ANAPHY LAB REVIEWER paired ones.
The THYROID CARTILAGE and
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- Respiration includes the movement of air into and
out of the lungs, the exchange of gases between the
air and the blood, the transport of gases in the
blood, and the exchange of gases between the blood
and tissue.
FUNCTION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- The respiratory system exchanges oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the air and blood, regulate
pH, produces sound, moves air over the sensory
receptors that detects smell and protect against
some microorganism
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. NOSE and NASAL CAVITY
- The bridge of the nose is bone, and most of the
external nose is cartilage
- The NASAL CAVITY warms, humidifies, and
cleans the air. The NARES opens the outside, and
the CHOANE lead to the pharynx. The nasal cavity
is divided by the NASAL SEPTUM into right and
left parts. The PARANASAL SINUSES and the
NASOLACRIMAL DUCT open into the nasal
cavity. Hairs just inside the external nares trap
debris. The nasal cavity is lined with
PSEDUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM with cilia
that traps debris and moves it to the pharynx.
2. PHARYNX
- The NASOPHARYNX joins the nasal cavity
through the choane and contains the opening to the
auditory tube and the pharyngeal tonsils.
- The OOPHARYNX joins the oral cavity and
contains the palatine and lingual tonsils.
- The LARYNGOPHARYNX open into the larynx
and the esophagus.
3. LARYNX
- It consists of three unpaired cartilages and six
CRICORD CARTILAGE form most of the larynx.
The epiglottis covers the opening of the larynx
during swallowing.
- The VESTIBULAR FOLDS can prevent air, food,
and liquids from passing into the larynx.
- The VOCAL FOLD (cords) vibrate and produce
sounds when air passes through the larynx. The
force of air movements controls loudness, and
changes in the length and tension of the vocal fold
determines pitch.
4. TRACHEA
- The trachea connects the larynx to the main
bronchi.
5. BRONCHI
- The main bronchi extend from the trachea to each
lung
6. LUNGS
- There are two lungs
- The airway passes of the lungs branch and
decrease in size. The main bronchi form the
LOBAR BRONCHI, which go to each lobe of the
lungs. The lobar bronchi form the SEGMENTAL
BRONCHI, which go to each
BRONCHOPULMONARY SEGMENT of the
lungs. The segmental bronchi branch many time
from the bronchioles. The BRONCHIOLES branch
to form TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES, which give
rise to the respiratory bronchioles, from which the
AVEOLAR DUCTS nad RESPIRATORY
BRONCHIOLES.
-Important feature of the TUBE SYSTEM. The
epithelium from the trachea to the terminal
bronchioles is ciliated to facilitate removal of
debris. Cartilages helps to hold the tube system
open (From the trachea to the bronchioles). Smooth
muscle controls the diameter of the tubs (Especially
the bronchioles). The ALVEOLI are formed by
simple squamous epithelium, and they facilitate
diffusion of gases.
-The components of the respiratory membrane
include a film of water, the walls of the alveolus
and the capillary, and an interstitial space. The
respiratory membrane are thin and have large
surface area that facilitates gas exchange.
PLEURAL CAVITITES
The pleural membrane surround the lungs and
provide protection against friction
LYMPHATIC SUPPLY
The lungs have superficial and deep lymphatic
vessels
- VENTILATION AND LUNG VOLUMES
1. CHANGING THORACIC VOLUME
- Inspiration occurs when the diaphragm contracts
and the external intercostal muscles lift the rib cage,
thus increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
During labored breathing additional muscle of
inspiration increase rib movement.
- Expiration can be passive or active. Passive
expiration during a quiet breathing occurs when the
muscle of inspiration relax. Active expiration
during labored breathing occurs when the
diaphragm relaxes and the internal intercostal and
abdominal muscles depress the rib age to forcefully
decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity.
2. PRESSURE CHANGES AND AIRFLOW
- Respiratory muscle cause changes in the thoracic
volume, which cause changes in alveolar volume
and pressure.
- During inspiration, air flows into the alveoli
because atmospheric pressure is greater than
alveolar pressure.
- During expiration, air flows out of the alveoli
because alveolar pressure is greater than
atmospheric pressure.
