DCG2032 Surveying Computation

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SURVEY ADJUSTMENT

1.1 Understand the theory of survey adjustment

Measuring is core business for a surveyor. A surveyor is fully responsible to his measurement. A quality of
measurement always be a bench mark of good surveyor. As a human there is some lack of perfection but how
big the error must be taken into account by a surveyor.
The quality of measurement can be shown by errors, precision, accuracy, and residual. In order to achieve the
accepted error, residual, precision or accuracy some steps or work flow must be implemented as followed:
• Redundant measurement
• Calculation of Standard deviation [weight]
• Determination of Parameters [propagation]
 Error propagation calculation
 Basic of Computation [Matrix manipulation]
 LSE principle for adjustment process.

1.1.1 Explain the purpose of survey adjustment

All measurements have errors [random]

All survey measurements/observations are contaminated by errors. These can be random,
systematic or gross. Network adjustment theory generally operates under the assumption of
(normally distributed and uncorrelated) random errors.
With a well-constrained and well-over-determined network, it also offers a mechanism for
the identification of some systematic and gross errors.
It is useful to recall the difference between precision and accuracy.

Surveying measurements contain redundancy

In good surveying practice, multiple (i.e. redundant) measurements are used so that
estimates of accuracy and precision can be attributed to the derived coordinates, and to
allow gross error detection. However, if multiple measurements are made to determine the
position of a ground mark, multiple solutions for that position are possible. This is an artifact
of errors affecting an over-determined problem.
Each possible solution, when used alone, will be contaminated by errors.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to always analyse surveying data to determine, and remove
where possible, the errors. It is also necessary to combine the measurements to gain the
optimal estimate of the position and its error.
Essentially, a position is meaningless without an estimate of its error!

Redundant measurements produce inconsistent solutions/parameters

The redundancy offered by a good survey (e.g. a closed network of multiple observations)
allows for this analysis and optimal solution. For instance, a braced quadrilateral (the
simplest redundant network) allows for the analysis of gross errors through checks of
closure.

Require adjustment: for unique solution of parameters from redundant measurements (&
equations)
Once these errors are removed (provided that they are large), least-squares techniques can
be used to optimally estimate the positions and their errors by the minimization of a specific
norm. This generates optimal estimates of the coordinates and their errors (error ellipses or
regions of probability).

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 DCG2032 Surveying Computation

1.1.2 Explain the advantages of Least Square Adjustment

• Can be applied to any measurement problem in science or engineering

• Offers unique values for parameters i.e. does not depend on the P.O.B.
• Offers (statistically) best estimates for parameters based on available
measurements
• Any number/type of measurements, any network configuration can be adjusted
simultaneously
• A rigorous error analysis is possible
• Offers estimates of uncertainties of adjusted values

1.1.3 Explain the basic concepts of probability

A probability is a number that reflects the chance or likelihood that a particular

event will occur. Probabilities can be expressed as proportions that range from 0 to
1, and they can also be expressed as percentages ranging from 0% to 100%. A
probability of 0 indicates that there is no chance that a particular event will occur,
whereas a probability of 1 indicates that an event is certain to occur. A probability
of 0.45 (45%) indicates that there are 45 chances out of 100 of the event occurring.

1.1.4 Explain definition of:

a. Variance

The Variance is defined as:

The average of the squared differences from the Mean.

To calculate the variance follow these steps:

 Work out the Mean (the simple average of the numbers)

 Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the result (the squared
difference).
 Then work out the average of those squared differences. (Why Square?)

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 DCG2032 Surveying Computation

b. Most Probable Value

 Most probability density functions (PDFs) have a single peak. The value of x at
which they peak is the most probable value, or mode. This is the same as the
mean for symmetric PDFs, but they can be quite different for asymmetric ones.
 The most probable value is called mmax, and obeys
 Examples of when to use median vs. mean.
 For a set of measurements (sample distribution) that follows the Gaussian
(Normal) distribution, the mean and median are basically the same, so long
as the sample is large.
 However, the median is often preferred over the mean, as an estimate of
the true value, in the presence of outliers.
 Say we have a set of measurements x = 190. + randn (1,100); You can check
that the mean and median are nearly identical. Now say there was
nd
something wrong with the 42 measurement (x(42) = 300.;). Now the
median is nearly unchanged, but the mean is much higher.

c. Residual

 A residual is the difference in the observed value of the response variable

and the value predicted by the regression line.
 (how far the data fall from the regression line).
Residual = observed y – predicted y
Residual = y – ŷ

Residuals (errors) can only be determined if there are redundant measurements

d. Standard error

Standard error is a statistical term that measures the accuracy with which a sample
represents a population. In statistics, a sample mean deviates from the actual mean
of a population; this deviation is the standard error.

e. Standard deviaton

The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out numbers are. Its symbol is σ
(the greek letter sigma)

The formula is easy: it is the square root of the Variance. So now you ask, "What is the
Variance?"

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 DCG2032 Surveying Computation

f. Covariance

A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A
positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance
means returns move inversely.

One method of calculating covariance is by looking at return surprises (deviations from

expected return) in each scenario. Another method is to multiply the correlation
between the two variables by the standard deviation of each variable.

g. Correlation coefficient

The correlation coefficient is a measure of how closely two variables move in relation
to one another. If one variable goes up by a certain amount, the correlation coefficient
indicates which way the other variable moves and by how much.

1.2 Understand mathematical model

1.2.1 Describe functional model

Functional models are normally a non-linear problem. The number of

measurements must exceed the number of parameters [Over determined equation system].
E.g. the general equation of a straight line in slope-intercept form, y = mx + b, in which m and
b are parameters, is an example of a parametric equation. When values are assigned to the
parameters, such as the slope m = 2 and the y-intercept b = 3, and substitution is made, the
resulting equation, y = 2x + 3, is that of a specific straight line and is no longer parametric.
In surveying variables always defined by observations made is a structured
representation of the functions (activities, actions, processes, operations) within the
modeled system or subject area.

