EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS, VOL.

16,499-511 (1991)

BEDLOAD TRANSPORT PROCESSES I N A BRAIDED GRAVEL-BED

RIVER MODEL
W. J. YOUNG
Centre for Environmental Applied Hydrology, University of Melbourne. Australia
AND
T. R. H. DAVIES
Department of Natural Resources Engineering, Lincoln University, New Zealand

Received 20 August 1990

Revised 22 January 1991

ABSTRACT
A 1:SO scale hydraulic model was designed, based on Froude number similarity and using hydrological and sediment
data from a small braided gravel-bed river (the North Branch of the Ashburton River, Canterbury, New Zealand).
Eighteen experiments were conducted; seven using steady flows, and eleven using unsteady flows. The experiments were
carried out in a 20 m x 3 m tilting flume equipped with a continuous sediment feed and an automated data acquisition
and control sy’stem. In all experiments water at 30°C was used to reduce viscosity-related scale effects.
Analyses of the experimental data revealed that bedload transport rates in braided channels are highly variable, with
relative variability being inversely related to mean bedload transport rate. Variability was also found to be cyclic with
short-term variations being caused by the migration of bedforms.
Bedload transport was found to be more efficient under steady flow than under unsteady flow, and it was postulated
that this is caused by a tendency for channel form to evolve towards a condition which maximizes bedload transport for
the occurring flow. Average bedload transport rate was found to vary with channel form, although insufficient
measurements were made to define a relationship.

KEY WORDS Bedload transport Braided rivers Hydraulic models Steady flow Unsteady flow

INTRODUCTION
Although the transport of sediment by rivers has been studied extensively throughout this century, the
majority of this research has been concerned with the transport of sand-sized material. In the last two
decades the growing pressures on upland regions in both developed and developing nations has seen a
marked increase in the interest of sediment transport in gravel-bed rivers (e.g. Hey et al., 1982; Thorne et al.,
1987).The results that have emerged are frequently contradictory, and there is therefore still a high degree of
uncertainty involved in sediment transport predictions and river development impact assessments for such
rivers. River developments often include irrigation and hydroelectric schemes, both of which cause significant
modifications to a river’s flow regime, with resultant changes in the sediment transport regime. It is therefore
important to be able to predict the changes in sediment transport capacity of gravel-bed rivers, which result
from flow regime modifications. This study was restricted to investigating the impacts of flow abstractions
from braided gravel-bed rivers. This was achieved by conducting a series of experiments to investigate the
relationship between stream power and bedload transport (BLT) in self-formed braided channel systems.
The quantitative results of this study dealing with the BLT rate predictions and the effects of flow
abstractions are reported elsewhere (Young, 1990).The qualitative results of these experiments form the basis

0 197-93 3719 1/06O499-13$06.50

0 1991 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
500 W. J. YOUNG AND T. R. H. DAVIES

of this paper, and reveal much about the nature of BLT processes in braided rivers, particularly regarding
variability of BLT in braided rivers.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The experiments were carried out in a 20 m x 3 m x 0 3 m tilting flume, housed at the Soil and Water
Laboratory of the Department of Natural Resources Engineering, Lincoln University, New Zealand. The
flume used a water recirculation system and a dry sediment feed device. Heating elements in the return tank
allowed heated water to be used. A valve in the water feed line positioned by a stepping-motor provided flow
rate control. Outflow from the flume was into a sediment collection drum suspended from a 350 kg load cell,
which was calibrated to & 50 g under static (steady flow) conditions. Flow control and BLT data collection
were automated using a data acquisition and control device linked to a microcomputer.
The design of mobile-bed models is based on ensuring that flow in the model is rough-turbulent (as in the
prototype), and that Froude similarity is achieved (Yalin, 1971). In this manner full dynamic similarity is
reasonably approximated. Using a value of 70 as the lower limit for rough-turbulent flow, the following
expression for the length scale I , can be derived:

