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Sonic branding in sport: A model for communicating brand identity through

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Article  in  Sport Management Review · May 2014

DOI: 10.1016/j.smr.2014.03.001

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 Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 321–330

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sport Management Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/smr

Review

Sonic branding in sport: A model for communicating brand

identity through musical fit
Khalid Ballouli *, Bob Heere
Department of Sport and Entertainment Management, University of South Carolina, 701 Assembly Street, Carolina Coliseum, Suite 2026,
Columbia, SC 29208, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The psychological and sociological dynamics of sport participation and sport spectatorship
Received 10 June 2013 are presaged by and captured in the production and consumption of music. Yet, despite its
Received in revised form 26 February 2014 ubiquity in organized sport, as well as its widely acknowledged significance in our
Accepted 8 March 2014
contemporary social realities, few studies in sport marketing have examined the formative
Available online 6 May 2014
role of music in affecting sport consumer behaviour. As such, the field seemingly lacks
theoretical and methodological direction in dealing with music as a means of effective
Keywords:
marketing communication. Research is needed to inform academics and practitioners
Sport marketing
Sensory marketing about the appropriate use and potential outcomes of music in sport marketing contexts. In
Sonic branding this paper, the authors review current literature concerning the role of music in marketing
Consumer behaviour and propose a conceptual framework for analyzing music in various sport marketing
contexts using classical and modern theoretical approaches.
Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Sport Management Association of Australia
and New Zealand.

Over the last decade, it has become increasingly difficult for brands in the sport and entertainment industry to create and
sustain a competitive advantage due to media saturation and marketing clutter surrounding contemporary live events and
sponsorship (Burton & Chadwick, 2009). Moreover, the invasiveness of modern advertising in people’s everyday lives has
resulted in an overall negative perception of marketers among many consumers (Drumwright & Murphy, 2009; Obermiller,
Spangenberg, & MacLachlan, 2005). Such developments have resulted in an increased difficulty for sport teams to craft and
foster identification among sports fans (Pyun & James, 2011). In addition, the nature of branding has become more
sophisticated, shifting focus from various tangible aspects, such as name and logo, to intangible elements, like personality
and image (Aaker, 1996; Keller, 1998). As such, practitioners are now seeking ways in which to make stronger emotional
connections with consumers through highly developed forms of brand communication. Decades of research on visual brand
identities demonstrate how sophisticated marketers have become in this area (see Lindstrom, 2005). Yet, the way in which
people engage with the world around them involves all five senses (i.e., sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste), each of which
offers an opportunity for organisations to communicate with consumers. From a managerial perspective, Krishna (2012)
argues that marketing through the five senses might be used to create subconscious triggers that affect consumer
perceptions of abstract notions of the brand (e.g., sophistication or quality). Researchers in the field of sport consumer
behaviour have begun to unravel the importance of the five senses in the process of building an emotional bond with the

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 803 777 2560.

E-mail address: ballouli@sc.edu (K. Ballouli).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.03.001
1441-3523/Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand.
322 K. Ballouli, B. Heere / Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 321–330