1.2.2 Describe stochastic model

Stochastic model: describes random/stochastic property of observations in the form of

weight [standard deviation] of observation. Controlling the weights of observations wil
control the correction to an observation.
Stochastic parameters behave like random variables if the experiment is repeated several
times under identical conditions.

• In deterministic models there are no randomness and the outcome is totally predictable

• Stochastic models include both deterministic and random (stochastic) components

 Statistical inference based on data — reverse engineering

– Based on stochastic models
– Trying to quantify the role of chance
– Any stochastic model can in principle be confronted with data
–

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 DCG2032 Surveying Computation

1.3 Understand accuracy versus precision

The terms precision and accuracy are constantly used in surveying and yet their meanings or
often misused or misunderstood. Precision is the degree of refinement in the method used to make a
measurement. In other words, it is the closeness to each other of a set of observations. Close
agreement of the observations (readings) means high precision and wide scatter in the data means
low precision. The degree of precision attainable is dependent on equipment sensitivity and observer
skill. In measuring distance, precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the measurement to the
distance measured and it is reduced to a fraction. If a distance of 4200 fi is measured and the error is
later estimated to equal 0.70 ft., the precision of the measurement is: 0.70/4200 = 1:6000= 1 part in
6000.

Accuracy is the degree of agreement or conformity with the true value. It refers to the
degree of perfection obtained in measurements. Accuracy is decided by conformity with a standard,
calibration of instruments, avoiding or removing mistakes, and by detecting and removing systematic
errors. In most cases, the true accuracy cannot be ascertained, but by careful analysis of the errors
consistent with the precision used, an estimate of the accuracy can be ascertained. So, precision
relates to the method of the measurement and the expression of the measured value, and accuracy
relates to the result.

There is a definite connection between random errors and precision (the lower the random
errors, the higher the precision); and between systematic errors and accuracy (reduction of
systematic errors increases accuracy).

Precision in a measurement is influenced by:

a. Care used in making a measurement.
b. Refinement of instrument construction.
c. Least count of the scale
d. Number of times the measurement is repeated.
e. All of the above

The diagram below clearly defined the manning the different between precision and accuracy.

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 DCG2032 Surveying Computation

1.3.1 Discuss the accuracy

Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value and the true value.
 Accuracy—How close the measurements are to the “true” value (note that we may
not always know the true value).

1.3.2 Discuss the precision

 Precision—How close repeated measurements are to each other. A measure of the

spread of data points.
 One can make measurements that are highly accurate (their mean is close to the
true value) even though they may not be very precise (large spread of
measurements). Conversely, on can make very precise measurements that are
not accurate.

1.4 Understand the types of errors

Errors—Deviations of measurements from the “true” value. Error here does not mean a
blunder! Also referred to as uncertainties.

1.4.1 Describe the gross error

Gross errors – blunders – mistakes

Examples (Cooper, 1974):

1. A tape reading of 38.23m may be recorded as 38.32m in the field book,

2. The thermometer may be misread
3. Measurement may be made between the wrong pegs

Characteristics - its magnitude is significantly very large or different in comparison to

the measured values

Sources – Personal errors (careless of the observer)

Effect – Inhomogeneous observables

In practice there are variety of ways that can be employed to reduced gross errors
(Mikhail, 1974)

1. Taking multiple reading and checking for reasonable consistency

2. Careful checking of both pointing and recording
3. Using simple and quick technique for verification
4. Applying logic and common sense
5. Checking and verifying the performance of equipment, particularly those with
automatic readout
6. Repeating the experiment with perhaps slightly different technique
7. Increasing redundancy of the observation used in a model

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 DCG2032 Surveying Computation

1.4.2 Describe the systematic error

Systematic or Cumulative Errors: A systematic or cumulative error is an error that,

under the same conditions, will always be of the same size and sign. A systematic error
always follows some definite mathematical or physical law and correction can be determined
and applied. Such errors are of constant character and are regarded as positive or negative
according as they make the result great or small. Their effect is, therefore, cumulative. For
example, if a tape is P cm short and if it is stretched N times, the total error in the
measurement of the length will be P´N cm.

The systematic errors may arise due to (i) variations of temperature, humidity,
pressure, current velocity, curvature, refraction, etc. and (ii) faulty setting or improper
leveling of any instrument and personal vision of an individual. The following are the
examples:

1. Faulty alignment of a line

2. An instrument is not leveled properly
3. An instrument is not adjusted properly

If undetected, systematic errors are very serious. Therefore, (1) all surveying
equipment must be designed and used so that, whenever possible, systematic errors will be
automatically eliminated, and (2) all systematic errors that cannot be surely eliminated by
this means must be evaluated and their relationship to the conditions that cause them must
be determined.

1.4.3 Describe the random error

Random error are those which have no apparent cause, but are a consequence of the
measurement process itself. All measurements have to be done to some limit of precision
and we cannot predict the exact measurement we will obtain. However, random errors have
very definite statistical behaviour and so can be dealt with by statistical methods. Random
errors are the small differences between repeated measurements of the same quantity,
often of the order of the finest division in the measuring scale. We can eliminate or minimize
the effects of random errors by statistical procedures: for example we can adopt the mean of
a set of measurements as the value to be used in later calculations. With the idea of the
ubiquity of errors in all our measurements and everything we do, we can now look at one
measurement process and see how errors affect it. We will begin by looking at linear
measurements, such as those we make with tapes and such equipment as EDM.

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