Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Resultants of Forces

Overview/Introduction

In this chapter, we study the effects of forces which act on engineering

structures and mechanisms. The experience gained here will help you in the study of
mechanics and in other subjects such as stress analysis, design of structures and
machines, and fluid flow. This chapter lays the foundation for a basic understanding
not only of statics but also of the entire subject of mechanics, and you should master
this material thoroughly.

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. Identify the properties of force(s);
2. Differentiate the different force systems;
3. Solve for the components of a force;
4. Solve for the resultant of concurrent force system;
5. Solve for the moment produced by a force; and
6. Solve for the resultant of a parallel and non-concurrent force system.

Learning Content/Topic

Lesson 2-1 – Properties of Force

Force is a vector quantity. Meaning, force has as magnitude and direction.

However, in the study of statics, there at more than 2 properties of force,
these are:
1. Magnitude – the intensity of the force (includes the numerical value and
unit)
2. Direction – the ways the forces acts
3. Line of Action – the line where the force acts or the line that the force
will move when draw continuously
4. Point of Application – the point on the body where the force is acted
Y 300N Magnitude
Direction – Northeast

X Point of application
Line of action
Lesson 2-2 – Types of Force System

Force system is classified into two categories:

1. According to line of action
2. Plane of action

Force systems classified according to line of action are the following:

1. Concurrent Force system – a type of force system where the lines of
action of forces meets on a single point.

Example 1
Y

F1

F2
X

F3

Example 2
Y

F2
F1

F4

F3
2. Parallel Force System – a type of force system where the lines of
action of forces does not meet on any point.

Example 3
Y

F2
F1

X
F3

Example 4
Y

F1

F3

F2
 3. Non-Concurrent Force System – a type of force system where the lines
of action of forces meets on more than two points.

Example 5
Y

F1

F2
X

F4

F3

Lesson 2-3 – Resolution of Force by Trigonometric Function

Trigonometric method of resolving a force involves the use of basic
trigonometric functions to solve for the components of a force.

Useful Formulas

Where: F = The given force

Fx = Horizontal Component of the force
Fy = Vertical Component of the force
Θ = The angle of inclination of the line of action of the
force w/ respect to x-axis
Note: Indicate the direction of the force

Example 1: Solve for the horizontal and vertical component of the 250N
force shown below.
Y

Fx 250N

Fy Fy
40°
X
Fx
 Solution:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ = 250 cos 40° = 191.51 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ = 250 sin 40° = 160.70 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ

Example 2: Solve for the horizontal and vertical component of the 300N
force shown below.
Y

X
65°

300N

Solution: In this particular example, 65º is not the angle of inclination of

the force with respect to x-axis. Thus, we need to solve for the value of
θ.

Ɵ = 90° − 65° = 25°

𝐹𝑥 = 300 cos 25° = 271.89 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝐹𝑦 = 300 sin 25° = 126.79 𝑁 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ

Lesson 2-4 – Similar Triangle

Similar Triangle method of resolving a force involves the use of ratio and
proportion of two similar triangles that can be produced from the given force to
solve for its components.
Y
F

Fy
h o
a

Fx
Useful Formulas
From the figure above, the following formulas were established:
𝑎
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹
ℎ
𝑜
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹
ℎ
𝑜
Ɵ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎
𝑜
𝑚=
𝑎

Where F = The given force

Fx = Horizontal Component of the force
Fy = Vertical Component of the Force
Θ= The angle of inclination of the line of action of the force w/
respect to x-axis
a = the “rise” component of the slope of the force o
o = the “run” component of the slope of the force
h = √𝑎2 + 𝑜 2
m = slope of the given force

Example 1: Solve for the horizontal and vertical component of the 100lb
force shown below. Solve also for the degree of inclination of the force.

Y
100lb

2
2.5
X

Solution:
ℎ = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = √2.52 + 22 = 3.202

𝑎 2.5
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 = −100 ( ) = 78.08𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
ℎ 3.202

𝑜 2
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 = −100 ( ) = 62.46𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
ℎ 3.202

𝑜 2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 38.66°
𝑎 2.5
Lesson 2-5 – Resultant of Concurrent Force System
Graphical Solution in solving resultant force involves the parallelogram law
and the triangle law. However, in terms of mathematical and practical solution,
we often use Analytical Solution. Analytical solution in solving resultant force
includes finding of component force of each force and solving for the sum of
components horizontally and vertically. The sum of horizontal and vertical
forces are then use to solve for the resultant of the forces by applying
Pythagorean Theorem and trigonometric function.