brand (Lee, Heere, & Chung, 2013; Lee, Lee, Seo, & Green, 2012). According to Lee et al. (2012), there is a hypothesized
relationship between sport consumers’ sensory experience at sport events and their ‘‘sense of home,’’ yet it remains
uncertain how sport organisations can go about nurturing such feelings outside of providing a unique experience. Thus, in
order for sport marketers to understand this relationship, a deeper focus on each of these senses is warranted.
Music has long been a factor in the nature of the sport experience, spanning imaginary spectrums between high and low
cultures and between ancient and modern times (Bale & Bateman, 2009). Music has become a particularly integral part of the
sport consumer experience in recent years, with experiences ranging from the national anthem played before the start of
sport events in the United States, to ‘‘You’ll Never Walk Alone’’ by Gerry and the Pacemakers sang by Liverpool fans in
support of their team, to the performance of ‘‘Waltzing Matilda’’ by Australian poet Banjo Paterson played before every
Australian Football League (AFL) Grand Final match. Each of these songs has carved out a place in each country’s storied sport
history, yet it is more often the case that music played in sport settings does not have a lasting and fond impression on sport
consumers. This might be attributed to the fact that research on sensory marketing in sport environments has largely gone
without the attention of sport marketing researchers, and therefore, very little is known when it comes to using music
effectively to generate positive behaviours among sport consumers. Ballouli and Bennett (2012) argue that music in sport
contexts is typically selected randomly and without regard to whether the effects of the music played reinforce or contradict
brand identity and value propositions for the sport organisation. Just recently, the Cincinnati Bengals of the American
National Football League (NFL) thought it wise to play Katy Perry’s single titled ‘‘Roar’’ during the players’ pregame
introductions. Persons responsible for the selection of music played in the stadium presumably thought the linked
associations between the song’s lyrics and the nickname of the team, coupled with the celebrity of the music artist, would
enhance the game day experience of Bengals fans in attendance. These fans did not respond favourably, however, as they
expressed their displeasure through social media for days following the event (Harvey, 2013). This example points to the
primacy of focusing on music to ensure this marketing tool serves a role complementary to the brand identity of the sport
organisation.
The many and varied ways in which people create, perform, observe, and respond to music depends greatly on the
situations in which they do so. There is a plethora of research that explores music produced and consumed in sport by
spectators, athletes, and musicians. Much of this research comes from disciplines outside of sport management—primarily in
sport science, sport sociology, and cultural studies (see Bale & Bateman, 2009), where much of the literature settles on the
various uses of music to arouse and placate individuals who play organized sport. Karageorghis and Terry (1997) note how
unique musical elements and self-orchestration, such as folk singing, chanting, and ritualized clapping, have long been
present in European sport culture. There is an extensive literature in the area of sport sociology devoted to the mutual
relationship of ‘‘supporter’’ rock music with football clubs in European states (see Crawford, 2004; McLeod, 2006; Redhead,
1991; Rowe, 1995). These studies shed light on how certain songs and artists, based on a degree of homage, play an
important role in constructing a club’s supporter culture and in socializing its members. Similarly, Cronin (2007) describes
how music attached to local sport culture in Ireland has been used to strengthen a sense of community among Irish citizens
for centuries. Furthermore, research shows how music has helped shape cultural understanding of mediated sport with
regard to cricket in the West Indies (Midgett, 2003) and rugby in New Zealand (Crawford, 1985).
Although the current literature on the relationships between sport and music in the aforementioned disciplines provide
some diverse perspectives and rich historical accounts, few studies in sport marketing have assessed the role of music in
affecting sport consumer behaviour. In fact, much of the theoretical and empirical literature in sport marketing related to
music has been confined to variables present in the sport stadium atmosphere (e.g., Lee et al., 2012; Uhrich & Benkenstein,
2010). However, while there are some meaningful insights into the power of music to create a lively stadium atmosphere and
condition an emotional response from consumers during a sport event, the possibility that music might also play a key role in
helping distinguish brand identities among competing brands has been largely unexplored. Although playing ‘‘Sweet
Caroline’’ by Neil Diamond at Fenway Park is an enduring tradition for lifting the spirits of Major League Baseball (MLB) fans
who attend Boston Red Sox games (Borer, 2008), the song has become a staple across most MLB stadiums over the years. As
such, the song might no longer promote a sense of home in the way ‘‘I’m Shipping up to Boston’’ by Dropkick Murphys has
seemingly accomplished for Red Sox fans in recent years (Schrafft, 2008). Lee et al. (2012) argue that it takes more than
popularity to make music a contributing factor to sport consumers’ sense of home—it might be a combination of structural
components inherent to most music selections that leads to an overall positive music-brand association. The challenge for
sport marketers becomes finding music that not only galvanizes a conditioned response from the audience, but also
contributes to enhance the brand experience through fluent and expressive brand communication. For example, the
Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL adopted a song written and performed by rapper Wiz Khalifa during the NFL playoffs in
2010. Khalifa had become a popular rapper in the music industry in the months prior due primarily to his hit single titled
‘‘Black and Yellow.’’ Khalifa wrote the song as means of paying homage to his hometown of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, (US)
and the team colours of the city’s professional sport franchises, including the Pittsburgh Penguins (National Hockey League),
Pittsburgh Pirates (MLB), and Pittsburgh Steelers (NFL) (Krumboltz, 2011). Because the song featured a distinct and
dominant use of the phrase black and yellow throughout, it was a perfect selection for the Steelers since it all but eliminated
the chances other NFL teams would also use the song for their own marketing purposes. The motivation for this research was
largely based on a fast growing number of sport organisations using music in such new and innovative ways, therefore
strengthening the need for empirical and theoretical evaluation of subsequent effectiveness. The main purpose of this work
was to offer a conceptual framework for so-called ‘‘sonic branding’’ strategies that might assist sport marketers in using
 K. Ballouli, B. Heere / Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 321–330 323

music more effectively in brand communication. We propose a model for the functions of traditional and modern consumer
behaviour theories in this process.