3. LUNG RECOIL
- The lungs tend to collapse because of the elastic
recoil of the connective tissue and surface tension
of the fluid lining the alveoli.
- The lungs normally do not collapse because
surfactant reduces the surface tension of the fluid
lining the alveoli and pleural pressure is less than
alveolar pressure.
4. CHANGING ALVEOLAR VOLUME
- Increasing thoracic volume result in decreased
pleural pressure, increased alveolar volume,
decreased alveolar pressure, and air movement out
of the lungs
-decreasing thoracic volume result in increased
pleural pressure, decreased alveolar volume,
increased alveolar pressure , and air movement out
of the lungs.
5. PULMONARY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
- There are four pulmonary volume; TIDAL
VOLUME, INSIPATORY RESERVE,
EXPIRATORY RESERVE, AND RESIDUAL
VOLUME.
- PULMONARY CAPACITIES are the sum of two
or more pulmonary volumes and include vital
capacity and total lung capacity.
- The forced expiratory vital capacity measures the
rate which air can be expelled from the lungs
6. GAS EXCHANGE
- The respiratory membrane is all of the area in
which gas exchange between air and blood occurs
- The dead space between air and blood does not
occur.
7. RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE THICKNESS
- Increases in the thickness of the respiratory
membrane results in decreased gas exchange.
8. SUFACE AREA
- Small decreases in surface are adversely affect gas
exchange during strenuous exercise; and, when the
surface are is decreased to one-third to one-fourth
of normal, gas exchange is inadequate under resting
conditions.
9. PARTIAL PRESSURE
- The pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture
of gases is reported as the partial pressure of that
gas.
- Oxygen diffuses from a higher partial pressure in
the alveoli to a lower partial pressure in the
pulmonary capillaries. Oygen diffuses froma higher
partial pressure in the tissue capillaries to a lower
partial pressure in the tissue spaces.
- Carbon dioxide diffuses from a higher partial
pressure in the tissues to a lower partial pressure in
the tissue capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuses from
a higher partial pressure in the pulmonary
capillaries to a lower partial pressure in the alveoli.
- GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
1. OXYGEN (o2) TRANSPORT
- Most (98.5%) oxygen is transported bound to
hemoglobin. Some (1.5%) oxygen is transported
dissolved in plasma.
- Oxygen is released from hemoglobin in tissue
when the partial pressure for oxygen is low, the
partial pressure for carbon dioxide is high, pH is
low, and temperature is high.
2. CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT AND
BLOOD pH
- Carbon dioxide is transported as HCO3 (70%), in
combination with blood proteins(23%), and in
solution in plasma (7%)
- In tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide combines with
water inside the red blood cells to form carbonic
acid that dissociates to form HCO3 and H+. This
reaction promotes the transport of carbon dioxide.
- In lung capillaries, HCO3 combines woth H+ to
form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid dissociates to
form carbondioxide that diffuses out of the red
blood cells.
- As blood carbon dioxide levels increase, blood pH
decreases as blood carbon dioxide levels decreases,
blood pH increases. Changes in ventilation change
blood carbon dioxide levels and pH.
- RHYTHMIC VENTILATION
1. RESPIRATION AREA IN THE BRAINSTEM
- The medullary respiratory center (Dorsal
respiratory and ventral respiratory groups)
establishes rhythmic ventilation.
- The pontine respiratory group is involved with the
switch between inspiration and expiration
2. GENERATION OF RHYTHMIC
VENTILATION
- Inspiration begins when stimuli from many
sources, such as receptors that monitor blood gases,
reach a threshold.
- Expiration begins when neurons causing
inspiration are inhibited.
- MODIFICATION OF VENTILATION
1. NERVOUS CONTROL OF VENTILATION
- Higher brain centers allow voluntary control of
ventilation. Emotions and speech production affect
ventilation.
- The Hering-Breuer reflex inhibits the respiratory
centers when the lungs are stretched during
inspiration.
- Touch, thermal, and pain receptors can stimulate
ventilation.
2. CHEMICAL CONTROL OF VENTILATION
- Chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata respond
to changes in blood pH. Usually changes blood in
pH are produced by changes in blood carbon
dioxide.
