UNIVERSITY OF LUZON

Graduate School
DAGUPAN CITY

MASTER IN EDUCATION
MAJOR IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

SED 202(BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE) RESEARCH TASK B

1. What is chromosomal basis of inheritance?

In 1902 and 1903, Sutton and Boveri published independent papers

proposing what we now call the chromosome theory of inheritance. This theory
states that individual genes are found at specific locations on particular
chromosomes, and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis can explain
why genes are inherited according to Mendel’s laws.

Observations that support the chromosome theory of inheritance include:

• Chromosomes, like Mendel's genes, come in matched (homologous) pairs

in an organism. For both genes and chromosomes, one member of the pair
comes from the mother and one from the father.

• The members of a homologous pair separate in meiosis, so each sperm or

egg receives just one member. This process mirrors segregation of alleles
into gametes in Mendel's law of segregation.
 • The members of different chromosome pairs are sorted into gametes
independently of one another in meiosis, just like the alleles of different
genes in Mendel's law of independent assortment.

The chromosome theory of inheritance was proposed before there was any
direct evidence that traits were carried on chromosomes, and it was controversial
at first. In the end, it was confirmed through the work of geneticist Thomas Hunt
Morgan and his students, who studied the genetics of fruit flies.
Reference: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/heredity/chromosomal-inheritance-ap/a/discovery-of-the-chromosomal-
basis-of-inheritance

2. What law violates the chromosomal theory of inheritance?

The chromosomal theory of inheritance violated none of Mendel's laws as the

only difference was the genes being present in the chromosome, other than that
the laws are as they were.

3. Who proposed chromosomal inheritance class 12?

The chromosomal theory of inheritance was proposed by Sutton and Boveri in

1903 which states that genes are present on chromosomes and homologous
chromosomes separate during anaphase-I of meiosis resulting in segregation of
alleles of a gene controlling the contrasting traits.

4. What essential functions must animals perform to survive?

Like all organisms, animals must maintain homeostasis by gathering and

responding to information, obtaining and distributing oxygen and nutrients, and
collecting and eliminating carbon dioxide and other wastes. They also reproduce.

5. What are the typical types of symmetry exhibited by animals?

Certain animals, particularly most sponges and the ameboid protozoans,

lack symmetry, having either an irregular shape different for each individual or
else one undergoing constant changes of form. The vast majority of animals,
however, exhibit a definite symmetrical form. Four such patterns of symmetry
occur among animals: spherical, radial, biradial, and bilateral.

In spherical symmetry, illustrated only by the protozoan groups Radiolaria

and Heliozoia, the body has the shape of a sphere and the parts are arranged
concentrically around or radiate from the centre of the sphere. Such an animal
has no ends or sides, and any plane passing through the centre will divide the
animal into equivalent halves. The spherical type of symmetry is possible only in
minute animals of simple internal construction, since in spheres the interior
mass is large relative to the surface area and becomes too large for efficient
functioning with increase in size and complexity.

In radial symmetry the body has the general form of a short or long
cylinder or bowl, with a central axis from which the body parts radiate or along
which they are arranged in regular fashion. The main axis is heteropolar—i.e.,
with unlike ends, one of which bears the mouth and is termed the oral, or
anterior, end, and the other of which, called the aboral, or posterior, end, forms
the rear end of the animal and may bear the anus. The main axis is hence termed
the oral-aboral, or anteroposterior, axis. Except in animals having an odd
number of parts arranged in circular fashion (as in the five-armed sea stars), any
plane passing through this axis will divide the animal into symmetrical halves.
Animals having three, five, seven, etc., parts in a circle have symmetry that may
be referred to, respectively, as three-rayed, five-rayed, seven-rayed, etc.; only
certain planes through the axis will divide such animals into symmetrical halves.
Radial symmetry is found in the cnidarians (including jellyfish, sea anemones,
and coral) and echinoderms (such as sea urchins, brittle stars, and sea stars).

