took the process of internationalizing its curricula as an important development
672 V. A. DUONG AND C. SK. CHUA

strategy. The university carried out a curriculum internationalization project known as

Strategic Planning Project (SPP) in 2005. The key objective of the project was to bench-
mark curricula of a number of academic programs against those of 500 top world-class
universities selected by the Academic Ranking of World Universities. English became
the instructional language of these internationalized programs.
Among these internationalized programs, five undergraduate programs underwent an
accreditation process conducted by external committees from 2009 to 2012. Four of them
were accredited as achieving AUN Quality Standards. BAPIE-HP, which was accredited in
2010, is an undergraduate program offered by the Faculty of International Business and
Economics (FIBE), the University of Economics and Business (UEB), a member university
of VNU-HN. Before 2007 when EMI was applied to BAPIE-HP, the instructional language
of the program was Vietnamese. All of its teachers had never conducted their lectures in
English before.
The most recent report by the Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam revealed
that a very small percentage of English language teachers who participated in the teacher
assessment program in 2012 met the Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam’s
quality standards.2 This means Vietnamese teachers who have been trained to teach
English do not possess the proficiency level needed to teach the subject. Thus, it should
be more challenging for Vietnamese teachers who have been trained to teach other disci-
plines to shift to teaching EMI classes. Against this context, this study attempts to under-
stand how institutional leaders from Vietnam overcome challenges related to EMI
implementation. This paper discusses the findings of the research study that looks at
how VNU-HN leaders have enhanced BAPIE-HP teachers’ English proficiency through
institutional strategies.

Methodology
This study takes a qualitative approach in collecting, analyzing and interpreting data.
According to Denzin and Lincoln (2005), a qualitative approach is appropriate to
gather information on a particular case study. Documents and interviews were the two
data sources. From Yin’s (1994) point of view, the use of various sources of data not
only provides more detailed information about the phenomenon under investigation
but also contributes different perspectives on it. The interview involved a total of 16
full-time leaders and teachers of BAPIE-HP who had been actively involved in the curri-
culum reform. Three participants held both leadership and teaching positions. Details of
the participants are presented in Table 1.
Consent forms were signed by the participants before the interviews were conducted.
Duration of the interviews ranged from 45 to 60 minutes. Three key documents were
used for the purpose of data analysis, including Document 1 – 2012 Report on Reforms
at VNU-HN (Doc1), Document 2 – VNU-HN’s Strategic Plan (Doc2), and Document
3 – BAPIE-HP’s 2010 Self-Assessment Report (Doc3). Doc1 was an internal report sub-
mitted to the president of VNU-HN on its major institutional changes in the 2005–
2012 period. It provided general information about the changes, including the objectives,
the parties involved and the implementation stages. Doc2 provided information about
how SPP was planned and implemented and its outcomes. Doc3 was BAPIE-HP self-
assessment report conducted by UEB and submitted to AUN Assessment Committee.
 HIGHER EDUCATION RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 673

Table 1. Participants.
Years at VNU-
Participants Position Gender Age HN Title
Top Leader 1 VNU-HN President Male 60 19 Full Professor
Top Leader 2 VNU-HN Vice President in Charge of Academic Male 61 19 Full Professor
Matters
Top Leader 3 Rector of UEB Male 48 6 Associate
Professor
Top Leader 4 Vice-Rector of UEB in Charge of Academic Male 63 11 Associate
Matters Professor
Departmental Dean of FIBE, Teacher 1 Male 37 3 PhD
Leader 1
Departmental Vice Dean of FIBE in Charge of Academic Male 50 4 Associate
Leader 2 Matters, Teacher 2 Professor
Departmental BAPIE-HP Program Director, Teacher 1 Male 37 3 PhD
Leader 3
Departmental BAPIE-HP Program Coordinator 1 Female 25 3 BA
Leader 4
Departmental BAPIE-HP Program Coordinator 2 Female 31 9 MA
Leader 5
Departmental Course Leader 1, Teacher 3 Female 51 6 PhD
Leader 6
Departmental Course Leader 2, Teacher 1 Male 37 3 PhD
Leader 7
Teacher 4 Teacher Female 58 19 PhD
Teacher 5 Teacher Female 36 3 PhD
Teacher 6 Teacher Female 35 4 Master
Teacher 7 Teacher Female 35 4 Master
Teacher 8 Teacher Male 33 11 PhD