where u* = shear velocity, D = grain size, v = kinematic viscosity and the subscript ‘p’ denotes proto-
type values. Using typical prototype values in this equation (slope S = 0.0115, depth d = 0.4 m, and
D,, = 150 mm), and employing this D,, grain size as representative of the bed roughness in the calcu-
lation of prototype shear velocity, gave 1,= 0.02 thus indicating a scale of 1 :50 as being the optimum
obtainable.
Using a 1 : 50 scale ratio the model bed material was selected. Various sand size-ranges were sieved,
weighed, and mixed to obtain a grain size distribution very close to the scaled prototype curve (Figure 1). To
avoid the introduction of cohesive material into the model, prototype sand sizes were not modelled. Both the
mineral and bulk densities of the model sediment were similar to the prototype values.
The experimental programme consisted of two series of experiments, one using steady flow conditions, the
other using unsteady flow conditions (Figure 2). All experimental runs were started from an initial
rectangular channel of 1.1 m x 0.025 m cross-section. For all experiments the sediment feed rate was selected
to ensure that the system was neither overloaded nor supply-limited. The sediment feed rate was therefore
adjusted to maintain a constant bed level at the head of the channel, and since the bed level was also fixed at
the flume outlet, the system operated at a constant average channel slope. The independent variables for the
system were therefore the grain sizes (D), the flow rates (Q),and the overall channel slope (S). With Q and S as
independent variables the flume system is comparable to a natural river channel in the short-term, where
channel slope does not have time to adjust to rapid fluctuations in discharge (Davies and Sutherland, 1983).
This means that the model is limited to predicting river behaviour in the short-term.
For the steady flow experiments that were conducted, three different flows were used, corresponding to
above-threshold exceedence values of 58 per cent, 42 per cent, and 18 per cent. Above-threshold exceedence
values are obtained from inspection of the above-threshold flow series; these being those flows capable of
moving bedload. The exceedence value of a particular flow within the series gives the percentage of time that
this flow is equalled or exceeded. Hence for instance, the flow for Run A20 (Figure 2) was scaled from the
prototype flow that is exceeded by only 18 per cent of all bedload moving flows.
For the unsteady flow experiments a hydrograph series was designed consisting of ten hydrographs of
identical shape (Figure 3), but of different time-bases chosen so that the resultant flow duration curve
matched the scaled above-threshold flow duration curve of the prototype as closely as possible (Figure 4).
Hydrograph duration ranged from 5.6 minutes to 21.8 minutes. Hydrograph shape was based on inspection
 BEDLOAD TRANSPORT PROCESSES 50 1

100

80

x
0

2 60
!
I&
I
.-
.-$
n
3 40
uE,

20

0
.1 1 10
Grain Size (mm)

Figure 1. Grain size distribution

KUN CONDITONS

5
STEADY FLOW UNSTEADY FLOW

r-5
, +L- ,
S = 1.15% S=l 4% S = 0.74% S = 1.15%
I I
Kejime
Full low R e d ~nergy
20% tion
Q=1.44 Q=l.Ol e0.88

A20 A30
XAlO XAI 1 XA20

-
A40

I
I
A41

e 1 . 4 4 Q=l.Ol
I
I
Q=U.dX

I XBlO XBll XB12 XB13

20% h g Y
Reduction

XBW
I

XB21 XB30
40% Ehcrgy

XB31
820 830 840

Figure 2. Experimental programme structure, showing experiment names and their slope-discharge regime. Discharges (Q) are quoted
in I s- l , and slopes (S) as percentages
502 W.J. YOUNG A N D T. R. H. DAVIES