Notations (sign) on Forces

1. Upward forces are assigned with positive sign (+F)
2. Downward forces are assigned with negative sign (-F)
3. Forces towards right are assigned with positive sign (+F)
4. Forces towards left are assigned with negative sign (-F)

Useful Formulas
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑥𝑛
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦1 + 𝐹𝑦2 + 𝐹𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑦𝑛

𝑅 = √∑ 𝐹𝑥 2 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 2

∑ 𝐹𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ∑
𝐹𝑥

Where: ƩFx = Sum of horizontal component of forces

ƩFy = Sum of vertical component of forces R
= Magnitude of the Resultant Force
Θ = The angle of inclination of the line of action of the force w/
respect to x-axis
Note: Indicate the direction of the force

Steps in solving the resultant of concurrent force system

1. Solve for the horizontal and vertical components of each force
2. Solve for the sum of horizontal and vertical forces
3. Solve for the magnitude of the resultant force
4. Solve for the direction of the resultant force

Example 1: Solve for resultant force of the forces given below.

Y

250N

40°
X

300N 65°
Solution:
Solve for the horizontal component of each of the force

Fx250 = 250 cos 40°= 191.51 N

Fx300 = 300 cos 25° = 271.89 N

Solve for the vertical component of each of the force

Fy250 = 250 sin 40°= 160.70 N

Fy300 = 300 sin 25° = 126.79 N

Y
160.70N

191.51N
X
271.89N
126.79N

Solve for the sum of horizontal components

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑥2 = 191.51 − 271.89

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −80.38 𝑁 = 80.38 𝑁, 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡

Solve for the vertical component of each of the force

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦1 + 𝐹𝑦2 = 160 − 126.79

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 33.91 𝑁, 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ

Y
R
33.91N

X
Solve for the magnitude and direction of resultant
𝑅 = √∑ 𝐹𝑥 2 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 2 = √(80.38𝑁)2 + (33.91𝑁)2
𝑅 = 87.24 N
∑ 𝐹𝑦 33.91 N
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ∑ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐹𝑥 80.38 N
𝜃 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟖𝟕° , 𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐡𝐰𝐞𝐬𝐭

R=87.24N

22.87°
X

Example 2: Solve for resultant force of the forces given below.

Y

100N

87.24N
2
2.5
22.87°
X

Solution:

2.5
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑥2 = 100 𝑁 ( ) − 87.24 𝑁 cos 22.87°
√2.52 + 22
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 70.08 𝑁 − 80.38 𝑁 = −𝟐. 𝟑 𝑵 𝑜𝑟 𝟐. 𝟑 𝑵, 𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕

2
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦1 + 𝐹𝑦2 = 100 𝑁 ( ) + 87.24 𝑁 sin 22.87°
√2.52 + 22

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 62.46 𝑁 + 33.91 𝑁 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟑𝟕 𝑵, 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉

𝑅 = √∑ 𝐹𝑥 2 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 2 = √(2.3𝑁)2 + (96.37𝑁)2
𝑹 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟎 𝐍
∑ 𝐹𝑦 96.37 N
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ∑ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐹𝑥 2.3 N
𝜃 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟑°
Lesson 2-6 – Moment of a Force
When a force is applied in a body on an adjacent point to its axis of rotation,
the force will produce a twisting/turning effect. The measure of the said
twisting/turning effect is called the Moment of a Force, (M). Moment of a force
is the product of the “force” and the “moment arm”. Moment arm is the
perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force to the axis of
rotation.

Notations (sign) on Moments

1. A clockwise moment is assigned with positive sign (+M)
2. A counter clockwise moment is given a negative sign (-M).

Useful Formulas

Where: M = Moment of force

F = Force given
d = Moment arm
Note: Indicate the direction of the moment

Steps in solving for resultant moment and moment arm of a given force
1. Resolve the force into its component
2. Solve for the moment of each component
3. Solve for the sum of the moments produced by the components
4. Solve for the moment arm by equating the resultant moment to the
moment of its components

Example: Solve for resultant moment and moment arm (about point O) of the
force given below.
Y

2m

200N
1m

line of 2m
action d
X
O
 Solution:
Solve for the horizontal and vertical component of the force
1
𝐹𝑥 = 200 𝑁 ( )= 178.89 N, east
√12 +0.52
10.5
𝐹𝑦 = 200 𝑁 ( )= 89.44 N, north
√12 +0.52

Y 89.44N

line of 1m
action 178.89N
2m
X
O

line of
action

Solve for the moment of each component

𝑀𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑 = 178.89 𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚 = 357.78 𝑁𝑚, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝑀𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦 𝑑 = 89.44 𝑁 ∗ 1𝑚 = 89.44 𝑁𝑚, 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Solve for the resultant moment of the force

∑ 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑀𝑦 = 357.78 𝑁𝑚 − 89.44 𝑁𝑚 = 268.34 𝑁𝑚, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Solve for the moment arm of the given force by equating its moment to
the sum of moments of its components

𝑀 = ∑𝑀
𝐹𝑑 = 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑀𝑦

200N * d = 357.78 𝑁𝑚 − 89.44 𝑁𝑚

357.78 𝑁𝑚−89.44 𝑁𝑚
d= = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 𝒎
200 𝑁
Lesson 2-7 – Resultant of Parallel Force System
When parallel forces acts on a single body on different points, the resultant
force will create a single force with a twisting/turning effect. Thus, the resultant
of a parallel force system has a resultant force and a moment arm.
 Notations
Forces
1. Upward forces are assigned with positive sign (+F)
2. Downward forces are assigned with negative sign (-F)
3. Forces towards right are assigned with positive sign (+F)
4. Forces towards left are assigned with negative sign (-F)
Moments
1. A clockwise moment is assigned with positive sign (+M)
2. A counter clockwise moment is given a negative sign (-M).