1. Conceptual framework

1.1. Sonic branding

The application of music to create an atmosphere, as well as contribute positively to the brand experience of consumers, is
a rapidly developing field of study and practice referred to as sonic branding (Jackson, 2003; Lusensky, 2010). Jackson (2003)
describes sonic branding as the creative process of crafting an aural equivalent of the traditional graphic representation of
brand identity, in which brand attributes and values are synchronized into an audible form both distinct and recognizable to
the organisation. Combining sonic branding strategies with other commonly used marketing practices provides firms
unrealized potential to embed messages seamlessly at touch points where sound is a factor in the nature of the experience
(Treasure, 2011). According to Lusensky (2010), sonic branding can also create memorable brand experiences and lasting
brand impressions that are stronger than its visual counterpart. It is not surprising, then, that an increasing number of
organisations are developing innovative and integrative ‘‘sonic languages’’ designed to communicate messages across
various platforms (Brodsky, 2010; Jackson, 2003).
The most commonly developed forms of sonic branding include audio logos (e.g., Coca-Cola’s 5-note melody) and jingles
(e.g., McDonald’s ‘‘I’m Lovin’ It’’ theme), whereby marketers attempt to distill a multi-million dollar brand into a few snippets
of sound. One trend in the sport industry points towards a partnership between sport teams and music artists to tailor-fit
music that reflects the image and personality of the brand through style and lyrics. The result of this brand-artist
collaboration is a product known as ‘‘brand music’’ (Bronner & Hirt, 2009). An example of such brand-artist collaborations
would be when Polish sport officials gave national musicians an opportunity to write and record Poland’s official team song
for the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) EURO 2012 that was held on home soil. Polish sport fans were also
given the final say as to which artist submission would serve as the national team’s anthem during the event. There are many
other examples of sport properties that have worked with artists to create exclusive brand music, including sport
organisations (e.g., FIFA, NFL), broadcasting networks (e.g., ESPN, FoxSports), sport venues (e.g., Kentucky Derby, National
Baseball Hall of Fame), and sport sponsors (e.g., Pepsi, Gatorade). Each of these examples has collaborated with artists in
recent years to create original songs and albums devoted to the enhancement of brand identity among sport consumers.
While sonic branding as a field of research is still in its relative infancy, researchers agree that sonic branding enhances the
experiences consumers have with the brand (e.g., Bronner & Hirt, 2009; Jackson, 2003; Jackson, Jankovich, & Shenkop, 2013;
Lusensky, 2010; Treasure, 2011).
Brand music differs from these forms of sonic branding by using classic song pattern (i.e., verse and chorus), granting
marketers much more flexibility in its application (Treasure, 2011). Whereas audio logos and jingles are limited to
advertising, brand music lends itself to larger promotional opportunities, such as the alliance between Coca-Cola and
Somali-born rap artist K’naan during the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. With an effort to leverage its sponsorship of
the World Cup, Coca-Cola collaborated with K’naan to ‘‘remix’’ his song titled ‘‘Wavin Flag’’ to include an original verse that
prominently featured Coca-Cola’s five-note sonic logo (Prince, 2010). The result was brand music that became an identifiable
musical expression of Coca-Cola’s brand identity during the international mega-event, used widely by Coca-Cola across
multiple communication platforms.
As opposed to licensing music for mutually beneficial joint promotion, some U.S. sport organisations have begun to take a
more proactive approach to sonic branding in much the same manner, finding opportunities for artist-brand collaborations
(Ballouli & Hutchinson, 2013). For example, Gatorade recently worked with music producer David Banner to create a song
written and produced exclusively for the enhancement of the brand’s new ‘‘G Series.’’ This music-brand collaboration
resulted in an original brand song titled ‘‘Gatorade has Evolved,’’ which became the featured background music in Gatorade
commercials advertising the G Series. Further, The Ohio State University athletic department recently worked with popular
local music artists to create an entire 11-song album featuring original music with tailored song lyrics. Songs on the album
were written specifically for the Scarlet and Grey, and included titles like ‘‘Ohio On & On,’’ ‘‘Buckeye Land,’’ and ‘‘The Shoe.’’ In
2012, Pepsi and the NFL launched a national music campaign that featured original team anthems sung by Darius Rucker,
Kelly Clarkson, Kid Rock, and Ice Cube celebrating their hometown NFL teams. This new area in sport marketing seems to be
growing rapidly—however, there remains a dearth of empirical and theoretical evaluation of such methods used to reach
sport consumers. To add some clarity to the early beginnings of this discussion, we must first address the common
assumption that the mere popularity and likability of music can increase the presentation of almost any product message—
what Craton and Lantos call the ‘‘music as garnish assumption’’ (2011, p. 396). Based on our review of the literature, we offer
some important theoretical and conceptual groundwork that casts doubt on this assumption.