- Carbon dioxide is the major chemical regulator of
respiration. An increase in blood carbon dioxide
causes a decrease in blood pH, resulting in
increased ventilation.
- Low blood levels of oxygen can stimulate
chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies,
resulting in increased ventilation.
3. EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON VENTILATION
- Input from higher brain centers and from
proprioceptors stimulates the respiratory center
during exercise.
4. RESPIRATORY ADAPTIONS TO EXERCISE
- Training results in increased minute volume at
maximal exercise because of increased tidal volume
and respiratory rate.
5. EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
- Vital capacity and max minute ventilation
decreases with age because of weakening of
respiratory muscles and stiffening of thoracic cage.
- Residual volume and dead space increases
because of increased diameter of respiratory
passageways
- An increase in resting tidal volume compensates
for increased dead space, loss of alveolar walls
(Surface area), and thickening of Alveolar walls
- The ability to remove mucus from the respiratory
passageways decreases with age.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- The function of the digestive system are to take in
food, break down the food, absorb the digested
molecules, and thus, provide nutrients to the body.
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- The Gi tract is composed of four tunics : Mucosa,
Submucosa, Muscularis. And Serosa or Adventitia
PERITONUM
- The peritoneum is a serous membrane that lines
the abdominal cavity and covers the organs
- Mesentries are double layers of peritoneum that
extend from the body wall to many of the
abdominal organs.
- Retroperitoneal organs are located behind the
pariteal peritoneum.
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX AND ESOPHAGUS
1. Anatomy of the Oral Cavity
- The lips and cheeks are involved in mastication
and speech,
- The toungue is involved in speech, taste,
mastication, and swallowing.
- There are 32 permanent teeth, including incisors,
canines, premolars, and molars. Each tooth consist
of a crown, neck and root.
-The roof of the oral cavity is divided into hard and
soft palates.
-Salivary glands produce serous and mucous
secretions. The three pairs are large salivary gland
are the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual
glands.
2. Secretion of the Oral Cavity
- Amylase in saliva starts starch digestion. Mucin
provides lubrication.
3. Mastication
- Mastication is accomplished by the teeth, which
cut, tear, and crush the food.
4. Pharynx
- The pharynx consists nasopharynx, orophraynx,
laryngopharynx.
5. Esophagus
- The esophagus connects the pharynx to the
stomach. The upper and lower esophageal
sphincters regulate movement.
6. Deglutition
- During the voluntary phase of deglutition, a bolus
of food is moved by the tongue from the oral cavity
to the pharynx.
- During the pharyngeal phase of deglutition, the
soft palate closes the nasopharynx, and the
epiglottis closes the opening into the larynx.
Pharyngeal muscles elevate the pharynx and larynx
and then move the bolus to the esophagus.
- During the esophageal phase of deglutition, a
wave constriction (Peristalsis) moves the food
down the esophagus to the stomach.
STOMACH
1. Anatomy of the STOMACH
- The stomach has a cardiac opening from the
esophagus and a pyloric opening into the duodenum
- The wall of the stomach consists of three muscle
layers; Longitudinal, Circular, and Oblique.
- Gastric glands produce mucus, hydrochloric acid,
pepsin, gastrin, and intrinsic factors.
2. Secretion of the Stomach
- Mucus protects the stomach lining
- Hydrochloric acid kills microorganism and
activates pepsin
- Pepsin starts protein digestion
- Intrinsic factor aids in vitamins B absorption
- Gastrin helps regulates stomach secretion and
movements
3. Regulation of stomach secretions
- During the cephalic phase, the stomach secretion
are initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or though of
food.
- During the gastric phase, partially digested
proteins or distention of the stomach also promotes
secretion
- During intestinal phase, acidic chyme in the
duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes and the
secretion of hormones that induce and then inhibit
gastric secretion. Secretin, gastric inhibitory
polypeptide, and cholecytokinin inhibit gastic
secretion.
4. Movement in the stomach
- Mixing waves mix the stomach contents with the
stomach secretion to form chyme
- Peristaltic wave more the chyme into the
duodenum
SMALL INTESTINE
1. Anatomy of the small intestine
- The Small Intestine is divided into the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum.