The report focused on the key aspects of the program: goals and objectives, input, quality
assurance, output and stakeholder satisfaction. The use of these documents was approved
by the VNU-HN’s Administration and Personnel Office.
This study used Bronfenbrenner’s (1993) ecological framework to guide its data analy-
sis. This framework acknowledges the growth of individuals through their interactions
with their physical and sociocultural environments. The learning process comes about
through the incorporation of various influences at multiple levels, namely, the intraperso-
nal, the interpersonal/cultural and the institutional. The framework views the learning
environment as a complex adaptive system, and the study of the learning process
should accordingly employ ‘a complementary and integral mode of seeing wholes together
with parts, and the connections that link separations’ (Canh & Minh, 2012, p. 55). This
study regards the teachers’ learning environment as an ecosystem. The ecological frame-
work is accordingly suited for studying teacher learning in university contexts. Studying
how teacher learning could be facilitated and enhanced through intended institutional
changes could be justified in the light of this ecological perspective.
Qualitative content analysis was used for the examination of the collected data. Firstly,
list A of the 11 changes was found for the three documents. Secondly, the interview tran-
scripts were analyzed and list B of the 18 changes was found. The two lists were then com-
bined to make the final list of 18 institutional changes. Subsequently, these 18 changes
were grouped under three broad themes: (1) structural change (four changes) − the for-
mation of new internal organizations or units that have their own distinct functions, roles
and responsibilities but serve the same organizational purposes (Coleman & Earley, 2005);
(2) process change (10 changes) − the change or adjustment of policies or regulations
674 V. A. DUONG AND C. SK. CHUA

(Davenport, 1993) and (3) cultural change (four changes) − the formation of new shared
perceptions, values and practices (Schein, 2004). However, for the second theme, the 10
changes were further grouped into four sub-themes; namely, (i) recruitment, (ii) training,
(iii) monitoring, and (iv) motivation.

Findings
The data analysis revealed some evidence of BAPIE-HP teachers’ English improvement.
When the program was started in 2004, very few teachers could teach their subjects in
English (departmental leader 5). By 2010, 100% of the teachers had passed Teaching
Knowledge Test (TKT) certified by Cambridge University (teacher 8; Doc3). Sixty-three
percent of the teachers who did not earn their PhD degrees in EMI countries had attained
IELTS or TOEFL with required scores (Doc3). Ten percent of the teachers had taught for
foreign-affiliated training programs or lectured at overseas universities (Doc3). Thirty
percent of the teachers had had their journal papers (six papers) published in world-
class journals (Doc3). The results of two student surveys also showed that the teachers’
EMI capability raised from 3.8/5 in 2008 to 4/5 in 2010 (Doc3).
The data analysis also revealed that VNU-HN has tried to improve teachers’ English
proficiency through the introduction of four new establishments, 10 new or adjusted pol-
icies, and four new shared perceptions and values. Details of the changes are discussed
below.

Structural change
The establishment of the New Program Administration and Project Development and
Implementation Committees (PDICs) was reported to have offered BAPIE-HP teachers
considerable support. The New Program Administration, which includes a director and
a coordinator, is responsible for tracking and coordinating teaching, learning and admin-
istration activities of the program (Doc2). The director and the coordinator function as the
bridge between UEB, FIBE, lecturers and students. They are in charge of providing infor-
mation and support to lecturers and students on their teaching and learning, self-improve-
ment and social participation. They are flexible in using both direct and indirect
communication channels (e.g., telephones, email, conversations, etc.) to ensure the
smooth flow of information (Doc3). They speak fluent English and communicate with tea-
chers in English (departmental leader 5). As reported by seven participants (departmental
leaders 3, 4, 5, 6; teachers 4, 6, 7), these two staff worked very closely with teachers to
understand the problems they were facing and to identify their needs, especially training
needs. They were the first to initiate the language training courses for teachers:
They assisted teachers in overcoming language difficulties … noted their language needs,
identified available training courses, informed them of the courses, and assisted them with
registration. (departmental leader 5)