1.2. Music as a conditioned stimulus for emotional response

The affinity consumers have for music is quite remarkable (e.g., Hargreaves & North, 1997; North & Hargreaves, 2008).
According to Lusensky (2010), music is the form of media without which people would least like to live, and is the peripheral
aspect of marketing people view most positively. With respect to music, Merriam (1964) argues there is ‘‘no other human
324 K. Ballouli, B. Heere / Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 321–330

cultural activity which is so all-pervasive and which reaches into, shapes, and often controls so much of human behaviour’’
(p. 219). The possibilities for music to influence a wide range of consumer behaviours are thus quite high. In fact, music can
convey messages in abstract fashion (Scott, 1990), frame perceptions in advertising (Alpert & Alpert, 1989; Hung, 2001), and
prime desired beliefs about the brand (Lavack, Thakur, & Bottausci, 2008). Moreover, Hecker (1984) notes music used as a
marketing tool might attract attention, serve as a mnemonic cue, or create various emotional states. Scholars also describe
international differences in the role music plays in marketing (Taylor & Johnson, 2002), and discuss the ability for different
types of music to appeal to varied age groups (Scott, 2002). Much like a visual image, an audio fragment can elicit recall
(Olsen & Johnson, 2002; Wallace, 1991; Yalch, 1991), arouse emotions (Alpert, Alpert, & Maltz, 2005; Bruner, 1990; Morris &
Boone, 1998; Oakes & North, 2008), and affect behaviours (North, Hargreaves, & McKendrick, 1999; Yalch & Spangenberg,
1990). It is thus not surprising to consider that music is one of the most commonly investigated variables in consumer
research (Turley & Milliman, 2000), as well as a leading consideration and expense in practice (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1993).
Until recently, the understanding of how and why marketers make such extensive use of music in their communications
with consumers has been supported by classical conditioning theory in the field of environmental psychology and social
psychology (e.g., Blair & Shimp, 1992; Gorn, 1982; North & Hargreaves, 2008; Tom, 1995).
Based on theoretical principles of classical conditioning, people respond favourably to music for which they have a
particular penchant (see Bruner, 1990; Gorn, 1982). Zander (2006) defined classical conditioning with respect to music as
‘‘pairing a product with a well liked piece of music to produce an association between the two, and therefore a preference for
the product’’ (p. 466). Gorn’s (1982) regularly referenced conditioning study illustrated the phenomenon well, exhibiting a
conditioned reaction to product selection by pairing two different coloured pens with either liked music (from the movie
Grease) or disliked music (Indian classical music). His study participants were told they could take one of the two pens home
with them as a reward for their involvement in the study. Results showed that 79 percent chose to keep the pen paired with
liked music rather than keep the pen paired with disliked music. These effects are widely replicated (Blair & Shimp, 1992;
Gorn, Goldberg, & Basu, 1993; Gorn, Pham, & Sin, 2001; Groenland & Schoormans, 1994; Tom, 1995), thereby suggesting
music in consumer settings (e.g., television advertisement, retail store) that was liked or popular had positive effects on
consumer attitudes and behaviours. Similarly, music that was disliked or unpopular led to unfavourable consumer behaviour
in all of these studies. Based on a common understanding that popularity and likability affect listeners’ mood states, we
present a traditional model for applying music to marketing that illustrates how classical conditioning utilizes these
constructs as moderators in the music-mood relationship (see Fig. 1). In this model, we show how the basic elements of
music’s popularity and likability have been used in previous years as a way of judging whether music will influence
consumer behaviour in the way of mood states and emotions.
While many scholars have replicated conditioning studies over the years, there are some researchers who raise concerns
about the limitations of this research. Olsen and Pracejus (2004) argue that the majority of these studies do not address the
level of involvement a person has with a given object. Classic conditioning is a theory that links music with a neutral object,
something towards which consumers do not have an existing attitude. As such, music becomes a backdrop element in the
consumer setting and is only effective in priming certain mood states so long as it is likable and popular among listeners
(Bruner, 1990). Sport marketers operate in an environment where the marketed objects (i.e., sport, team, other points of
attachment) generally attract strong feelings and attitudes from consumers (Kwon, Trail, & Anderson, 2006). Thus, these
consumers might be more inclined to pay conscious attention to and critically evaluate a sensory experience in the consumer
setting (North & Hargreaves, 2008). This perhaps may explain why the Bengals fans in the aforementioned example objected
to the playing of Katy Perry’s ‘‘Roar’’ during player introductions—their feelings towards the Bengals and involvement with
the sport of football (US) were likely so great that they were inherently engrossed in the evaluative process of marketers’
decision to feature the popular song in the stadium. To this end, certain types of music may be useful for highly involved
consumers who are more actively focused on processing stimuli in consumer settings. MacInnis and Park (1991) confirmed,
for such highly involved consumers, that music perceived as a ‘‘fit’’ or ‘‘congruent’’ with other marketing aspects was more
effective because it corresponded with the consumers’ subjective perceptions of the music’s relevance or appropriateness to
the brand’s message. Further, these authors found music that did not fit was equally ineffective and had adverse outcomes. In

Popularity

Music Mood States

Likability

Fig. 1. Classic conditioning method by which song popularity and song likability moderate the music-mood relationship.
 K. Ballouli, B. Heere / Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 321–330 325

contrast to the classical conditioning approach that focuses on the capability of music to elicit an emotional response to
marketing, the concept of ‘‘musical fit’’ concerns music’s power to convey information with regard to brand identity.