- Circular folds, villi, and microvilli greatly increase
the surface are of the intestinal lining
- Goblet cells and duodenal glands produce mucus.
2. Secretion of the small intestine
- Mucus protects against digestive enzymes and
stomach acids.
- Chemical or tactile irritation, vagal stimulation,
and secretion stimulate intestinal secretion.
3. Movement in the small intestine
- Segmental contractions occur over short distances
and mix the intestinal contents
- Peristaltic contractions occur the length of the
intestine and propel chyme through the intestine
4. Absorption in the small intestine
- Most absoption occurs in the duodenum and
jejunum.
LIVER AND PANCREAS
1. Anatomy of the liver
- The liver consists of four lobes. It receives blood
from the hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein
- Branches of the hepatic artery and hepatic portal
vein empty into hepatic sinusoids, which empty into
a central vein in the center each lobe. The central
veins empty empty into hepatic veins, which exits
the liver.
- The liver is divided into lobules with portal triads
at the corner. Portal traids contain branches of the
hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery and hepatic duct.
- Hepatic cords, formed by hepatocytes , form the
subtances of each lobule. A bile canaliculus,
between the cells of each cord, joins the hepatic
duct system.
- Bile leaves the liver through the hepatic duct
system. The right and left hepatic ducts joins to
form the common hepatic duct. The gallbladder
store bile. The cystic duct joins the common hepatic
duct to form the common bile duct. The common
bile duct joins the pancreatic duct and empties into
the duodenum.
2. Functions of the liver
- The liver produces bile, which contains bile salts
that emulsify fats.
- The liver stores and processes nutrients, produces
new molecules, and detoxifies molecules
- The liver produces blood proteins
3 Anatomy of Pancreas
- The pancreas is an endocrine and an exocrine
gland. Its endocrine function is to control blood
nutrients levels. Its exocrine function is to produce
bicarbonate ions and digestive enzymes.
4. Function of Pancreas
- The pancreas produces bicarbonate ions and
digestive enzymes
- Acidic chyme stimulates the release of a watery
bicarbonate solution that neutralizes acidic chyme.
Fatty acids and amino acids in the duodenum
stimulate the release of pancreatic enzymes.
LARGE INTESTINE
1. Anatomy of Large Intestine
- The cecum forms a blind sac at the junction of the
small and large intestines. The appendix a blind sac
off the cecum.
- the colon consists of ascending, transverse,
descending and sigmoid portions.
- The large intestine contains mucus-producing
crypts.
- The rectum is a straight tube that ends at the anal
canal.
- The anal canal is surrounded by an internal anal
sphincter ( Smooth muscle) and a external anal
sphincter (skeletal muscle).
2. Function of the Large Intestine
- The function of the large intestine is feces
production and water absorption
- It takes much longer for materials to move
through the large intestine than the small intestine.
- In the colon, chyme is converted to feces.
- Mass movements occur three to four times a day
- Defecation is the elimination of feces. Reflex
activity moves feces through the internal anal
sphincter. Voluntary activity regulates movement
through the external anal sphincter
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND TRASPORT
Digestion is the chemical breakdown of organic
molecules into their components parts. After the
molecules are digested, some diffuse through the
intestinal wall; others must be transported across
the intestinal wall
1. Carbohydrates
- Polysaccharides are split into dissaccharides by
salivary and pancreatic amylases.
- Disaccharides are brokendown to
monosaccharides by disaccharidases on the surface
of the intestinal epithelium.
- Monosaccharides are absorbed by active transport
into the blood and carried by the hepatic portal vein
to the liver
-Glucose is carried in the blood and enters most
cells by facilitated diffusion. Insulin increase the
rate of glucose transport into most cells.
2. Lipids
- Bile salts emulsify lipids
- Pancreatic lipase breas down lipids. The
breakdown products aggregate with bile salts to
form micelles.
- Micelles come into contact with the intestinal
epithelium, and their contents diffuse into the cells,
where they are packaged and released into the
lacteals.
- Lipids are stored in adipose tissue and in the liver,
which release the lipids into the blood when energy
sources are needed elsewhere in the body.