Steps in solving for resultant of parallel force system

1. Solve for the summation of all forces
2. Solve for the summation of all moments produced by each force
3. Solve for the moment arm by equating the resultant moment to the sum
of all moments of each force

Example: Solve for resultant of the parallel forces (with respect to the origin)
shown below.
Y
1foot
300lb
200lb

400lb
Solution:
Solve for the sum of all forces
R = 200 lb – 400 lb + 300 lb = 100 lb, north

Solve for the sum of all moments produced by each force

∑ 𝑀 = 200 𝑙𝑏(5𝑓𝑡) + 400 𝑙𝑏 (4𝑓𝑡) − 300 𝑙𝑏(8𝑓𝑡)

= 200 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Solve for moment arm of the resultant force

𝑅𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀
100 lb * d = 200 lb-ft
d = 2 ft

The resultant of the parallel forces is 100lb upward located 2ft on the
left of the origin to create a 200lb-ft clockwise resultant moment.
Lesson 2-8 – Resultant of Non-Concurrent Force System

Non-concurrent force system is a group of forces where lines of action don’t

meet in a single point. When non-concurrent forces are applied to a body, the
resulting force will create a turning/twisting effect to the body. In solving for the
resultant of non-concurrent force system, we apply both steps in solving
concurrent and parallel force systems.

Notations
Forces
1. Upward forces are assigned with positive sign (+F)
2. Downward forces are assigned with negative sign (-F)
3. Forces towards right are assigned with positive sign (+F)
4. Forces towards left are assigned with negative sign (-F)
Moments
1. A clockwise moment is assigned with positive sign (+M)
2. A counter clockwise moment is given a negative sign (-M).

Steps in solving for resultant of parallel force system

1. Solve for summation of horizontal components of the given forces
2. Solve for summation of vertical components of the given forces
3. Solve for the resultant force and its direction
4. Solve for the resultant moment of the given forces
5. Solve for the moment arm by equating the moment produced by the
resultant to the sum of all moments produced by forces.

Example: Solve for resultant of the non-concurrent forces (with respect to the
origin) shown below.
Y
100N 1m
200N
45°
X

300N

Solution:
Solve for the sum horizontal component of forces
2
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −200 𝑁 ∗ + 100𝑁 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°
√22 + 12

(Note: 300N force doesn’t have horizontal component)

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −178.89𝑁 + 70.71𝑁 = −108.17𝑁

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 108.17 𝑁, 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡

Solve for the sum vertical component of forces

1
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 200 𝑁 ∗ + 100𝑁 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45°- 300N
√22 + 12
 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 89.44𝑁 + 70.71𝑁 − 300 = −139.85𝑁

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 139.85 𝑁, 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ

Solve for the resultant force and its direction

2 2
R = √∑ 𝐹𝑥 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = √(108.17𝑁)2 + (139.85)2 = 176.01 N

∑ 𝐹𝑦 139.85N
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 52.28°, 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡
∑ 𝐹𝑥 108.17N

Y
1m
70.71N
89.44N
178.89N 70.71N
X

300N

Solve for the sum of all moments (about origin) produced by

components of each force
∑ 𝑀 = 70.71𝑁 ∗ 1𝑚 − 70.71𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚 − 300𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚
∑ 𝑀 =-670.71 Nm, counter clockwise

Solve for moment arm of the resultant force

𝑅𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀

176.01𝑁 ∗ 𝑑 = 670.71 𝑁𝑚

𝑑 = 3.81 𝑚

The resultant of the non-concurrent forces is 176.01N with an

inclination of 52.28° towards southwest. The resultant force is 3.81m
from the origin located at the fourth quadrant.

Lesson 2-9 – Force Couple

 When two forces have a zero resultant force, but has a moment, these forces
are called “force couple. These forces are basically equal in magnitude,
opposite in direction but not collinear in action.

Y 1m
100N

100N

The example forces above has a zero resultant force when summed but has
400Nm (200Nm+200Nm) of counter clockwise moment.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Solve for the following problems.

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Online (asynchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, google classroom,
zoom, google meet, etc.