1.3. Musical fit as a medium for brand identity

While music as a marketing tool has become increasingly prevalent in recent years, relatively few researchers have
explored the concept of musical fit. MacInnis and Park (1991) define musical fit as the perceived congruence between music
and a product, message, or brand that leads to improved responses in consumer behaviour. Zander (2006) examined musical
fit in commercial advertising and found congruent music helped study participants differentiate brand image. North,
Hargreaves, MacKenzie, and Law (2004) also examined musical fit in advertising and found individuals had more favourable
evaluations of the advertisement and responded more positively when background music was perceived to fit with other
advertisement features. Oakes (2007) discovered musical fit could be measured for different structural elements of music,
such as genre, score, image, and tempo, all contributed to communication effectiveness by enhancing affective response, and
behavioural intentions. Yet, while these advances shed light on musical fit and its moderating effect in the aforementioned
music-mood relationship (i.e., musical fit is used to produce emotions congruent with the brand’s symbolic meaning), we
argue that musical fit is also a mediating factor in the music-brand identity relationship. That is, when aspects of musical fit
are congruent with a brand’s value proposition, music can be used effectively in the formation of brand image and brand
identity among listeners. Specifically, we propose that the following three aspects are the main contributors to musical fit in
this relationship: genre (Areni & Kim, 1993; Yeoh & North, 2010), lyrics (Chebat, Chebat, & Vaillant, 2001; Kellaris & Kent,
1991), and voice (North et al., 2004; Zander, 2006). While each of these components have been reviewed individually in a
diversity of research settings, their usage within discussions of brand identify formation has been fragmented (see Fig. 2).

1.3.1. How genre affects musical fit via conceptual fluency

Conceptual fluency represents the ease with which one processes the meaning of a stimulus, or the fluency of
conceptually driven processing (Whittlesea, 1993). Pragmatically, conceptual fluency theory suggests certain stimuli enrich
concept recognition and processing more effectively when they are applied to an appropriate and corresponding context
setting (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). For example, Lee and Labroo (2004) conducted a series of experiments to assess how
conceptual fluency impacts the ease with which people recognize and process the target of a brand. These researchers found
when a target comes to mind readily and becomes conceptually fluent, as when it is presented in a predictive context (e.g., a
recovery drink featured in a weightlifting advertisement) or when it is primed by a related construct (e.g., an image of a
marathon race in a store for running shoes), people experience more favourable attitudes towards the target. Lee and Labroo
attributed these processing-fluency effects to positive valence of concepts in the marketing scenarios. Further, when
conceptual fluency was associated with negative valence (e.g., diet supplements coupled with an image of a cake), the
authors observed less favourable overall attitudes towards the target.
Conceptual fluency is the result of high-level associations linked to a stimulus (Shapiro, 1999; Whittlesea, 1993);
therefore, it might be assumed that sonic branding strategies, whereby music genre embodies the attributes and image of the

Popularity Likability

Music Mood States

Musical Fit Brand Identity

Genre Lyrics Voice

Fig. 2. Modern sonic branding method by which musical fit mediates the music-brand identity relationship.
326 K. Ballouli, B. Heere / Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 321–330

brand, may ease consumer processing of stimuli in marketing communications and play a key role in priming desired
concepts intended by marketers. For instance, consumers may expect to hear pop music played in the background of a young
women’s fashion retail store, but they might not expect to hear the same genre of music played in the backdrop of a men’s
tuxedo department. Thus, the use of music featuring brand-related associations should influence a greater degree of
conceptual fluency than music lacking these qualities, thereby easing consumers’ processing of atmospheric stimuli. Areni
and Kim (1993) examined how perceptions of musical fit in buying environments affected purchase decisions and focused on
the concept of genre. These authors found classical music played in the background of a wine cellar led consumers to
purchase significantly more expensive wine than did Billboard Top 40 music. They concluded the attributes associated with
classical music were more fitting of the attributes salient to expensive wine. These advances demonstrate the potential for
music genre to highlight product attributes and store qualities to the extent that effectively prime consumers’ product
selection. This research points to the importance of choosing a genre of music that fits seamlessly into the service
environment; otherwise, adverse thinking about the brand may arise.