3. Proteins
- Proteins are split into small polypeptides by
enzymes secreted by the stomach and pancrea, and
on the surface if intestinal cells
- Peptidases on the surface of intestinal epithelial
cells complete the digestive process.
- Amino acid are absorbed into intestinal epithelial
cells
- Amino acids are actively transported into cells
under the influence of growth hormone and insulin
- Amino acids are used to build new protein or as a
source of energy
WATER AND MINERALS
- Water can move either direction across the
intestinal wall, depending on osmotic conditions.
Approximately 99% of the water entering the
intestine is absorbed. Most minerals are actively
transported across the intestinal wall.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
- With advancing age, the layers of the GI Tract
thin, and the blood supply decreases.
- There is also decreased mucus secretion and
decreased motility in the GI Tracts
- There is also a gradual decline in the defense of
the digestive tract, leaving it more sensitive to
infection and the effects of toxic agents.
- Enamel and gingiva are reduced with age,
exposing dentin, which may become painful and
affects habits.
URINARY SYSTEM
- The urinary system consist of two kidneys, two
uterus. The urinary bladder, and the urethra.
FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
- The kidneys excrete waste products.
- The kidneys control blood volume by regulating
the volume of urine produced
- The kidney help regulate the concentration of
major ions in the body fluids
- The kidney help regulate the concentration of
RBC in the Blood.
- The kidney participate,w/ the skin and liver, in
Vitamin D Synthesis.
PART OF URINARY SYSTEM
1. KIDNEY
- Each kidney is behind peritoneum and surrounded
by a renal capsule and adipose tissue
- The kidney is divided into an outer cortex and an
inner medulla
- Each renal pyramid has a base located at the
boundary between the cortex and medulla and the
tip extends toward the center of the kidney and is
surrounded bu a calyx.
-Calyces are extensiom of the renal pelvis, which is
the expanded end of the ureter within the renal
sinus
- The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.
The parts of a nephron. The parts of a nephron are
the renal corpuscles, the proximal tubule, the loop
of henle, and the distal tubule.
- The filtration membrane is formed by the
glomerular capillarie, the basement membrane, and
the podocytes of bowman’s capsule
2. ARTERIES AND VEINS
- Renal arteries give rise to branches that lead to
afferent arterioles
- Afferent arterioles supply the glomeruli
- Efferent arterioles carry blood from the glomeruli
to the peritubular capillaries
- Blood from the peritubular capillaries flows to the
renals veins
3. URETERS, URINARY BLADDER, AND
URETHRA
- Each ureter carries urine froma renals pelvis to the
urinary bladder.
- The urethra carries urine from the urinary bladder
to the outside if the body
- The ureters and urinary bladder are line with
transitional epithelium and have smooth muscle in
their walls
- The external urinary sphincter regulates the flow
of urine through the urethra
URINE PRODUCTION
- Urine is produced by the processes of filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion.
FILTRATION
- Renal filtrate passes from the glomerulus into
browman’s capsule and contains no blood cells and
few blood proteins
-Filtration pressure is responsible for filtrate
formation
REABSORPTION
- About 99% of the filtrate volume is reabsorbed;
1% becomes urine
- Proteins; Amino acid; Glucose; Fructose; and
Na+, K+, Ca2+, HCO3-, and Cl- ions are among
the substances reabsorbed
- About 65% of the filtrate volume is reabsorbed in
the proximal tubule, 15% is reabsorbed in the
decending limb of the loop of the Henle, and
another19% is reabsorbed in the distal tubulu and
collecting duct
SECRETION
Hydrogen ion, some by-products of metabolism,
and some drugs are actively secreted into the
nephron.
REGULATION OF URINE CONCENTRATION
AND VOLUME
1. HORMONAL MECHANISM
- ADH is secreted from the posterior pituitary when
the concentration of blood increases or when blood
pressure decreases. ADH increase the permeability
to water of the distal convuluted tubule and
collecting duct. It increases water reabsorption by
the kidney
- Renin is secreted by the kidney when the blood
pressure is decreasing. Renin converts
agiotensinogen to agiotensin I which is then
converted to angeostensin II by angiostensin-
converting enzyme. Angiostensin II stimulates
aldosterone secretion, and aldosterone increases the
rate of Na+ and Cl- reabsorption from the nephron.