Remote (asynchronous)
module, activities, problems sets, etc.

Assessment Task

Solve for the following problems.

1. 1. In a certain non-concurrent force system it is found that the summation
of forces along x-axis is -80lb, summation of forces along y-axis is 160lb,
and moment at point O is 480lb-ft in a counter-clockwise sense. Determine
the point at which the resultant intersects the x-axis.
Answer: 3 feet to right of origin
 2. Determine completely the resultant of the forces acting on the step pulley
(relative to the axle) shown below.
750N

1.5m

60°
0.5m

1250N

3.The Howe roof truss showed below caries the given loads. The wind loads are
perpendicular to the inclined members. Determine the magnitude of the resultant, its
inclination with horizontal, and where it intersects AB.

1120lb

1120lb

10ft 2000lb

1120lb

A 10ft 10ft 10ft 10ft B

3000lb 2000lb 1000lb

Red forces = Wind Loads

Blue forces = Vertical loads
Green forces = Horizontal loads

References
1. Engineering Mechanics by Ferdinand L. Singer
2. Breer, Ferdinand P. and Johnston, E. Russel Jr., Mechanics for Engineers,
McGraw Hill, latest edition
3. Hibbeler, R.C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, , Amazon, 14th Edition
4. Other Physics and Engineering Mechanics Books
5. Mathematics and Allied Science Reviewers’ Books

Online:
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125330
Fundamental Concepts
Overview/Introduction

A body is said to be in equilibrium when the force system acting upon it has a
zero resultant force. The physical meaning of equilibrium, as applied to a body, is
that the body either is at rest or moving in a straight line with constant velocity.
In this chapter, the different methods and conditions of equilibrium for different
force systems will be discussed.

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

6. Learn the basics of free-body diagram;
7. Familiarize the different conditions of equilibrium;
8. Solve problems related to equilibrium of concurrent force systems;
9. Solve problems related to equilibrium of parallel forces; and
10. Solve problems related to equilibrium of non-concurrent force systems.

Learning Content/Topic

Lesson 3-1 – Free-Body Diagram

Free-Body Diagram (FBD) is an isolated view of a body which shows only the
external forces exerted on the body. These external forces are caused by
direct bodily contact or by gravitational or magnetic attraction.

The steps involved in drawing free-body diagram are:

1. Draw a diagram of the body completely isolated from all other bodies;
2. Represent the action of each body or support that is removed by a
force or its components; and
3. Label each force by its magnitude, if known, or by a symbol, if known.
Some of the more common types of bodily contact or support

Where:
W represents weight
T represents tension, which is the force exerted by a cable
N is the normal force, the reaction at the point of intersection that
is perpendicular to the point of intersection
R is the reaction force exerted by the support

Example 1: Draw for the FBD of each connection pin and the 200N block.

Support Bar
A B

D
200N

FBD of the 200N block:

Tension at pin D

200N

W=200N
 FBD of pin D supporting 200N block:

Tension at CD

200N

FBD of pin C:
Tension CA Tension CB

Tension CD

FBD of pin A:
Vertical Reaction at A

Horizontal Reaction at A A

Tension CA

FBD of pin B:
Vertical Reaction at B

B Horizontal Reaction at B

Tension CB

FBD of support Bar:

Support Bar
B
Tension CA Tension CB
Example 2: Draw for the FBD of the boom and pin B of the structure
shown below.

Support
B
Column

Boom

600lb

FBD of the Boom:

Tension BC

Boom

600lb
Horizontal Reaction at A

Vertical Reaction at A

FBD at point B:

Tension BC

Compression at Boom AB
600lb
Example 3: Draw the FBD of the Support Bar AB, Support Bar CD and the
200lb Roller B as shown below.

D
B 3in
A

7in

30°
C

FBD of the 200lb Roller B:

W=200lb

AB B

30°
N

FBD of the Support bar AB:

A B
AB
Reaction at A

FBD of the Support bar CD:

Vertical Reaction at D
N
30° 3in Horizontal Reaction at D

7in

30°
Reaction at C
Lesson 3-2 – Equilibrium of Concurrent Force System

We already know that concurrent force systems are forces whose lines of
action meet at only one point. This implies that in order to have a zero
resultant force, the sum of all horizontal and vertical forces should be equal to
zero.

Conditions of Equilibrium for Concurrent Force System

1. ƩFx=0
2. ƩFy=0

Steps in solving Equilibrium of Concurrent Force System

1. Resolve each forces into their horizontal and vertical components;
2. Solve for the sum of all horizontal and vertical forces by equating it to
zero;
3. Solve for the unknown force in order for the force system to be in
equilibrium.

Example: A system of cords knotted together at A and B support the weights

shown in figure below. Compute the tensions P, Q, F, and T acting in the
various cords.