1 Hydrograph Series = H G H l + HGH2 + 3(HGH3) + 5(HGH4)

7 = 9'72 min
3.7 - = 1 6 2 hr
h

I
3
Desired
UY

e Actual

17- HGH 1

Time (minutes)
Figure 3. Model hydrograph series

5.6

2.8

0.56
0.01 0.1 1 10 50 90 99 99.9 99.99

Percentage Exceedence

Figure 4. Model flow duration curves

of several individual prototype event hydrographs. These above-threshold flows were delivered together with
an independently pumped base flow of 0.7 1 s-', which was equivalent to the estimated prototype threshold
flow of 12 m3 s - l at a slope of 0.74 per cent. The available pump capacity limited the maximum flow in the
model to a 1.8 per cent above-threshold exceedence value, and the stepping nature of the flow control meant
that even the derived simple hydrograph shape could only be approximated. The ten hydrographs were run
 BEDLOAD TRANSPORT PROCESSES 503

in a computer-generated random order to avoid any cumulative sequencing effects on the channel
development.
To model flow abstractions, two abstraction modified flow regimes were designed. Using the prototype
flow duration curve an energy dissipation analysis was undertaken to design flow regimes of 20 per cent and
40 per cent energy dissipation reductions (Young, 1989). This analysis involved calculating the energy
dissipation of each flow (this quantity being numerically equivalent to total stream power), and then
incorporating the flow-frequency data to derive a plot of energy dissipation versus flow rate. The total energy
dissipation for the flow regime is given by the area under this curve, so approximate curves for the chosen 20
per cent and 40 per cent energy dissipation reductions were defined by the corresponding reductions in area.
It was found that these reductions could be approximately modelled by using the original hydrograph series
with base flows reduced by 0.15 1 s - ' and 0.25 1 s - ' respectively.
Preliminary experimental runs showed that during low flow conditions, depths and velocities were such
that grain Reynolds numbers were transitional in many areas. Subsequent runs therefore used water heated
to 30°C, thus reducing the fluid viscosity and increasing grain size Reynolds numbers. It should be noted that
with grain sizes and flow rates set, the geometric scale was set, and changing the viscosity ratio altered only
the grain Reynolds number values.
For the steady flow experiments, the weight of collected sediment was measured every minute, thus
providing detailed data sets for investigating temporal variability of BLT. For the unsteady flow experiments
the weight of collected sediment was only measured at the end of each hydrograph when the flow was
essentially steady. These data were only used to determine the mean BLT rate for each unsteady flow
experiment.

STEADY FLOW RESULTS

Each of the seven steady flow experiments began with an initial period of rapid channel width development.
An arbitrary truncation of the BLT rate data records was made to remove the high BLT rates associated with
this initial development stage. In the 'A' series runs the first ten hours of data were omitted, and in the ' B
series runs the first twenty hours of data were omitted. The size of the selected BLT rate data sets and several
descriptive statistics for each are given in Table I.
The lowest transport run (B40) had a mean BLT rate of 73.2 g min- ', this being of similar magnitude to
the quoted measurement accuracy of & 50 g. However as this is not a cumulative error, it does not affect the
accuracy of the mean BLT rate which was calculated from a sample of nearly one thousand values. This level
of measurement accuracy implies a maximum possible error between any two values of 100 g. Hence time
series analysis of this data using moving averages needed to be restricted to detection of cycles longer than
about 15 minutes; this representing around ten times the maximum error for the lowest BLT run.

Table I. Steady flow BLT rate variability statistics; all BLT rates quoted in k g s - ' x lo3

Run No. of Mean Std. Coeff. Max. Max./ YOof Sampling Av. rest
no. values BLT dev. var. BLT mean* zeros interval? period$
A20 960 7.03 3.90 55.5 21.02 2.99 1.o 4.6 13
A30 600 4.82 2.58 53.6 18.85 3.91 2.7 3.6 17
A40 960 3.13 2.18 69.7 12.49 3.99 8.2 2.5 24
A4 1 1170 2.75 2.02 73.3 18.04 6.56 9.6 2.3 26
B20 840 1.98 1.72 86.6 11.48 5.80 17.4 1.8 33
B30 1200 1.50 1.37 91.1 10.00 6-67 21.7 1.5 40
B40 960 1.22 1.33 109.6 11.53 9.45 29.1 1.2 50
* These values are the maximum BLT rates (column 6 ) divided by the mean BLT rates (column 3).
t These values are the non-dimensional sampling intervals 'T' as defined for the Einstein (1937) model, and calculated from the
condition Po = e - T whenf= 0.
f These values are the average particle rest periods in seconds, calculated from the values for Tand the actual sampling interval of one
minute.
504 W. J. YOUNG AND T. R. H. DAVIES