1.3.2. How lyrics affect musical fit via semantic relevance

To date, there is little attention paid within marketing literature to the potential effects of the second component of
musical fit: song lyrics. According to Shapiro (1999), the degree of conceptual fluency is heightened when semantic
associations related to a stimulus are expected and foreseen. That is, certain words or phrases enhance an individual’s overall
recognition and processing of a targeted concept when they are congruent and foreseeable in a context setting. The concept
‘‘boat,’’ for example, can be identified easier when arranged in a foreseeable context (e.g., ‘‘the stormy seas tossed the boat’’)
as opposed to an unforeseeable context (e.g., ‘‘he saved his money and bought a boat’’) (Shapiro, 1999). Sartori and Lombardi
(2004) advanced this principle and introduced a theory of semantic relevance that considers the extent to which a ‘‘semantic
feature’’ (i.e., a word or phrase) eases the processing of a concept for individuals. The main claim of semantic relevance is that
certain semantic features are considered more important in relaying conceptual information. To illustrate this basic
principle, consider the phrase has two humps. This phrase serves as a highly relevant semantic feature for the concept
‘‘camel’’ since most people use it to define camel, whereas very few use the same phrase to define other concepts. The phrase
has four legs, on the other hand, is a semantic feature with lower relevance for the same concept because few individuals use
it in the definition of camel while using it in describing many other concepts (Sartori & Lombardi, 2004). Thus, one concept
might consist of countless semantic features, but only a few are truly useful in identifying the concept before other closely
related concepts. According to semantic relevance theory, in order for a semantic feature to be useful in concept retrieval, the
semantic relevance for the feature must exhibit high scores of dominance and distinctiveness. Semantic features scoring
high on dominance are features cited regularly in defining a specific concept, whereas semantic features that score high on
distinctiveness are features seldom cited in defining different concepts. Based on semantic relevance assumptions, semantic
features that exhibit high scores on both components are likely to facilitate communication with greater efficiency.
Hecker (1984) suggests that music can play a primary role in the task of presupposing brand meaning and communicating
messages, and thus should not be examined remote from the semantic meanings that accompany all non-instrumental
musical selections. Furthermore, Meyer (1956, 1973) argues that researchers should conceptualize music in consumer
studies with regard for semantic content in order to accurately portray how non-instrumental selections are heard in
consumer settings and service environments. Though instrumental pieces of music are commonly used in consumer settings
and affect consumer behaviour through various structural elements such genre or tempo (e.g., Kellaris & Kent, 1991), music
in sport consumer settings often has song lyrics as a main structural component. According to Yeoh and North (2010), the
weight of semantic relevance with regard to song lyrics in consumer settings is underpinned by the concept of spreading
activation (e.g., Collins & Loftus, 1975). Spreading activation is assumed to work in a memory network consisting of a set of
interconnected nodes, with each node representing a concept (McKoon & Ratcliff, 1992). The speed of activation given to
nearby nodes (concepts) is a function of distance and strength between them and the input concept. For example, athletes in
the context of sports evoke a different set of information than athletes in the context of drugs, or athletes in the context of
charity—the activation of one node primes a network of interconnected semantic nodes and the spread of activation to all
other related semantic nodes (Collins & Loftus, 1975). Yeoh and North (2010) applied this principle to demonstrate how
certain pieces of music can activate related concepts concerning specific products, thus improving the ability to recall these
products relative to other unrelated products. Similarly, Grimes (2008) demonstrated how music in advertisements prompts
activation of concepts in memory, thereby eliciting activation of knowledge structures associated with the brand. Each
concept is a fundamental part of many networks, and thus represents a gateway for associating an immense sum of
information to the brand (Grimes, 2008). While these studies shed some light on the potential for lyrics in music to prime
desired beliefs about a brand via theories of semantic relevance and spreading activation, understanding the theoretical
perspectives of source credibility helps to inform our review of literature on musical fit and the importance of voice in the
music-brand identity relationship.

1.3.3. How voice affects musical fit via source credibility

Just as non-instrumental selections of music feature genres and lyrics capable of carrying with them wider nonmusical
connotations (North et al., 2004), there is also the factor of voice that might also carry meaning beyond that of simply being
the channel through which music is presented. Voice fit effects have generally been studied in the context of spoken word
advertisements, whereby researchers found differences in the speaker’s accent (Cargile & Giles, 1997), formality (Levin,
 K. Ballouli, B. Heere / Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 321–330 327