The PDICs manage SPP and its component projects (Doc2). As three participants
(departmental leaders 2, 4, 5) responded, members of these committees included VNU-
HN top-management leaders, departmental leaders, course leaders, and experienced
teaching and non-teaching staff. The inclusion of teachers may increase teachers’ voice
 HIGHER EDUCATION RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 675

in the decision-making process, and accordingly teachers’ needs may be better taken care
of. For example, the PDIC at UEB identified the professional development needs of
BAPIE-HP teachers and organized methodology training courses for them. The method-
ology courses were conducted in English, and hence the teachers could improve their
English proficiency through classroom interactions and knowledge content.
Although giving teachers more support and increasing their voice in the decision-
making process was believed by teachers to bring them more learning opportunities, cul-
tivating teachers’ commitment to learning was perceived by leaders to be important to
enhance teacher learning. To that end UEB leaders created two new committees:
Teacher Language Proficiency Assessment Committee (TLPAC) and Teaching Assess-
ment Committee (TAC). These two committees comprised the rector, a vice-rector,
department deans, vice-deans, course leaders and some grade A teachers. These
members might include members of UEB Science and Academic Committee who pos-
sessed EMI abilities. The responsibilities of these committees are to assess teachers’
English proficiency and EMI capacity in order to recruit or retain them in the EMI pro-
grams (teacher 8; Doc3). As reported by four participants (departmental leaders 2, 6; tea-
chers 6, 8), the establishment of these two assessment committees with clearly stated
objectives has encouraged and guided teachers to self-improve. In other words, teachers
might become more committed to learning.

Process change
Four categories of process change were reported to have influenced teachers’ language
learning: recruitment, training, monitoring and motivation.

(1) Recruitment

Changing both teacher and student recruitment criteria was a key strategy adopted by
VNU-HN in order to improve the quality of teachers. The new teacher recruitment policy
required teachers to:
(1) have a PhD degree in the field of their teaching or a master degree with minimum of 5-
year teaching experience in relevant subjects; (2) pass Teaching Knowledge Test (TKT) cer-
tified by Cambridge University; (3) pass the EMI screening; (4) have good student feedback
for the first term; and (5) have IELTS (minimum 6.5) or TOEFL (minimum 550) if the PhD is
not from an EMI country. (Decisions 1548/QĐ-ĐT and 1242/QĐ-ĐHKT – Doc3)

The new student recruitment policy required students to:

(1) pass the university entrance examination; (2) attain a required minimum score of English
(or IELTS 5.5); and (3) pass interviews conducted in English. (UEB Enrollment Notice 2007–
2010 – Doc3)

The data analysis revealed the influence of this new policy on the tenured teachers’
decision to sit for the test. Although TKT is applied to the recruitment of new teachers,
100% of BAPIE-HP teachers, including tenured ones, had attained TKT certificates by
the end of 2010 (Doc3). There is belief from teachers that TKT helped improve their
EMI capacity:
676 V. A. DUONG AND C. SK. CHUA

Since TKT aims to test candidates’ knowledge of concepts related to language, language use
and practice of language teaching and learning, it helped improve teachers’ knowledge of the
language, confidence in EMI classes, and EMI capabilities. (Teacher 8)

Even though it was not a requirement for teachers who earned their PhD from EMI
countries to have IELTS or TOEFL certificates, some teachers still opted for the tests, as
shared by teacher 8:
I wished to make sure that I was really qualified for EMI classes, so although it is not required,
I have sat for TOEFL test every two years. And I am happy that I am qualified.

Importantly, both teachers and leaders perceived the changes in student recruitment as
contribution to teachers’ commitment to learning. They believed that ‘it was the higher
language standards of students that urged the teachers to learn to perform better in class-
rooms’ (Top leader 4).

(2) Training

VNU-HN leaders designed different types of training to cater to the different needs of
teachers: English language training, specialized knowledge update, teaching methodology,
EMI classroom strategies and understanding quality standards. The programs were all
conducted in English, and this was a deliberate policy to immerse teachers in an environ-
ment that would help them improve their English proficiency. The leaders believed that
this new ‘playing ground’ would make teachers see English as an important part of
their academic life and accordingly motivate them to improve their English:
It is to create a completely new ‘playing ground’ for teachers … those who find themselves
unable to join other teachers in this environment are motivated to improve themselves …
those who are able to join would try harder to be full players. (Top leader 3)

VNU-HN has also provided different modes of training to teachers: knowledge-sharing

sessions, regular staff meetings, academic group meetings, workshops, seminars, confer-
ences, overseas courses and research projects. The purpose of providing different modes
of training was to serve different objectives: to meet varying needs of teachers at different
stages of their training and to accommodate different individuals’ situations and abilities.
For example, the knowledge-sharing sessions were organized whenever there were staff
members coming back from a training course, a seminar or a conference. These sessions
provided great opportunities for them to share knowledge and experience with other tea-
chers. Most of the sharing sessions were also conducted in English:
I myself have conducted some sharing sessions with my colleagues … usually on teaching and
assessment methods … or even simulation activities which I learnt during training courses in
America. And most of the time, I used English. (Teacher 8)