Distribution statistics
The statistics in Table I clearly reveal a higher degree of variability associated with the lower average BLT
rates. This supports the results of Kuhnle and Southard (1988) who found variability (measured as
max/mean) to be less in their high transport flume runs. For a more detailed investigation of the variability,
the cumulative distributions of relative BLT rates were plotted. These distributions all exhibit a characteristic
‘S-shape’ curve, although it is less pronounced in the two lowest transport runs. The envelope of the
experimental curves is defined by the highest BLT run (A20) and the lowest BLT run (B40), as shown in
Figure 5.
Several models describing BLT variability have been developed, the majority of which are stochastic
models of the movement of individual grains. These models consider the movement of bedload particles as
sequences of ‘steps’ and ‘rests’, and the variability in BLT is thus characterized by obtaining the probability
distributions of step lengths and rest periods. The earliest work of this kind was by Einstein (1937) who used
exponential distributions for both step length and rest period. Several other such models have been
developed subsequently, most notably those of Hubbell and Sayre (1964), Sayre and Hubbell (1965), Yang
and Sayre (1971), Crickmore and Lean (1962), Sayre and Conover (1967), and Shen and Todorovic (1971).
Only Einstein ( 1 937) applied his model directly to the problem of predicting the volume of sediment that
would accumulate in a trap during a specified sampling period. He found the probability P,(f)df, that a
given relative amount of sediment 1; would accumulate in a trap during the non-dimensional sampling time
T, to be:
P,(f)df= e-(/+,).(JT/f).ll (2JfT).df (2)
where I , is a modified Bessel function of the first order, T is measured in average particle rest periods, and
P o = eCT whenf= 0. The cumulative distribution is shown in Figure 6 with the dimensionless relative BLT
rate being a given rate divided by the mean rate for the sample. From Figure 6 it is seen that for short
sampling intervals a wide distribution of relative BLT rates with a significant proportion of zero values is
generated; while long sampling intervals generate narrower distributions with fewer zero values.
For the steady flow experiments the sampling interval was constant at one minute, hence for the lower
transport runs with their longer average particle rest periods, the non-dimensional sampling interval T, as
defined for the Einstein (1937) model, was less. As predicted by the Einstein (1937) model, where T is low, the

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Relative BLT Rate

Figure 5. Cumulative frequency distributions of relative BLT rates. The two curves shown represent the envelope of all the experimental
data; with the steeper curve being the data from the highest transport run (A20), and the flatter curve being the data from the lowest
transport run (B40)
 BEDLOAD TRANSPORT PROCESSES 505

0 1 2 3 4 5

Relative BLT Rate

Figure 6. Einstein’s cumulative frequency distribution of relative BLT rates for different values of the non-dimensional sampling
interval ‘T’