- Atrial natriutic hormone, secreted from the right
atrium in response to increases in blood pressure,
acts on the kidney to increase Na+ and water loss in
the urine
EFFECTS OF SYMPATHIC INNERVATION ON
KIDNEY FUNCTION
- Increased sympathetic activity decreases blood
flow to the kidney, decreases filtrate formation, and
decreases urine formation
URINE MOVEMENT
- Increase volume in the urinary bladder stretches
its walls and activates the micturition reflex
-Parasympathetic action potential cause
contractions of the urinary bladder. Reduced
somatic motor action potentials cause relaxation of
the external urinary sphincter
-Higher brain centers control the micturition reflex.
Stretch of the urinary bladder stimulates sensory
neurons that caryy impulses to the brain and inform
the brain of the need to urinates.
BODY FLUIDS COMPARTMENT
- Water and ions dissolved in it are distributed in the
intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments
-Approximately 60% of the totla body water is
found within cells
- Approximately 40% of the total body water is
found outside cells, mailny in interstitial fluid,
plasma of blood and llymph.
COMPOSITION OF THE FLUID IN THE BODY
FLUID COMPARTMENTS
-INTACELLULAR FLUID CONTAINS MORE
K+, MG2+, PO4, SO4 AND PROTEIN THAN
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID.
- Extracellular fluis contains more Na+, Cl-, HCO
and Ca than intracellular fluid
EXCHANGE BETWEEN BODY FLUIDS
COMPARTMENTS
-Waters moves between ompartments continually in
response to hydrostatic pressure difference and
osmotic differences between the compartments
REGULATION OF EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
COMPOSITION
- The total amount of water and electrocyte in the
body does not change unless the person is growing,
gaining weight , or losing weight.
THIRST
- The sensation of thirst increasing if extra cellular
fluids becomes more concentrated or if blood
pressure decreases
IONS
- sodium ions are dominant extracellular fluids ions.
Aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption from the
filtra. ADH increases water reabsoprtion from the
nephron, and atrial natriuretic hormone increases
Na+ loss in the urine
- Aldosterone increases K+ secretion in the urine.
Increase blood levels of K+ stimulate, and
decreased blood levels of K+ Inhibit, aldosterone
secretion
- Parathyroid hormone secreted from the
parathyoroid glands increases extracellular Ca2+
levels by causing bone resorption and increase
Ca2+ uptake in the kidney. Parathyroid hormone
increases vitamin D synthesis. Calcitonin, secreted
by the thyroid gland inhibits bone resorption and
lowers blood Ca2+ levels when they are too high/
- When PO4 and SO levels in the filtrate are low,
Nearly all PO and SO are reabsorbed. When levels
are high, excess is lost in the urine
REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE
1. BUFFERS
- Three principal classes of buffers in the
circulatory system resist changes in the pH: Protein,
Phosphate, And Bicarbonate buffers
2. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- The respiratory system rapidly regulates pH. An
increased respiratory rate raises the pH because the
rate of carbon dioxide elimination is reduced
3. KIDNEYS

- The kidneys excrete H+ in response to a
decreasing blood pH, and they reabsorb H+ in
response to an increasing blood pH
4. ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS
- Acidosis occurse when the pH of the blood flass
below 7.35. The two major types are respiratory
acidosis and metabolic acidosis.
- Alkalosis occures when the pH of blood increases
above 7.45. The two major types are respiratory
alkalosis and metaboli alkalosis.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
FUNCTION OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- The male reproductive system produces sperm
cells, provides nutrients for the sperm cells and
secretions, transfer the sperm cells to the female,
amd make male sex hormones
- To the female reproductive system produces
oocytes, receives sex cells from the male, provide
nourishment for developing individual before and
after birth, and produces female sex hormones
FORMATION OF SEX CELLS
- The repro organs in male and female produces sex
cells by meiosis
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. SCROTUM
- The scrotum is a sac containing the testes
- The dartos and cremaster muscle help to regulate
testes temperature.
2. TESTES
- The testes are divided into lobules containing the
seminiferous tubules and intrstitial cells.