90° B
Q P 75° 60° T
60° 75°
A

200lb

300lb

Solution: There are 4 unknown forces to be solved, however, we can only

use 2 formulas from the conditions of equilibrium. Thus, in order to solve this
problem, we need to dissect each knot and solving first which knot has only
2 unknowns.
 FBD of knot A:
Y
Q
P
60° 75°
30° 15° X
A

300lb

Solve for the unknown forces at knot A using the conditions of equilibrium:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
−𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠30° + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠15° = 0 --------- Equation 1
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛30° + 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛15° − 300𝑙𝑏 = 0 --------- Equation 2
Solving the equations simultaneously:
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠15°
Substitute the equation of P to Equation 2:

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛30° + ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛15° − 300𝑙𝑏 = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠15°

𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
𝑄(𝑠𝑖𝑛30° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛15° = 300𝑙𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠15°
𝑸 = 𝟒𝟎𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝐥𝐛, 𝐓𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧

Solve for P from either of the Equations

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠30° 410𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠30°
𝑃= =
𝑐𝑜𝑠15° 𝑐𝑜𝑠15°
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔𝟕. 𝟔𝟎𝒍𝒃, 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

FBD of knot B:
Y

X
75°
60°
P=367.60lb
T
200lb
Lesson 3-3 – Equilibrium of Parallel Force System

A Parallel force system produced a resultant force and a moment if the line of
action of the resultant force does not pass through the axis of rotation. Thus,
in order for a parallel force system to be in equilibrium, the resultant moment
should also be zero aside from net force being zero.

Conditions of Equilibrium for Concurrent Force System

1. ƩF=0
2. ƩM=0

Steps in solving Equilibrium of Parallel Force System

1. Solve for the sum of all moments produced from all forces by equating
it to zero
2. Solve for the sum of all horizontal or vertical forces by equating it to
zero;

Example: A beam, simply supported at the ends, carries a concentrated

load of 300lb and a load weighing 600lb as shown in FBD below. Determine
the beam reactions on both supports.

300N 600N

A 2m 5m 3m B

RA RB

Solution: Since there are two unknowns, we can solve for the unknown
reaction by solving the moment about one of its support to eliminate one
unknown.
Lesson 3-4 – Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Force System

A Parallel force system produced a resultant force and a moment if the line of
action of the resultant force does not pass through the axis of rotation. Thus,
in order for a parallel force system to be in equilibrium, the resultant moment
should also be zero aside from net force being zero.

Conditions of Equilibrium for Concurrent Force System

1. ƩFx=0
2. ƩFy=0
3. ƩM=0

In solving the problems on equilibrium of non-concurrent force systems, we

combine the steps in solving equilibrium of concurrent and parallel force
systems.

Example: Solve for the reactions on the supports of the truss shown below.

1120lb

10ft 2000lb

A B
10ft 10ft 10ft 10ft

2000lb
 Solution
FBD of the Truss:

1120lb

10ft 2000lb

A B
R
10ft 10ft 10ft 10ft BX

R
RA BY

2000lb

Moment about B: We start solving moment about B so that we will be

able to eliminate 2 unknowns. And if there is only one unknown, we can
easily solve for it.
Teaching and Learning Activities

Solve for the reactions at support A and B of the structure shown below.

600N

240N D
E

16m

C 12m A 12m 12m B

F

400N

Answer: RA=740N, RBX=240N, RBY=260N

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Online (asynchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, google classroom,
zoom, google meet, etc.

Remote (asynchronous)
module, activities, problems sets, etc.

References
1. Engineering Mechanics by Ferdinand L. Singer
2. Breer, Ferdinand P. and Johnston, E. Russel Jr., Mechanics for Engineers,
McGraw Hill, latest edition
3. Hibbeler, R.C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, , Amazon, 14th Edition
4. Other Physics and Engineering Mechanics Books
5. Mathematics and Allied Science Reviewers’ Books

Online:
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125330
 Centroids and Center of Gravity

Overview/Introduction
The center of gravity is a point where whole the weight of the body act
is called center of gravity.
As we know that every particle of a body is attracted by the earth
towards its center with a magnitude of the weight of the body. As the distance
between the different particles of a body and the center of the earth is the
same, therefore these forces may be taken to act along parallel lines.
A point may be found out in a body, through which the resultant of all
such parallel forces acts. This point, through which the whole resultant (weight
of the body acts, irrespective of its position, is known as center of gravity
(briefly written as C.G). It may be noted that everybody has one and only one
center of gravity.

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. Understand the concept of center of gravity;
2. Understand the different methods in obtaining the center of gravity of
different shapes and solids; and
3. Solve problems related to center of gravity of flat plates, simple figures and
solid bodies using different methods.