cumulative distribution is wider and has a higher percentage of zero values. Using the values for ‘% zeros’,
estimates of the average particle rest periods were calculated from the condition P o = eCT whenf= 0 for the
Einstein (1937) model. These estimates are listed in Table I. Although the zero value percentages and the
distribution widths are described well by the Einstein (1937) model, for T < 5 the shape of the
‘exponentialkxponential’ distribution of the Einstein (1937) model does not match the ‘S-shaped’ distribu-
tions. The S-shape derives from the ‘bell-curve’ probability density functions of these data (omitting zero
values), which were best described by general gamma distributions with r > 1 (where r is the shape
parameter). These S-shape distributions are likely to be best fitted by the ‘gamma-exponential’ model of Yang
and Sayre (1971), however without data for the actual step lengths and rest periods, the parameters of this
model could not be evaluated. This conclusion is in agreement with the extensive work of Hung and Shen
(1971), which confirmed the step length distribution to be bell-shaped, able to be fitted by a gamma density
(with r > l), but not by an exponential density.
From these observations it was concluded that for braided gravel-bed systems BLT rates vary from zero to
ten times the mean even under steady flow conditions; and that BLT rate data from weak transport regimes
exhibit a higher percentage of zero values and higher relative variability than data from intense transport
regimes. It was also concluded that while the Einstein (1937) model predicts the trends in cumulative
distribution width and percentage of zero values in the experimental data, the general shape of these
distributions suggests that a stochastic model based on a gamma distribution of particle step lengths would
fit the data better.
Series analysis
Each of the seven steady flow experiments provided a series of BLT data, each value in these series
representing the accumulation of sediment in the sediment trap over a one minute interval. Before
investigating the temporal patterns of variability in the data, each of these series was transformed to remove
any overall trend in the series mean, and thus yield a stationary series. These were weak trends which resulted
from the inability to precisely match the sediment feed rate to the equilibrium BLT rate. The transformed
series were the residuals from fitted linear regressions.
506 W. J. YOUNG AND T. R. H. DAVIES

The data series exhibited a high degree of variability. However by smoothing the data using moving
averages, periodicities within the data were effectively revealed. A process of trial and error revealed that
moving averages based on 41 data values, were the most effective in removing the short-term fluctuations
without masking the medium-term variations. Figure 7 shows the thus smoothed series of relative BLT rates
(excluding the duplicate run A41).

3.0 - I * I . I . I . 3.0 . I . I . I - I . I -
2.5 - 2.5 -
Y

'
Y
2 2.0 - 2 2.0 -
t;
m
Y
1.5 - 2
0
1.5

2 1.0 -2
'3 1.0 -
2 0.5 - 0.5 -
0.0
~ " ' " ' ' .
0.0 . I . ' ' ' . ' . ' . -

3.0 - I . I ' I . I . - 3.0

2.5 - 2.5
Y 2
d 2.0 - 2 2.0

Run B30 Run B40

3.0 3.0

2.5 2.5
Y Y
2 2.0 d 2.0
5m 1.5
t;
m 1.5
9 Y
3 1.0 2 1 .o
2 2
0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
0 200 400 600 800 lo00 1200 0 200 400 600 800 loo0
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
Figure 7. Smoothed data sets for six of the seven steady flow experiments. These plots show 41 value moving averages of relative BLT
rates
 BEDLOAD TRANSPORT PROCESSES 507

Numerous studies (both field and laboratory) have identified BLT variations as being related to bedform
migration; a comprehensive review of these studies is given by Gomez et al. (1989). The predominant bed
macro-forms observed in this study were long, low, tongue-shaped bedforms with advancing avalanche faces;
similar in form to the bedload sheets described by Kuhnle and Southard (1988). The downstream migration
of these bedforms caused ‘at a point’ variations in BLT; the avalanching face of a migrating bedform being
associated with predominantly high BLT rates, and the long low tail of the bedform being associated with
predominantly low BLT rates. In the present study BLT rate was not measured ‘at a point’, but across a full
section of a braided channel system, and hence the variations in BLT rate are complex as shown by both the
irregular spacing and amplitude of the pulses in Figure 7.
It is clear that although somewhat irregular, the frequency of the pulsing is greater for the higher transport
regimes. This is explained by the observation that in these higher transport regimes the bedforms migrated at
a faster rate, and were closer together. Furthermore, in the lower transport regimes BLT occurred as a single
train of bedforms in each channel, while in the higher transport regimes the bedforms occurred over a greater
width within each channel and hence they overlapped laterally and end-to-tail. This gave rise to the lower
degree of variability in these regimes. Because of the irregular nature of the pulses it is difficult to assess their
periodicities, however the range is from approximately 70 minutes to approximately 125 minutes.
Time scaling to predict sediment pulsing for a prototype river is very difficult. The time scale for en-masse
sediment movement is given by however the time scale for the displacement of sediment from one
location to another is given by (Yalin, 1971). It is postulated that since the short-term pulses are
associated with individual bedform migration, and are therefore essentially a horizontal formation process,
the time scale for the displacement of sediment from one location to another applies. With 1,= 1/50, the
70-125 minute range of periodicities in the model, scale to a 7-14 hour range of periodicities in the prototype,
depending on the flow magnitude. It is unknown whether bedforms similar to those observed in the model
actually occur in the prototype, since no field work was undertaken as a part of this study. Furthermore, the
high turbidity of rivers such as the North Branch of the Ashburton during high flows makes direct
observation of bedforms impossible; hence to-date, no field workers have reported on the nature of bedforms
during high flows in the prototype.