A lot of new English terminologies were learned and acquired in the course of these
sessions. Many foreign academics’ contacts were passed on to other teachers, and these
would serve as the basis for the establishment of an international network to further
support the professional development of teachers. Even if the sharing sessions were some-
times not conducted in English, the sharing itself would inspire other teachers to be more
 HIGHER EDUCATION RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 677

determined to acquire better English proficiency to be able to join international seminars

and conference like their colleagues (teacher 8).
As revealed by departmental leader 2, the leaders also used some strategies to increase
teachers’ participation in training. First, teachers were sent to the training courses based on
the principle of right person, right time, right course and right ability. This means teachers
were sent to available courses, the objectives of which matched their training needs, or
internal courses were conducted to cater to their immediate needs. However, teachers
attending these courses were also chosen on the basis that they had adequate foundation
knowledge to grasp the training content and that their participation did not affect their
work and family life. Second, teachers’ work rotation was applied to make sure that
every teacher had equal opportunities to join training courses. Third, teacher substitutes
were arranged when teachers-in-charge were sent for courses, as shared by departmental
leader 2:
We adjusted their teaching schedules or engaged other teachers so that they could attend … If
we send these teachers this term, we will send other teachers the next term.

Fourth, objectives of the training courses were clearly communicated to teachers so that
they could find out how the course would be beneficial to their teaching. Finally, sufficient
budget was set aside to cover expenses for short overseas courses for teachers. The univer-
sity ‘mobilized and maximized all financial resources available to send SPP teachers to
local and overseas short training courses and international conferences’ (Doc1).
Realizing that teachers’ involvement was the key to the success of these training courses,
the leaders adopted some strategies to increase their interest and commitment to learning.
First, teachers of different abilities but ‘get-on-well’ type were paired or grouped to work
together. Teachers of better abilities could help the weaker ones, and teachers of varying
abilities could work collaboratively (teacher 5). Second, the course content was well-
planned, updated, and based on real needs and teaching conditions to promote teachers’
classroom applications. Some participants (teachers 4, 7, 8) gave very positive responses to
the use of the ‘simulation model’ where teachers played the role of students and the trainer
played the role of teachers. Third, understanding the psychology underlying the teachers’
preference for foreign English-speaking trainers, the leaders made great efforts to invite
foreign professors to conduct training:
The training courses in teaching methods conducted by foreign experts are very useful and
interesting. Teachers not only can apply new methods such as case-study to teaching but
also learn to teach in English through simulation activities used by these foreign trainers.
(Teacher 4)

Finally, to drive teachers’ commitment to learning, assessment was conducted at the end
of the course with certificates handed out and special recognition accorded those who per-
formed well. This strategy was reported to work well in the context where teachers were not
fully motivated to learn on their own initiative (departmental leader 2; teachers 4, 8).

(3) Monitoring

Some leader participants (departmental leaders 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) revealed that they initiated

classroom observation, teaching assessment and student feedback to monitor teachers’ use
678 V. A. DUONG AND C. SK. CHUA

of language in classrooms. Since the objectives and criteria of these instruments were
clearly communicated to teachers, they were well aware that frequent language switching
was discouraged in EMI classroom. Some of the teacher participants also admitted that the
way their use of English in classroom was monitored did affect their commitment to
language use:
Honestly, sometimes I have to switch to Vietnamese to make students understand difficult
terms … but of course when I know that students will give comments on my language use,
I won’t use Vietnamese very often. (Teacher 6)

(4) Motivation

Motivation strategies were used by VNU-HN leaders to enhance teacher learning. As

reported by three participants (departmental leaders 1, 2; teacher 8), teachers using
EMI received 2.5 times higher remuneration rates compared with teachers who teach in
Vietnamese. This information was confirmed in UEB’s Internal Regulations on Expendi-
ture as ‘those giving instructions in English receive a coefficient of 2.5 times more than
standard hours’ (Doc3). This policy was believed to encourage some teachers to
improve their English proficiency to move from native-language medium instruction pro-
grams to EMI programs:
This is to make the difference between EMI teachers and those teaching in Vietnamese … So
if you want to be paid higher, you must improve your English to get the required English
certificate and to pass the screening. (Teacher 8)