Learning Content/Topic

Center of gravity of a two-dimensional body; flat plate

Centroid
The plane figures (like triangle, quadrilateral, circle etc.) have only
areas, but no mass. The center of area of such figures is known as Centroid.
The method of finding out the Centroid of a figure is the same as that of
finding out the center of gravity of a body.

Axis of reference
The center of gravity of a body is always calculated with referrer to
some assumed axis known as axis of reference. The axis of reference, of
plane figures, is generally taken as the lowest line of the figure for calculating
y and the left line of the figure for calculating x.

Lesson - Methods for center of gravity of simple figures

The center of gravity (or Centroid) may be found out by any one of the
following methods
1. By geometrical considerations
2. By moments method
3. By graphical method

1. Center of Gravity by Geometrical Considerations

 The center of gravity of simple figures may be found out from the geometry of
the figure.

For each two-dimensional shape below, the area and the centroid coordinates are given:

Shape Figure 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ Area

𝑏 ℎ
rectangle 𝑏ℎ
2 2

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
ℎ 𝑏ℎ
2
3 2
triangle

Where, x1, x2,

x3 are the
locations of
vertices

𝑙 ℎ 𝑏ℎ
Isosceles-triangle 2 3 2
Right- 𝑏 ℎ 𝑏ℎ
triangular area 3 3 2

𝑑 𝑑 𝜋𝑟 2
Circle 2 2

4𝑟 4𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2
Quarter-circle 3𝜋 3𝜋 4

𝑑 4𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2
Semi-circle 2 3𝜋 2
 2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 0 𝛼𝑟 2
Circular sector 3𝛼

4𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 0 𝑟2
(2𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼)
Circular segment 3(2𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼) 2

The points on the circle 𝑥 2 + 2𝑟 2𝑟 𝜋𝑟

Quarter- 𝐿=
circular arc 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 and in the first 𝜋 𝜋 2
quadrant

The points on the circle 𝑥 2 +

2𝑟 𝐿 = 𝜋𝑟
Semicircular arc 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 and above the x- 0
axis 𝜋

The points on the curve (in 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

Arc of circle polar coordinates) 𝜌 = 𝑟, 0 𝐿 = 2𝛼𝜌
𝛼
from 𝜃 = −𝛼 𝑡𝑜 𝜃 = 𝛼
 0 0 𝜋𝑎𝑏
elliptical area

4𝑎 4𝑏 𝜋𝑎𝑏
Quarter-elliptical
area 3𝜋 3𝜋 4

4𝑏 𝜋𝑎𝑏
Semielliptical area 0
3𝜋 2

The area between the

ℎ
Parabolic area curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the 0 3ℎ 4𝑏ℎ
𝑏2
line 𝑦 = ℎ 5 3
Semi parabolic
area
3𝑏 3ℎ 2𝑏ℎ
The area between 8 5 3
the curve and
the axis, from to

The area between the

ℎ 3𝑏 3ℎ 𝑏ℎ
curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and
Parabolic spandrel 𝑏2 4 10 3
the axis, from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 =
𝑏
The area between the
ℎ
curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑏ℎ
General spandrel 𝑏𝑛 𝑏 ℎ
the axis, from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑛+2 4𝑛 + 2 𝑛+1
𝑏

3-D Centroids

For each three-dimensional body below, the volume and the centroid coordinates
(𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧̅ are given:

Shape Figure 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅ 𝑧̅ Volume

a, b = the sides of the

cuboid's base 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Cuboid 𝑎𝑏𝑐
c = the third side of the 2 2
2
cuboid

a, b = the sides of the

Right-
base 𝑎 𝑏 ℎ 𝑎𝑏𝑐
rectangular pyra
h = the distance is from 2
mid 2 4 3
base to the apex
 see
b = the base side of the
above ℎ 𝐿 𝑏ℎ𝐿
prism's triangular base,
General for 3 2 2
h = the height of the
triangular prism general
prism's triangular base
triangul
L = the length of the prism
ar base

b = the base side of the

prism's triangular base, 𝑏 ℎ 𝐿 𝑏ℎ𝐿
Isosceles
h = the height of the 2 3 2 2
triangular prism
prism's triangular base
L = the length of the prism

b = the base side of the

prism's triangular base,
Right- h = the perpendicular side 𝑏 ℎ 𝐿 𝑏ℎ𝐿
triangular prism of the prism's triangular 3 3 2 2
base
L = the length of the prism

r = the radius of the

Right cylinder ℎ
circular cylinder h = the height of the
0 0 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
2
cylinder

r = the radius of the

Right
cone's base
circular solid 0 0 ℎ 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
h = the distance is from
cone 4 3
base to the apex

r = the radius of the 4𝜋𝑟 3

Solid sphere 0 0 0
sphere 3

Solid hemispher r = the radius of the 3𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 3