UNSTEADY FLOW RESULTS

The mean BLT rates for the eleven unsteady flow experiments are shown in Table 11. These results reveal
considerable differences in the mean BLT rates obtained for replica experiments. Non-parametric statistical
inference procedures (an unpooled t-test, and the Kruskal-Wallis test) show that for none of the replica
experiments can it be stated with a sufficient degree of confidence that the data represent samples from the
same population. Treating the data from replica experiments as samples from different populations implies

Table 11. Unsteady flow BLT rates (kgs-’ x lo3), and mean discharges (1 s - l )
~ ~~~

Regime no. Run no. Mean BLT rate Mean BLT rate Mean discharge
for run for regime for regime
XA 1 XAlO 1.73
XA11 1.22 1.48 1.16
X A2 XA20 1.07 1.07 1.01
XB 1 XBlO 4.45
XBll 4.00
XB12 3.74
XB13 3.54 3.93 1.16
XB2 XB20 3.29
XB2 1 2.72 3.01 1.01
XB3 XB30 2.34
XB3 1 2.54 2.44 0 91
508 W. J. YOUNG AND T. R. H. DAVIES

that some factor other than the controlled variables (discharge, slope, sediment) is important in determining
the BLT rate. The influence of channel morphology on BLT is well accepted if perhaps poorly understood,
and this is the other factor which is necessary to define the BLT condition (e.g. Ashmore, 1988).This implies
that hydraulically different channel structures developed in replica experiments giving rise to different mean
BLT rates. It is postulated that not only can hydraulically different channel structures occur in a given fluvial
system, but also that these different channel structures are of differing stability. By 'differing stability' it is
meant that it requires flow events of different magnitude to cause each of these channel structures to change
to a significantly different structure. For the replica experiments, hydraulically different channel structures
developed from the initial straight-cut channel, and in many cases these were of sufficient stability to remain
essentially unaltered by even the largest flow modelled. The largest discharge in the unmodified flow regime
corresponded to a flow exceeded on average about two times in a year in the prototype. While this flow
appeared to cause dramatic changes to the channel network, this was observed to be mainly by reoccupying
previously abandoned channels within the braided system. It is thought that to cause a change to a
hydraulically different channel structure would have required a flow larger than any that were modelled.
Hence the long-term average BLT rate for a given slope-discharge-sediment regime should be determined by
considering the BLT rate associated with each channel structure, together with its frequency of occurrence.
Since neither the range nor stability of the different BLT conditions that could occur in the modelled regimes
were determined, the best estimate of the long-term average BLT rate that could be made was simply the
average of different rates measured (Table 11).