In biradial symmetry, in addition to the anteroposterior axis, there are also

two other axes or planes of symmetry at right angles to it and to each other: the
sagittal, or median vertical-longitudinal, and transverse, or cross, axes. Such an
animal therefore not only has two ends but also has two pairs of symmetrical
sides. There are but two planes of symmetry in a biradial animal, one passing
through the anteroposterior and sagittal axes and the other through the
anteroposterior and transverse axes. Biradial symmetry occurs in the comb
jellies.

In bilateral symmetry there are the same three axes as in biradial

symmetry but only one pair of symmetrical sides, the lateral sides, since the
other two sides, called the dorsal (back) and ventral (belly) surfaces, are unlike.
Thus, only one plane of symmetry will divide a bilateral animal into symmetrical
halves, the median longitudinal, or sagittal, plane. Bilateral symmetry is
characteristic of the vast majority of animals, including insects, fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and most crustaceans.
Reference:https://www.britannica.com/science/symmetry-biology

6. What are the three types of germ layers?

The 3 germ layers - the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the entoderm (endoderm):
are in place at the end of gastrulation.

• THE ECTODERM gives rise to the central nervous system (the brain and
spinal cord); the peripheral nervous system; the sensory epithelia of the
eye, ear, and nose; the epidermis and its appendages (the nails and hair);
the mammary glands; the hypophysis; the subcutaneous glands; and the
enamel of the teeth.
o Ectodermal development is called neurulation in regard to nervous
tissue.

• THE MESODERM gives rise to connective tissue, cartilage, and bone;

striated and smooth muscles; the heart walls, blood and lymph vessels
and cells; the kidneys; the gonads (ovaries and testes) and genital ducts;
the serous membranes lining the body cavities; the spleen; and the
suprarenal (adrenal) cortices.

• THE ENTODERM gives rise to the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal

and respiratory tracts; the parenchyma of the tonsils, the liver, the
thymus, the thyroid, the parathyroids, and the pancreas; the epithelial
lining of the urinary bladder and urethra; and the epithelial lining of the
tympanic cavity, tympanic antrum, and auditory tube.

o The entoderm development is simpler than that of either mesoderm

or ectoderm. It is a monocellular layer lining the yolk sac until
cephalocaudal flexion of the embryo takes place
▪ Flexion takes the embryo from a flat disk to its basic
embryonic body form. The primitive gut originates from
entoderm at the time of its flexion
▪ The yolk sac constricts, thus the intraembryonic entoderm
(future digestive tube) and the extraembryonic entoderm
(forms the inner lining of the yolk sac) are delineated
o Three major parts of the primitive gut are the foregut, the midgut, and
the hindgut (including the cloaca).
o The oropharyngeal (buccopharyngeal) and cloacal membranes
temporarily close the 2 ends of the primitive gut
▪ In humans, the buccopharyngeal membrane disappears at
the beginning of week 4
▪ The cloacal membrane lasts longer and at week 7, like the
cloaca, it divides into an anterior urogenital membrane and
posterior anal membrane, the latter being absorbed by week
9
Reference:https://discovery.lifemapsc.com/library/review-of-medical-embryology/chapter-25-germ-layers-
and-their-derivatives

7. What makes an organism truly multicellular?

 Multicellular organisms are composed of more than one cell, with groups
of cells differentiating to take on specialized functions. In humans, cells
differentiate early in development to become nerve cells, skin cells, muscle cells,
blood cells, and other types of cells. One can easily observe the differences in
these cells under a microscope. Their structure is related to their function,
meaning each type of cell takes on a particular form in order to best serve its
purpose. Nerve cells have appendages called dendrites and axons that connect
with other nerve cells to move muscles, send signals to glands, or register
sensory stimuli. Outer skin cells form flattened stacks that protect the body from
the environment. Muscle cells are slender fibers that bundle together for muscle
contraction.

