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Li 2010 Electrochem. Soc. Interface 19 41
Li 2010 Electrochem. Soc. Interface 19 41
Interface
M
odern agricultural manage- curves, which are known as a spectral with a 1 to 3-day temporal resolution,
ment relies strongly on signature, are unique to plant species a 1 pixel geolocation accuracy, 24-hour
many different sensing and conditions. product delivery time, and correction
methodologies to provide accurate The wavelengths measured in for atmospheric interference such as
information on crop, soil, climate, most agricultural applications cover dust, CO, CO2, ozone, etc.6
and environmental conditions. Almost the visible (400-700 nm) to near Over the past decades, sensor
every sensing technique may find an infrared (700-2500 nm) regions of the development for agriculture has
application in agriculture and the food electromagnetic spectrum.1 Research been driven largely by the stringent
industry. This paper briefly reviews has shown that spectral signatures in requirement of sensor resolution.6
some of the applications of sensors in this region offer a wealth of information Spatial resolution is largely determined
agriculture and the food industry. regarding physiological and biological by the type of sensor platform. Ground
properties of crops and soil.1,4,5 Special or aerial based sensor platforms can
Remote Spectral Sensing vegetation and crop indices have been easily meet the requirement of spatial
derived from the measured spectral resolution at the field scale, but they
Remote spectral sensing of crops has reflectance values for studying different are costly and labor consuming. On
been intensively investigated and proven agricultural properties.1,6 the other hand, space-based platforms
to be an important tool in modern Spectrometers, radiometers, or digital provide low spatial resolution and can
agricultural management. Agricultural cameras can be mounted on a variety of be affected by weather conditions,
remote spectral sensing typically refers platforms either ground (truck, tractor), such as clouds. The advantages and
to imagery taken from above a field aerial (aircraft), or space (satellite) to disadvantages of different sensor
where the incident electromagnetic gather data. Sequential measurements platforms have been summarized by
radiation is generally sunlight.1 When of small areas are made as the sensor Scotford et al.1
sunlight hits the surface of the crop platform moves and subsequent Remote spectral sensing has been
1.
or soil, the light will be reflected, processing assembles measurement applied to agriculture since the early
absorbed, or transmitted, depending results into an image.3 The remote 1960s. Conventional spectral sensors
on the wavelength of the light and the sensing is characterized by spatial used a multispectral imaging system, in
characteristics of the contacted body. resolution, spectral resolution, and which parallel sensor arrays measured
The differences in the physical and temporal resolution.1,3 Spatial resolution a small number (3-6) of spectral bands
2.
chemical properties of the contacted refers to the smallest area that can be within the visible to middle infrared
body, such as leaf color, texture, and distinguished in the image. Spatial region of the electromagnetic spectrum.2,7
shape, determine the amount of the resolution is directly related to the image Advances in hyperspectral imaging
reflected, absorbed, and transmitted pixel size. Spectral resolution refers to have led to improvements in spectral
energy of a specific wavelength. The the number and width of the portions of resolution over the past two decades.
most common remote sensing technique the electromagnetic spectrum measured Today, hyperspectral imaging systems
used in agriculture is spectral reflectance by the sensor. Temporal resolution can measure numerous (several
measurements, in which the spectral refers to how often a remote sensing hundred) very narrow contiguous
reflectance (the ratio of reflected energy platform can provide measurements spectral bands throughout the visible,
to incident energy) is measured as a of an area. Agriculture and farm near-infrared, mid-infrared, and thermal
function of wavelength.2,3 The images of management applications typically infrared portions of the electromagnetic
the wavelength-dependent reflectance require a spatial resolution of 2-5 m spectrum (Fig. 1).2,3,7,8 The high spectral
Fig. 1. The concept of hyperspectral imagery. Reflectance spectra measurements are made at many narrow contiguous wavelength bands, resulting in a
complete spectrum for each pixel.
Table I. Summary of literature on the use of phage as a bio-recognition element in various assays.
Quantum Dots Biotinylated phage and streptavidin conjugated quantum dot E. coli BL-21 111
Au-phage network Phage display technology to engineer display peptides specific to the target analyte Melanoma cells 112
SPR Affinity-selected phage-immobilized using physical adsorption/SAMs S. aureus 113-115
b-galactosidase
L. monocytogenes
Opto-fluidic ring resonator Phage display technology to engineer display peptides specific to the target analyte Streptavidin 116
QCM Phage display technology to engineer display peptides specific to the target analyte S. typhimurium 67,117
Affinity-selected phage-immobilized using physical adsorption
Magnetoelastic cantilever Phage display technology to engineer display peptides specific to the target analyte B. anthracis 85,118
Affinity-selected phage-immobilized using physical adsorption S. typhimurium
Magnetoelastic particle Phage display technology to engineer display peptides specific to the target analyte B. anthracis 77-81,88-90
resonators Affinity-selected phage-immobilized using physical adsorption S. typhimurium
E. Coli
Fig. 2. Principle of operation of a magnetoelastic (ME) biosensor. A driving coil generates a modulated magnetic field that drives the ME resonator into
vibrational resonance. Binding of the target bacteria to the resonator increases the mass of the resonator resulting in a decrease in resonance frequency.
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46 The Electrochemical Society Interface • Winter 2010