0 0
e hemisphere 8 3

Solid semi- a = the radius of the base

ellipsoid of circle 3ℎ 2𝜋𝑎2 ℎ
h = the height of the semi- 0 0 3
revolution 8
around z-axis ellipsoid from the base
circle's center to the edge
 a = the radius of the base
Solid paraboloid circle ℎ 𝜋𝑎2 ℎ
of revolution h = the height of the 0 0 2
3
around z-axe paraboloid from the base
circle's center to the edge

a, b, c = the principal 4𝜋𝑎𝑏𝑐

Solid ellipsoid 0 0 0
semi-axes of the ellipsoid 3

a, b = the principal semi-

Solid semi- axes of the base ellipse 3𝑐 2𝜋𝑎𝑏𝑐
ellipsoid around c = the principal z-semi- 0 0 8 3
z-axe axe from the center of
base ellipse

a, b = the principal semi-

axes of the base ellipse 𝑐 𝜋𝑎𝑏𝑐
Solid paraboloid
c = the principal z-semi- 0 0 2
around z-axe 3
axe from the center of
base ellipse

CENTER OF GRAVITY BY MOMENTS

The center of gravity of a body may also be found out by moments as discussed
below. Consider a body of mass M whose center of gravity is required to be found
out. Now divide the body into small strips of masses whose centers of gravity are
known as shown in figure:

X1
X2
X3

𝑥̅
x
̅

Let
 m1, m2, m3………= mass of strips 1, 2, 3, ….
x1, x2, x3…………= the corresponding perpendicular distance or the center of
gravity of strips from y-axis

According to principle of moment:

𝑀𝑥̅ = 𝑚1 𝑥1 +𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3
𝑀𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑚𝑥
∑ 𝑚𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝑀 ------------------ 1

Similarly,
∑ 𝑚𝑦
𝑦̅ = ------------------ 2
𝑀

The plane geometrical figures (such as T-section, 1-section, L-section etc.)

have only areas but no mass the center of gravity of such figures is found out in the
same way as that of solid bodies. Therefore the above two equations will become:
∑ 𝑎𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝐴
Or
𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥3 …
𝑥̅ =
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 …

∑ 𝑎𝑦
𝑦̅ =
𝐴
Or
𝑎1 𝑦1 + 𝑎2 𝑦2 + 𝑎3 𝑦3 …
𝑥̅ =
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 …

Example:

1. Find the center of gravity of a 100 mm x150 mm x 30 mm T-section as shown in

the figure:
100 mm

2 30 mm

150 mm
1

30 mm

Solution:
Area (a) mm2 Distance (y) mm ay
1 a1 = 30(150-30) = 3600 (150-30)/2 = 60 3600(60)=216000
 2 a2 = 30(100) = 3000 150-15=135 3000(135)=405000
∑ = 6600 ∑ = 621000

Put in the working formula:

∑ 𝑎𝑦 621000
𝑦̅ = = = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝐴 6600

The center of gravity is at 94.091 mm from the bottom, also 𝑥̅ can be located by
inspection since the section given is symmetrical.

2. Find the center of gravity of a channel section 100mmx50mmx15mm as shown:

100 mm

15 mm

50 mm

Solution 1:

100 mm 2

1 15 mm

50 mm

Area (a) mm2 Distance (x) mm ax

1 a1 =50(15) = 750 50/2 = 25 750(25)=18750
 2 a2 = (100-30)(15) = 1050 15/2=7.5 1050(7.5)=7875
3 a1 =50(15) = 750 50/2 = 25 750(25)=18750
∑ = 2550 ∑ = 45375

Put in the working formula:

∑ 𝑎𝑥 45375
𝑥̅ = = = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟗𝟒 𝒎𝒎
𝐴 2550

The center of gravity is at17.794 mm from the right, also 𝑦̅ can be located by
inspection since the section given is symmetrical.

Solution 2:

1 2
100 mm

15 mm

50 mm

Area (a) mm2 Distance (x) mm Ax

1 a1 =50(100) = 5000 50/2 = 25 5000(25)=125000
2 a2 = -(50-15)(100-30)= -2450 15+(50-15)/2=32.5 -2450(32.5)=-79625
∑ = 2550 ∑ = 45375

Put in the working formula:

∑ 𝑎𝑥 45375
𝑥̅ = = = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟕𝟗𝟒 𝒎𝒎
𝐴 2550

Lesson 6-3 – CENTER OF GRAVITY OF UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

 Sometimes, the given section, whose center of gravity is required to be found
out, is not symmetrical either about x-axis or y-axis. In such cases, we have to find
out both the values of center of gravity of x and y which means with reference to x
axis and y axis.

Example:
Find the centroid of an unequal angle section 100 mm x 80 mm x 20mm.