BLT under steady and unsteady pow: a comparison

A comparison of BLT under steady and unsteady flow conditions was made by investigating the
dependence of BLT rate on stream power. For the unsteady flow experiments it was therefore necessary to
decide upon a representative discharge for each flow regime that was modelled. Without prior knowledge of
how BLT rate varies with discharge it is impossible to determine what discharge represents the average BLT
rate, and for simplicity therefore the mean flow rate for each regime was med as a representative discharge
(Table 11). Using these values the total BLT rates (G,, measured in kg s-') were plotted as a function of total
stream power index (a,calculated as the product of the slope and the discharge and measured in m3 s - ').
This plot is shown on Figure 8; the best fit power-law regression equations for these data are:
(1) steady flow: G, = 1.2 x lo7 R'1'93,
R 2 = 0.88
(2) unsteady flow: G, = 4.9 x 10' R'2'27,R 2 = 0.99
Comparing the regression equations for the steady and unsteady flow experiments reveals firstly that for a
given stream power the unsteady flow regression gives a significantly lower BLT rate. It is noted that this is
not caused by the choice of representative discharges that was made for the unsteady flow experiments, as it
can be shown that in each case the flow representative of the average BLT condition is greater than the
discharge value that was used (Young, 1989).The representative discharges used will therefore have lessened
rather than heightened the difference between BLT rates at the same stream power under steady and
unsteady flow conditions. The difference implies that BLT in gravel-bed systems is a more efficient process
under steady flow conditions than under unsteady flow conditions. This is a very significant result, but before
discussing it in greater detail it is useful to note two other differences between the steady and unsteady flow
regression equations above. Firstly, the larger power-law exponent for the unsteady flow regression equation
shows a stronger dependence of BLT rate on stream power under unsteady flow conditions. As can be seen
clearly on Figure 8 this difference in the strength of dependence causes the unsteady flow regression to
converge towards the steady flow regression as stream power increases. It is postulated that steady flow
represents a limiting condition for BLT efficiency, which the unsteady flow BLT relationship approaches
with increasing stream power. In this context however, it should be noted that over the full domain of total
stream power the transport relationship is not a simple power function, since in the extremes it is asymptotic
firstly to the threshold stream power (a vertical asymptote), and secondly to a maximum efficiency line. This
latter asymptote will be a line of unity slope when BLT rate and stream power are expressed in the same
 BEDLOAD TRANSPORT PROCESSES 509

10
. = Unsteady Flow

0.5 1 2
Total stream power index
Figure 8. BLT rates (G,(kg s - ') x lo3) versus total stream power index ( U ( m 3s- ') x lo'), showing the data from the steady flow
experiments (crosses) and the unsteady flow experiments (dots)

units. However for reasons discussed later in this section, transport in the steady flow regime is postulated to
be the practical maximum, which the unsteady flow regime relationship approaches as stream power
increases.
The other difference to note between the steady and unsteady flow regression equations is the different R2
values. An extremely good fit to the power-law regressions ( R 2 = 099) is exhibited by the unsteady flow BLT
rate data, while the steady flow BLT rate data show more scatter. Four of the unsteady flow regime average
BLT rates are averages for more than one experiment, so less scatter is to be expected. However the near-
perfect fit to the unsteady flow regressions suggests that these five values are very good estimates of the long-
term average BLT rates for these slope-discharge regimes. The greater scatter of the steady flow BLT rate
data suggests that the range of hydraulic conditions under which BLT was sampled in these experiments, was
insufficient to accurately quantify the overall average BLT rate for each slope-discharge regime. Under
steady flow conditions there are obviously no 'extreme flows' to cause major channel change, and therefore
several replica experiments are probably required to adequately sample the range of hydraulic conditions
that can occur and thus define the overall average BLT rate for a slope-discharge regime.
Of the differencesobserved between the steady and unsteady flow BLT relationships, the phenomenon of
higher BLT rates occurring under steady flow conditions for a given stream power requires further
discussion. Since these descriptions of the BLT data for the unsteady flow experiments were based only on
the mean flow values, a quantitative comparison between the two cases was not made on this basis. Instead,
the steady flow transport rating ( C , = 1.2 x lo7 ) was used to synthesize an average BLT rate for each
of the five unsteady flow regimes by considering the magnitude and duration of each flow step in their
respective input hydrograph series. These values were then compared with the measured values (Table 111). It
is apparent from these values that although based on the input hydrograph series and not a routed
hydrograph series, there is a very significant difference (about 35 per cent) between the average BLT rates
predicted using the steady flow BLT rating, and the average BLT rates measured in the unsteady flow
experiments.
510 W. J. YOUNG AND T. R. H. DAVIES