The incentive scheme also contributed to teacher learning in the sense that the teachers
who received better reports on EMI ability were given better yearly bonuses:
Lecturers are classified into ranks of A, B, C, and accordingly, benefit remuneration increases
and are considered for emulation titles3 of the academic year. (Decision on Emulation Hon-
orable Titles 2009)

The Teaching Excellence Award was also reported to inspire some teachers to improve
their EMI ability. Most importantly, English ability was emphasized as one of the criteria
to promote teachers to leadership and management positions. Some teachers reported that
there was a general awareness that promotion prospects were greater for teachers of EMI
programs.

Cultural change
By initiating structural change and process change, VHU-HN leaders may also create con-
ditions for cultural change in attitudes toward language learning among teachers. As
revealed by eight participants, some structural change and process change helped to
foster a culture of self-directed learning in the teacher community. Teachers spent their
own money buying updated English teaching materials online, registering membership
of online libraries and taking evening language courses. One of the participants reported
that he spent his own money sitting for TOEFL exams every two years to make sure that
his English proficiency improved (teacher 8). All these new practices may indicate that tea-
chers were more willing to learn and to improve.
 HIGHER EDUCATION RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 679

As mentioned, pair work and team work were two important strategies of promoting
teacher learning. These strategies, in fact, may help to establish a culture of peer learning
among BAPIE-HP teachers. Five participants (departmental leaders 2, 6; teachers 5, 6, 8)
confirmed that peer learning was promoted and practiced in the teacher community. In
the course of teaching and doing project work, teachers who were more proficient
would help those who were less proficient:
When planning work for teachers, the leaders created opportunities for teachers of better
abilities to work with weaker ones. We found that the weaker teachers could receive help
from their colleagues … In research groups at departmental level, teachers have assisted
each other well. (Teacher 5)

Four participants (departmental leaders 4, 5, 6; teacher 8) perceived that teachers

were becoming more professional at work and that the heightened sense of profession-
alism contributed to teacher learning. The appointment of the program director who
was educated at a reputable foreign university and who was exemplary in his pro-
fessional conduct might have further reinforced the professionalization of the workplace
culture at FIBE:
Under the leadership of Mr. VD, we practiced prompt email reply and replied to emails in
English if they were written in English. We were present at meetings on time and conversed
in English when they were conducted in English. (Departmental leader 4)

Departmental leader 5 even shared that she could feel her colleagues’ attitude toward
change becoming more positive and supportive. This was partly because the leaders
became more effective in communicating the need for change and in providing appropri-
ate support to effect these changes. Objectives of the change were clearly stated, and
change implementation was well monitored and managed. Outcomes of change were
fairly evaluated. Teachers were able to see that their improvement in English proficiency
was a necessary basis for changes in related aspects of the curricula. Some teachers also
admitted that the ‘open-to-change’ attitude contributed to teacher learning. Teachers
would learn better and were more willing to learn when they saw learning was necessary
and meaningful.

Discussion
In keeping with the ecological perspective, the findings of this study show that teacher
learning can come about through the incorporation of various influences at institutional
level. Once institutional leaders have implemented new systems and support structures,
teachers comported and adapted themselves to the new teaching and learning environ-
ment. The literature on EMI emphasizes the important role of a support system in
enabling teachers to learn and self-improve (Byun et al., 2011; Chang, 2010; Smith,
2004). This study reaffirms the close relationship between institutional support and
teacher learning in an EMI environment. The creation of administrative units to facilitate
EMI at the department level may have considerable benefits as these units are able to
respond more efficiently and effectively to teachers’ needs.
Literature on EMI also highlights the important role of teacher selection and teaching
assessment in ensuring the quality of EMI courses (Chang, 2010). This study reaffirms
680 V. A. DUONG AND C. SK. CHUA