100 mm

20 mm

80 mm

Solution:

100 mm 1

2 20 mm

80 mm

Area (a) mm2 Distance (x) mm ax

1 a1 =20(100) = 2000 20/2=10 2000(10)=20000
2 a2 = (80-20)(20)= 1200 20+(80-20)/2=50 1200(50)=60000
∑ = 3200 ∑ = 80000

∑ 𝑎𝑥 80000
𝑥̅ = = = 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒎 from the right
𝐴 3200

Area (a) mm2 Distance (y) mm ay

1 a1 =20(100) = 2000 100/2=50 2000(50)=100000
2 a2 = (80-20)(20)= 1200 20/2=10 1200(10)=12000
∑ = 3200 ∑ = 112000

∑ 𝑎𝑦 112000
𝑦̅ = = = 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒎 from the bottom
𝐴 3200
Lesson 6-4 – CENTER OF GRAVITY OF SOLID BODIES
 The center of gravity of solid bodies (such as hemisphere, cylinder, right
circular solid cone etc) is found out in the same way as that of the plane figures. The
only difference between the plane and solid bodies is that in the case of solid bodies
we calculate volumes instead of areas

EXAMPLE
A solid body formed by joining the base of a right circular cone of height H to
the equal base of right circular cylinder of height h. Calculate the distance of the
center of gravity of the solid from its plane face when H = 120 mm and h = 30 mm

Solution:

Consider the cylinder with h=30 mm and radius r:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 30𝜋𝑟 2
c.g of cylinder = y1 = 30/2 = 15 mm

Now consider the circular cone of H=120 mm and radius r:

𝜋𝑟 2 𝐻 120𝜋𝑟 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 3 = = 40𝜋𝑟 2
3
c.g of cone=30+120/4 = 60 mm from the bottom of composite
solids

Put the values in the formulas:

∑ 𝑣𝑦 𝑣1𝑦1+𝑣2𝑦2+𝑣3𝑦3…
𝑦̅ = =
𝑉 𝑉

30𝜋𝑟2(15)+40𝜋𝑟2 (60)
𝑦̅ = = 40.714 mm
30𝜋𝑟2 +40𝜋𝑟2

Lesson 6-5 – CENTER OF GRAVITY OF SECTIONS WITH CUT OUT HOLES

 The center of gravity of such a section is found out by considering the main
section; first as a complete one and then deducting the area of the cut out hole that
is taking the area of the cut out hole as negative. Now substituting the area of the cut
out hole as negative, in the general equation for the center of gravity, so the equation
will become:

𝑎1𝑥1 − 𝑎2𝑥2 …
𝑥̅ =
𝑎1 − 𝑎2
Or

𝑎1𝑦1 − 𝑎2𝑦2 …
𝑦̅ =
𝑎1 − 𝑎2

Example:

A semicircle of 90 mm radius is cut out from a trapezoid as shown in figure, find the
position of the center of gravity.
a=200 mm

h=120 mm

r=90 mm

b=300 mm

Solution:
𝑎+𝑏 200+300
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑 = ℎ= (120) = 30000
2 2

𝑏+2𝑎 ℎ 300+2(200) 120

𝑐. 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑 = (3 ) = ( ) = 56
𝑏+𝑎 300+200 3

𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋(90)2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = = = = 4050𝜋
2 2
4𝑟
𝑐. 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 3𝜋 = 38.197

Put the values in the working formula:

30000(56) − 4050𝜋(3.197)
𝑦̅ = = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐦𝐦
30000 − 4050𝜋

Teaching and Learning Activities

Solve the following:
1. Find the center of gravity of a semicircular section having outer and inner
diameters of 200 mm and 160 mm respectively as shown in figure:

Ans: 57.5 mm

2. A body consists of a right circular solid cone of height 40 mm and radius 30 mm

placed on a solid hemisphere of radius 30 mm of the same material find the position
of the center of gravity of the body

Ans: 28.4 mm

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Online (asynchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, google classroom,
zoom, google meet, etc.

Remote (asynchronous)
module, activities, problems sets, etc.
Assessment Task

Solve the given problems:

1. An I section has the following dimensions in mm units. Top flange = 150 x 50
Bottom flange = 300 x100 Web = 300 x 50 Find the center of gravity (centroid).

2. A hemisphere of 60 mm diameter is placed on the top of the cylinder having 60

mm diameter. Find the center of gravity of the body from the base of the cylinder if its
height is 100 mm.

3. A circular hole of 50 mm diameter is cut out from a circular disc of 100 mm

diameter as shown in figure, find the center of gravity of the section.

References
6. Engineering Mechanics by Ferdinand L. Singer
7. Breer, Ferdinand P. and Johnston, E. Russel Jr., Mechanics for Engineers,
McGraw Hill, latest edition
8. Hibbeler, R.C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, , Amazon, 14th Edition
9. Other Physics and Engineering Mechanics Books
10. Mathematics and Allied Science Reviewers’ Books

Online:
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=125330