Giles, & Garrett, 1994), and age (Mulac & Giles, 1996) affected listeners differently, even if the message was unaltered. North
et al. (2004) investigated voice fit in radio advertisements and found that individuals recalled more from advertisements,
expressed more positive feelings towards the advertisement, and reported a greater likelihood of purchasing the product
when the speaker’s voice fit the advertised brands. For example, when a sports drink advertisement was presented to study
participants, a speaker’s voice that exhibited vibrant, energetic, and dynamic personas was perceived as being the most
appropriate fit (North et al., 2004). Moreover, when a banking advertisement was presented, a speaker’s reputable,
established, and trustworthy voice was considered the best fit. As a result, North et al. (2004, p. 1699) argued voice fit
‘‘increased the activation of related mental concepts and, as such, this provides concrete evidence of the neural network-
based approach to fit’’—the same premise we argued for earlier in our discussions on lyrics and musical fit. However, there
are key differences between voice used in advertising and voice used in music worth discussion.
One major consideration worth discussion is the fact that entertainers behind the music played in sport settings are often
recognizable or familiar to sport consumers. In these instances, any preconceived ideas and related mental concepts sport
consumers have about the artist likely become important factors in determining whether the music has a positive or
negative effect on their attitudes and behaviours. Although the genre and lyrics of the aforementioned song ‘‘Roar’’ were by
most accounts a good fit for the Bengals, the fact that Katy Perry was the voice behind the song likely prompted the discord
with fans because she did not fit the brand image of the Bengals organisation and its fan base. Further, because Dropkick
Murphys is a well-respected and popular band in Boston, Massachusetts (US) (the lead singer is a Boston firefighter), them
being the source of voice for the music prominently used by Boston’s professional sport teams (e.g., ‘‘Shipping up to Boston’’
by the Boston Red Sox and ‘‘Time to Go’’ by the Boston Bruins) may be viewed as credible and trustworthy by these Boston
sports fans. Hence, the influence of music in sport marketing might be more positively pronounced when the music artist is
viewed as being ‘‘part of the team.’’ Music in sport settings may also be negatively pronounced when it features an artist who
is perceived as lacking credibility and trustworthiness in this regard.
Research on source credibility and celebrity endorsement tells us much about what to expect from brand music in sport
settings. For example, McCracken (1989) found that celebrity endorsements succeed only when the aspects of the celebrity
endorser’s meaning (e.g., class, age, gender, personality, lifestyle) are positively associated with the meaning consumers
attach to the advertised product. That is, based on what McCracken (1989) called ‘‘meaning-transfer theory,’’ celebrity
endorsers who share some resemblance to the advertised product will be perceived as credible and trustworthy, therefore
leading to an overall more efficient form of communication. Research on source credibility also conveys how the degree of
similarity between endorser and product influences consumers differently (see Hovland & Weiss, 1951; Sternthal, Dholakia,
& Leavitt, 1978). In addition, Jackson (2008) found certain musical artists were more effective in influencing the political
opinions of people prior to a U.S. presidential election. He found that musical artists who were perceived as having a long-
term commitment to politics and activism (e.g., Zach de la Rocha of Rage Against the Machine and Bono of U2) were more
influential in reinforcing or altering one’s perceptions of different U.S. political parties. Furthermore, Jackson (2008) argued
that had a similar political position been endorsed by someone like Justin Bieber, a pop star not known for his political
activism, it may have resonated less with audiences. What is perhaps most intriguing in our case is that source familiarity
and source likeability have been found to carry less weight than source credibility when product and the endorser are not a
good fit (Baker & Churchill, 1977)—a position that we propose overlaps into voice effects in music.

2. Discussion

Based on our review of literature, it is reasonable to suppose brand music—consisting of tightly linked brand
associations—will come to mind more readily and will be easier to process in brand-related contexts, thus leading to
improved processing of brand communication among consumers. Grimes (2008) argues consumers’ processing of marketing
stimuli in such instances might be ‘‘enhanced by the inclusion of context information that facilitates identification of the
brand, and therefore increases the likelihood of associations being activated in memory’’ (p. 79). Researchers also suggest
semantic representations of a brand applied in the aural form can also produce more favourable attitudes and responses
among consumers (e.g., Westermann, 2008). Since brand music is a communication tool consisting of aural representations
of the brand, one would be inclined to postulate an important role for brand music in marketing strategy. We can therefore
argue that lyrics might be an element important to the study and application of musical fit together with genre (Areni & Kim,
1993; Yeoh & North, 2010) and voice (North et al., 2004; Zander, 2006). As such, we extend the classical conditioning model
depicted earlier and have proposed a new model for applying music to marketing strategy and brand communication.
This new sonic branding method illustrates how musical fit, in conjunction with music popularity and likability,
moderates the music-mood relationship such that mood states will be enhanced in the event music is experienced under
congruent conditions. That is, the relationship between the independent variable (music) and the dependent variable (mood
states) is altered by the degree to which the music is popular, liked by others, and fitting. In addition, this model also
illustrates how musical fit mediates the music-brand identity relationship—music might improve brand identity through the
mediating mechanism of musical fit when the music genre, lyrics, and voice match the expectations and perceptions
consumers have about the brand.
Our proposed model provides the first focused and effective application of music in sport settings, and explains how fit is
an important factor in affecting the sport consumer’s mood states and brand perceptions at touch points where music is a
primary factor in the nature of the sport consumer experience. There are many touch points where music may influence
328 K. Ballouli, B. Heere / Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 321–330