The cells of multicellular organisms may also look different according to

the organelles needed inside of the cell. For example, muscle cells have more
mitochondria than most other cells so that they can readily produce energy for
movement; cells of the pancreas need to produce many proteins and have more
ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticula to meet this demand. Although all
cells have organelles in common, the number and types of organelles present
reveal how the cell functions.

Reference:https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/unicellular-vs-multicellular

8. Why are plants and animals important for carbon and oxygen in an
ecosystem?

Carbon dioxide and oxygen are two gases that are very important to life on Earth.
Carbon dioxide is found in the air. The cells of organisms, including cells: the
basic units of living things humans and other animals, also produce it. Carbon
dioxide is released from the body when organisms breathe out, or exhale. Plants
need carbon dioxide to make their own food, and they release oxygen in the
process.

Oxygen is also found in the air. Organisms like plants and green algae make
their own food. During this process, the organisms release oxygen into the air.
Many living things get oxygen from the air when they breathe in, or inhale.
Oxygen helps the body’s cells function normally.

The cycle of carbon dioxide and oxygen on Earth is dependent on plants

and animals. Plants provide the oxygen that animals and other living
things need to survive. Animals and other living things provide the carbon
dioxide that plants need to make their own food.

Reference:https://www.sunnyvaleisd.com/cms/lib3/TX01001155/Centricity/Domain/388/Oxygen.pdf

9. How does cancer relate to the cell cycle?

Cancer cells behave differently than normal cells in the body. Many of
these differences are related to cell division behavior.
 For example, cancer cells can multiply in culture (outside of the body in a
dish) without any growth factors, or growth-stimulating protein signals, being
added. This is different from normal cells, which need growth factors to grow in
culture. Cancer cells may make their own growth factors, have growth factor
pathways that are stuck in the "on" position, or, in the context of the body, even
trick neighboring cells into producing growth factors to sustain them.

Cancer cells also ignore signals that should cause them to stop dividing.
For instance, when normal cells grown in a dish are crowded by neighbors on all
sides, they will no longer divide. Cancer cells, in contrast, keep dividing and pile
on top of each other in lumpy layers.

The environment in a dish is different from the environment in the human

body, but scientists think that the loss of contact inhibition in plate-grown
cancer cells reflects the loss of a mechanism that normally maintains tissue
balance in the body.

Another hallmark of cancer cells is their "replicative immortality," a fancy

term for the fact that they can divide many more times than a normal cell of the
body. In general, human cells can go through only about 40-60 rounds of
division before they lose the capacity to divide, "grow old," and eventually
die^33cubed.
Cancer cells can divide many more times than this, largely because they express
an enzyme called telomerase, which reverses the wearing down of chromosome
ends that normally happens during each cell division.

Cancer cells are also different from normal cells in other ways that aren’t
directly cell cycle-related. These differences help them grow, divide, and form
tumors. For instance, cancer cells gain the ability to migrate to other parts of the
body, a process called metastasis, and to promote growth of new blood vessels,
a process called angiogenesis (which gives tumor cells a source of oxygen and
nutrients). Cancer cells also fail to undergo programmed cell death,
or apoptosis, under conditions when normal cells would (e.g., due to DNA
damage). In addition, emerging research shows that cancer cells may undergo
metabolic changes that support increased cell growth and division.

Reference:https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-cycle/regulation-of-cell-
cycle/a/cancer

10. How do feedback signals affect the cell cycle?

A "feedback signal" can either initiate or postpone the cell cycle.

It ensures that the cell is big and healthy enough to replicate, as well as that
sufficient nutrient and other resources are accessible. It ensures that the DNA
is appropriately replicated and that the cell is big and healthy enough to
proliferate. Enzymes are responsible for correcting any errors in DNA.

If the cell is too small, it will continue to expand until it achieves the
appropriate size. It ensures that the genetic material divides properly between
two daughter cells.

As a result, feedback mechanisms have the ability to either "initiate or

postpone the next phase of the cell cycle".

SUBMITTED BY:

BRYLLIE S. BAUTISTA, LPT

Med Student