Table 111. Unsteady flow BLT rates, measured and synthesized (kgs-’ x lo3)

Regime no. Measured BLT Synthesized BLT Measuredlsynth.

rate rate

XA 1 1.48 2.39 0.62

XA2 1.07 1.92 0.56
XB 1 3.93 5.60 0.70
XB2 3.01 4.50 0.67
XB3 244 3.85 0.63

It is suggested that this phenomenon is due to the differen- time scales for the rate of change of channel
form, and the rate of change of flow. Under a steady flow regime, the channel structure is able to evolve to the
optimum condition for BLT at that flow (i.e. a maximum transport condition). However under an unsteady
flow regime, the channel structure is continually evolving towards an optimum condition that is changing
with the flow. This form evolution (under both steady and unsteady flow conditions) refers to minor changes
to the flow boundary; in effect a ‘fine tuning’ of the channel form within the overall braiding structure. It is the
major changes associated with extreme flow events which alter the overall braiding structure. Because form
evolution is many orders of magnitude slower than the change of flow, the channel structure under an
unsteady flow regime is never even close to the changing optimum BLT condition, so this tendency will not
affect any long-term trends in the mean BLT rate.
Obviously this explanation is based on the premise that the channel form will evolve towards an optimum
BLT condition. This premise is in essence an extremal hypothesis, similar to many which have been
postulated as explanations of river behaviour (Davies and Sutherland, 1983). In fact for laboratory flumes
with slope and discharge independent, the extremal hypotheses of maximum sediment transport rate,
maximum friction factor, and minimum unit stream power are equivalent (Davies, 1987). It is suggested that
at low and moderate transporting flows, most of the BLT is not associated with channel boundary change,
but represents sediment moving through the existing channel system. With increasing flow rate, an increasing
proportion of the BLT is associated with channel boundary evolution, and thus the channel structure
towards which the system evolves furthest, is that which is the optimum BLT condition for some flow
considerably larger than the most effective flow. The trend in BLT rate ratios (Table 111) refiects the
convergence of the unsteady flow BLT relationship towards the steady flow BLT relationship with increasing
stream power, as observed on Figure 8. It is thought that the unsteady flow BLT efficiency, approaches the
steady flow BLT efficiency as stream power increases. This can be explained by the above scenario whereby
in higher energy regimes a greater proportion of the BLT is associated with flow boundary change, and hence
the BLT condition gets closer to optimum than in lower energy regimes.
In this discussion much has been postulated about the nature of BLT processes in gravel-bed rivers;
however further flume experiments as well as field observations are required to verify these concepts,
especially the relationship between BLT and channel change at different discharges.

CONCLUSIONS
Analysis of the data recorded during the steady flow experiments revealed that BLT rates in braided gravel-
bed systems are highly variable, with rates from zero to ten times the mean being measured. Relative
variability was found to increase with decreasing mean BLT rate. These data also indicated a cyclic nature to
the variability of BLT; these variations being caused by bed macro-form migration.
The results from the unsteady flow experiments suggested that several relatively stable braided channel
structures, characterized by different hydraulic conditions, can exist under a given slope-discharge regime. It
was postulated that these different channel structures are of such stability that only very large infrequent flow
events which cause major channel change enable the transition from one channel structure to another.
 BEDLOAD TRANSPORT PROCESSES 51 1

The comparison between BLT rates under steady and unsteady flow conditions revealed the higher
efficiency of BLT in steady flow. It was postulated that this reflects an equilibrium between the channel form
and the discharge, such that BLT is maximized. It was also postulated that in an unsteady flow regime, an
increasing proportion of BLT is associated with channel boundary change as discharge increases. However it
was concluded that further investigation is required to verify this concept, with flume studies offering the best
opportunity for such work.

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