sport consumers (e.g., retail stores, commercial advertisements, sponsored entertainment events); yet, the sport stadium
seems to be one where music influences spectator behaviour the most. In fact, the sport marketing literature is replete with
research that suggests the stadium atmosphere is a foremost reason why people attend sport events (e.g., Bauer, Sauer, &
Exler, 2005; Holt, 1995). Stadium atmosphere can be controlled to produce specific emotional and behavioural responses in
sport consumers, and thereby exert a considerable influence on relevant marketing variables, such as length of the visit
(Donovan & Rossiter, 1982), revisit intention (Babin & Attaway, 2000), and perceived pleasure (Baker, Levy, & Grewal, 1992;
Spies, Hesse, & Loesch, 1997; Tai & Fung, 1997). Wimbledon, for example, is most notably perceived by avid sport consumers
to have an image of lavishness, a high level of customer service, and a high quality of merchandise (Chalip & Costa, 2005).
These common perceptions exist mainly due to the immaculate playing surface, all-white clothing requirements of the
players, trademark celebrity attendees, and the extravagant trophies. Despite some previous calls for research in this area
more than a decade ago (Kelley & Turley, 2001), our understanding of sport stadium atmosphere is still at a rudimentary
stage, as it still remains unclear how atmospheric variables such as music in the live sport event affect sport consumer
behaviour (Lee et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2012). Because music is such a dominant sport stadium feature during most individual
and team sporting events (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010), there is a need for empirical studies evaluating the ways in which
sport marketers can effectively use music to influence sport consumers behaviour. How do baseball players’ ‘‘walk-up’’ songs
affect baseball fans in attendance? How does the spectacle of a boxer’s introduction to the ring affect the experience of
boxing fans? What effect does having live entertainment before, during, or after an event enhance sport spectators’
experience?
Research exploring the effects of music in various other disciplines abounds; however, the ubiquity of music as a brand
communication tool in amateur and professional sport has not fully been considered. In fact, despite the prevalent use of
music by amateur and professional sport organisations, sport marketing academicians have largely ignored music as a
means for effective brand communication. This void in our literature is significant given how seemingly important the study
of music effects is in practice and parent disciplines based on examples and studies reviewed above. We believe the lack of
attention paid to music effects in sport marketing literature can be explained by simple economic theory—the value of
anything is a function of the limitations of its supply (DiClemente & Hantula, 2003). Due to the almost automated application
of music in sport settings, it is presumably too often regarded as trivial, easy to use, or cheap to consider. Either way,
academicians in the field sport marketing seemingly are without practical, theoretical, and methodological direction
explaining how to deal with music as a quality means of brand communication. According to Areni (2003a, 2003b),
understanding the role of music in the brand experience is indispensible in today’s marketplace as it may provide a
mechanism for improving overall brand communication and marketing strategy. It is therefore important studies be
undertaken in this area so that sport marketing academicians and practitioners might come to consider music as a potential
key component to successful marketing strategy.
For example, as the line between sport and entertainment continues to blur, researchers are encouraged to consider some
of the aforementioned sonic branding efforts in terms of branding benefits garnered by music artists. Sport teams and sport
businesses provide unique distribution channels through which a music artist can increase exposure. As such, these outlets
provide an alternative means to enhance an artist’s popularity and potentially increase sales of artist-related products and
services. Sport teams generally compete in large venues in front of hundreds of thousands of people for the better part of a
year, the kind of audience to which most artists are hardly ever exposed. In addition, sport teams have the financial resources
to push aggressive marketing strategies of such projects. For instance, the Atlanta Falcons of the NFL just recently partnered
with local music artist Sevendust to create an original song, titled ‘‘Falcons on Top,’’ and music video to be played behind
video board advertising and promotions in the Georgia Dome in the months leading up to and during the NFL season. Such
mass-advertising methods and exclusive access are expensive and relatively uncommon in the music industry. Yet, because
the Falcons were willing to front the bill, Sevendust was able to reap the benefits of such mass exposure in the local market.
Future researchers should examine sport consumers’ opinions of artists featured in this rapidly growing brand music, and
how perceptions of musical fit affect these opinions. In addition, and perhaps more timely, empirical testing of our model
presented here using different methods and paradigms would shed some lights on sonic branding in sport. Contributions
from both qualitative and quantitative research are necessary in order to underpin effects of music on sport consumer
behaviour. Furthermore, research is needed across different sports and cultures as the significance and impact of music may
differ in various sport contexts.

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