- During development the testes pass from the
abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal to the
scrotum.
3. SPERMATOGENESIS
- Spermatogenesis begins in the seminiferous
tubules at the time of puberty.
- Sperm cells are produced in the seminiferous
tubules.
- Sertoli cells nourish sperm cells and produce
small amounts of hormones
- Spermatogonia divide (mitosis) to form primary
spermatocytes.
- Primary spermatocytes divide by meosis to first
produce secondary spermatocytes and then
spermatids. The spermatids then mature to form
sperm cells.
- Spermatids develop a head, midpiece, and
flagellum to become a sperm cells. The head
contains the acrosom and the nucleus.
4. DUCTS
- The epididymis is a coiled tube syste, located on
the testis, that is the site of sperm maturation. Final
changes, called capicitation of sperm cells, occur
after ejaculation.
- The seminiferous tubules lead to the rete testis
- The rete testis opens into the efferent ductules that
extend to the epididymis
- The ductus deferens passes from the epididymis
into the abdominal cavity
- The ejaculatory duct is formed by the joining of
the ductus deferens and the duct from the seminal
vesicle.
- The ejaculatory ducts join the prostatic urethra in
the prostate gland
- The urethra extends from the urinary bladder
through the penis to the outside of the body
5. PENIS
- The penis consists of erectile tissue
- The two corpora cavernosa form the dorsum and
the sides
- The corpus spongiosum forms the ventral position
and the glans penis, and it encloses the spongy
urethra. The prepuse cover the glans penis.
6. GLANDS
- The seminal vesicles empty into the ejaculatory
duct
- The prostate gland consists of glandular and
muscular tissue and empties into the urethra
- The bulbourethral gland empties into the urethra.
SECRETION
- Semen is a mixture of gland secretion and sperm
cells
- The bulbourethral glands and the urethral mucous
glands produces mucus the neutralizes the acidic
pH of the urethra
-The testicular secretion contains sperm cells
- The seminal vesicle fluid contains nutrient,
prostaglandins, and proteins that coagulate.
- The prostate fluis contains nutrients and
proteolytic enzymes, and it neutralizes the pH of the
vagina.
PHYSIOLOGY OF MALE REPRODUCTION
1. REGULATION OF SEX HORMONE
SECRETION
- GNRH is produced in the hypothalamus and is
release in surges
- GnRH stimulates release of LH and FSH from the
anterior pituitary
- LH stimulates the iterstitial cell to produce
testosterone
- FSH binds to Sertoli cells and stimulates
spermatogenesis and secretion of inhibin.
- Testosterone has a negative-feedback effect on
GnRH, LH and FSH secretion
- Inhibin has negative-feedback effect on FSH
secretion
2. PUBERTY
- Before puberty small amount of testosterone
inhibit GnRh release.
- Druing puberty testosterone does not completely
suppress GnRH releas, resulting in increased
prodcution of FSH, LH and testosterone.
3. EFFECTS OF TESTOSTERONE
- Testosterone causes enlargement of genitals and is
necessary for spermatogenesis
- Testosterone is responsible for the development of
secondary sex characteristics
4. MALE SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND MALE SEX
ACT
- Testosterone is required for normal sex drive
- Stimulation of the sexual act can be tactile or
psychological
- sensory impulses pass to to the sacral region of the
spinal cord
- Motor stimulation causes erection, mucus
production, emission, and ejaculation.
- The most common cause of infertility is low
sperm cell count
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. OVARIES
- By the forth month of development the ovaries
contains 5 million oogonia
- By burth many oogonia have degenerate, and for
the remaining oogonia meiosis has stopped in
prophase I causing them to become primary oocyte
- By puberty 300,000 to 400,00 primary oocytes
remains and about 400 will be released from the
ovaries
- Ovulation is release of an oocyte from an ovary.