this relationship by revealing the contribution of assessment protocols such as TLPAC and
TAC to teachers’ commitment to learning. Although literature in the field of education indi-
cates that assessment may have negative effects on learning, for example, causing much
stress and pressure on learners, studies have also shown that assessment may be necessary
to assure learners’ determination, effort and commitment to learning (Jones, 2007). Impor-
tantly, while the incentives which place an emphasis on assessment and monitoring could be
viewed as coercive in another culture, they may create cultural change to enhance commit-
ment to learning in the context of Vietnamese universities. This is because prior to the intro-
duction of these assessment protocols, VNU-HN teachers’ remuneration and yearly bonus
were mostly based on their years of experience and subjective annual achievement reports
provided by departmental leaders. Consequently, this scheme discouraged many teachers
from self-improving due to its non-transparency (Tran, 2007). Conversely, the assessment
protocols introduced the evidence and transparency culture that could encourage teachers
to learn and enhance their commitment to learning.
EMI literature also suggests that students’ English proficiency needs to be taken into
account before launching EMI programs. This is because having students with better
English ability could motivate teachers to self-improve to sustain a good English-speaking
environment (Byun et al., 2011). This study supports this claim by revealing that students’
increased English ability may positively affect teachers’ commitment to learning. This
finding matched the results of other research conducted in the context of Vietnam education
institution which revealed that better students would have greater expectations of teachers, and
students’ greater expectations would in turn produce better teachers (Canh & Minh, 2012).
In addition, the literature on EMI shows that appropriate training enhances teacher
capacity for EMI classes by improving their presentation skills as well as their EMI teaching
strategies (Chang, 2010). This study reaffirms the positive effect of teacher training on teacher
learning and further shows that the manner in which courses are conducted might be just as
important a factor in enhancing teachers’ language proficiency. For example, if the training
courses could cater to teachers’ individual needs and suit their abilities and availability,
teacher learning could be enhanced through increased teacher participation and involvement.
Last but not least, this study supports Yukl’s (2010) claim that structural and process
changes would bring about cultural change and it is through cultural change that
reforms would be fully accomplished. The introduction of new supporting systems, assess-
ment bodies, recruitment criteria and institutional strategies on training, monitoring and
motivation may help to create the conditions for cultural change within the teacher com-
munity. Reports of self-directed learning, peer learning, professionalism, and ‘open-to-
change’ attitudes may be indicative of teachers’ new beliefs and practices toward language
learning and use in the context of the adoption of EMI. However, more empirical studies
would be needed to explore the specific ways in which structural and process changes
inform cultural change within the teaching community of HEIs.

Conclusion
The existing literature attests to the expansion of EMI in HEIs of non-English-speaking
countries. This literature has also documented problems facing universities in the cause
of switching to EMI. The findings of this study on how VNU-HN initiated institutional
changes to create an academic environment conducive to teacher learning and to increase
 HIGHER EDUCATION RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 681

teachers’ English proficiency are important strategies to ensure that the expansion of EMI
in HEIs in Asia are effective. Essentially, the findings of this study shows that VNU-HN
leaders did engage in meaningful institutional changes that had a positive impact on the
adoption of EMI as a part of its curricula reforms. These changes were considered by
leader participants to be critical conditions for the formation of a new environment sup-
portive of teachers’ professional growth. These changes were also confirmed by teacher
participants as constituting strong forces motivating them to change. In general, this
study acknowledges that teachers’ learning environment accords with that of a complex
adaptive system. Teachers’ professional growth can be influenced by the complex inter-
action of human and institutional factors.
The findings of this study have some implications for both policy makers and leaders of
HEIs. First, the study indicates how attitudinal and behavioral changes are related to
system level changes. Universities need to put appropriate structures and policies in
place in order to enable teachers to change and to learn. Second, although many HEIs
view switching instructional language from native language to English as an important
component of the curriculum internationalization, cautious steps need to be taken to
avoid complications. For example, teachers’ English proficiency is a critical condition
for the success of this switching. HEIs need to make sure that they have adequate resources
to recruit qualified teachers and train existing teachers to be better qualified to use EMI.
HEIs also need to make sure that their institutions are open and ready to change in order
to be more responsive to institutional needs in the initial stages of reform. In this connec-
tion, the study found that it is perhaps just as important to enroll students who have suffi-
cient proficiency in the English language to improve both the teaching and learning
experiences of teacher and students.
The findings and the limitations of this study also have some implication for future
research. This study has only attempted to get responses from leaders and teachers on per-
ceptions of institutional change on teacher learning. Some documents have been analyzed
only to confirm these institutional changes have been enacted. Further research is needed
to explore the actual impacts of these institutional changes on teacher learning.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes
1. See Resolution of the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam, dated 18
December 1986.
2. See 2012 Reports on English Teacher Assessment by Education Departments of An Giang, Tien
Giang, Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi.
3. At Vietnamese universities, the emulation titles decide staff’s yearly bonus.

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