The first meotic dividion is completed and a
secondary oocyte is released
- A sperm cell penetrates the secondary oocyte, the
second meotic division is completed, and the
nucleus of the oocyte and sperm cell are united to to
complete fertilization
- A primordial follicle fluid-filled vesicle appear
and a theca forms around the follicle
-Ina mature follicle, cesicle fuse to form an antrum
and the primary oocyte, surrounded by cumulus
cells, into the peritoneal cavity
- The remaining granulosa cells in the follicle
develop into the corpus luteum
- If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum persist. If
there is no fertilization, it degenerates
2. UTERINE TUBE
- The ovarian end of the uterine tube is surrounded
by fimbriae
- Cilia on the fimbria move the oocyte into the
uterine tube
- Fertilization usually occurs in the ampulla of the
uterine rube, which is near the ovary
3. UTERUS
- The uterus is a pear-shaped organ. The uterine
cavity and the cervical canal are the spaces by the
uterus
- The wall of the uterus consists of the [erimetrium
or serous layer, my myometrium (Smooth muscle),
and the endometrium
4. VAGINA
- The vagina connects the uterus ( Cervix) to the
vestibule
- The vagina consists of a layer of smooth muscle
and an inner lining of most stratified squamous
epithelium.
- Lubricating fluid is produced by the wall of the
vagina
- The hymen covers the vestibular opening of the
vagina
5. EXTERNAL GENETALIA
- The vestibule is a space into which the vagina and
the urethra open
- The clitoris is composed of erectile tissue and
contains many sensory receptors important in
detecting sexual stimuli
- The labia minora are folds that covers the
vestibule and form the prepuce
- The greater vestibular glands produce mucous
fluid
- The labia majora coves the labia minora, and the
pudendal cleft is a space between the labia majora
- The mons pubis is an elevated are superior to the
labia majora
6. MAMMARY GLAND
- Mammary glands are the organs of milk
production
- The mammary glands are modified sweat glands
that consist of glandular lobes and adipose tissue
- The lobes connect to the nipple through ducts. The
nipple is surrounded by the areola
- The female breast enlarges during puberty under
the influence of estrogen and progesterone
PHYSIOLOGY OF FEMALE REPRODCUTION
1. PUBERTY
- Puberty begins with first menstrual bleeding
(Menarche).
- Puberty begins when GnRH, LH, and FSH levels
increase.
2. MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- The cyclical changes in the uterus are controlled
by estrogen and progesterone produced by the
ovary.
- Menses (Day 1 to Day 4 or 5) Menstrual fluid is
produced by degeneration of endometrium
- Prolifrative phases (Day 5 to day of ovulation).
Epithelial cells multiply and form glands
- Secretory phase (From day of ovulation to day
28). The endometrium becomes thicker, and
endometrial glands secrets the uterus is prepared for
implantation of the developing blastocyst by day 21
- Estrogen stimulates proliferation of the
endometrium, and progesterone causes thickening
of the endometrium. Decreased progesterone causes
menses.
- FSH initiates the development of follicles
- Estrogen produced by the follicles stimulate
GnRh, FSH, and LH secretion, and FSH and Lh
stimulates more estrogen secretion. This positive-
feedback mechanism causes FSH and LH levels to
increase near the time of ovulation
- LH stimulates ovulation and formation of the
corpus luteum
- Estrogen and progesterone inhibit LH and FSH
secretion following ovulation
- If fertilization does not occur, progesterone
secretion by the corpus luteum decreases and
menses begins
- If fertilization does occur, The corpus luteum
continues to secrete progesterone and menses does
not occur
3. MENOPAUSE
- The cessation of the menstrual cycle is called
menopause
4. FEMALE SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND THE
FEMALE ACT
- The female sex drive is partially influenced by
testoteronelike hormones (produced by the adrenal
cortex) and estrogen produced by the ovary
- Autonomic nerves causes erectile tissue to become
engorged with blood, the vestibular glands to
secrete mucus, and the vagina to produce a
lubricating fluid
5. INFERTILITY
- Causes of infertility in females includes
malfunction of uterine tubes, reduced hormones
secretion from the pituitary or ovary, and
interruption of implantation

6. EFFECTS OF AGING ON REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM
- Benign prostatic enlargement affects men as they
age it blocks urine flow through the prostatic
urethra.
- Pro-static cancer is more common in elderly men.
- Menopause is the most common age-relate change
in females
- Cancer of the breast, the uterine cervix, and
ovaries increase in elderly women
- Occasionally prolapsed uterus develops in elderly
women