REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

CARIG CAMPUS
Carig Sur, Tuguegarao City, Cagayan
www.csu.edu.ph

INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY and PSYCHOLOGY OF

CRIMES

RA 11131- AN ACT REGULATING THE PRACTICE OF CRIMINOLOGY

PROFESSION IN THE PHILIPPINES, AND APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR,
REPEALING FOR THE PURPOSE REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6506, OTHERWISE KNOWN
AS "AN ACT CREATING THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS FOR CRIMINOLOGISTS IN
THE PHILIPPINES"

6 areas Relative weights

Criminal law and jurisprudence 20%
Law enforcement administration 20%
Crime detection and investigation 15%
Criminalistics/ Forensic science 20%
Criminal sociology/criminology 15%
Correctional administration 10%

SALIENT PROVISION OF RA 11131

Section 16. Persons to Teach Subjects for Licensure Examination

• All subjects for the licensure examination shall be taught by a registered

criminologist who is a holder of a valid certificate of registration and updated
professional identification card for criminologist, APO membership, and CPD
required units earned, and meet other CHED requirements. Allied fields in
criminology may also be allowed to teach as it may deem proper.

Section 17. Rating in the Licensure Examination.

• To pass the licensure examination for criminologist, a candidate must obtain a

weighted average rating of seventy-five percent (75%) with no grade less
than sixty percent (60%) in any given subject.
• In case the examinee obtains a weighted average rating of seventy-five percent
(75%) but, has a grade below sixty percent (60%) in any of the subjects, the

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 1

 result of the examinee shall be deferred, and be required to retake that
particular subject/s.
• The deferred examinee shall only be allowed to retake once within two (2)
years from the date of the examination, and shall be required to obtain a grade
not lower than eighty percent (80%) on the subject, to be considered to have
passed the licensure examination.
• If the examinee failed to retake after the lapse of two (2) years or failed to get
the passing mark of eighty percent (80%), the examinee shall retake all the
board subjects.
• Any examinee who failed three (3) or more board subjects shall be deemed
to have failed the board examination.

(I.R.R) RULE II. PERSONS COVERED BY THE MANDATED REFRESHER

COURSE

Section 2. The guidelines herein set forth shall cover anyone who has previously failed the
LEC five (5) times and shall not be allowed to retake the second LEC CY 2022
unless such applicant has completed the mandatory refresher course from any reputable
HEIs offering criminology program duly authorized by CHED and whose refresher course
is duly accredited by the board.

(I.R.R) RULE III. ACCREDITED HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Section 3. Only HEIs whose baccalaureate degree program in criminology is duly

recognized by CHED shall be qualified to offer the required refresher course.

(I.R.R) RULE VI. USE OF CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION OF REFRESHER

COURSE

Section 17. Upon completion of the Refresher Course, the applicant shall be required to
submit the Certificate of Completion of Refresher Course to the Commission
as one of the requirements for the application to retake the licensure examination.

Section 18. The applicant may use the Certificate of Refresher Course only within two
(2) years from the date of completion of the said Refresher Course and its use shall be
limited to two (2) successive licensure examinations only.

Section 19. Oath.

• All successful candidates of the licensure examination shall take their oath of
profession in person before the Board or any of its members, and with the APO in
an oath-taking ceremony held for such purpose. Any person authorized by law may
administer oath to any successful examinees only upon membership of the APO
prior to entering the practice of the profession.

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 2

Section 34. Privileges of Registered Criminologists.

• All registered criminologists shall be exempt from taking any other

entrance or qualifying government or civil service examinations and shall be
considered civil service eligible to the following government positions, among
others:

• Dactylographer;
• Ballistician;
• Questioned Document Examiner;
• Forensic Photographer;
• Polygraph Examiner;
• Probation Officer;
• Parole Officer;
• Special Investigator;
• Special Agent;
• Investigative Agent;
• Intelligence Agent;
• Law Enforcement Evaluation Officer; (
• National Police Commission (NAPOLCOM) Inspector;
• Traffic Operation Officer;
• Associate Graft Investigation Officer;
• Special Police Officer;
• Safekeeping Officer;
• Sheriff;
• Security Officer;
• Criminal Investigator;
• Warden;
• Reformation Officer;
• Firefighter;
• Fire Marshall;
• Jail Officer up to the rank of Jail Superintendent;
• Police Officer up to the rank of Police Superintendent and other law enforcement
agencies, and agencies under the Criminal Justice System.

Section 36. Lateral Entry of Registered Criminologists.

• Registered criminologists who are not in the government service shall be eligible
and given preference for appointment via lateral entry as Police, Fire, and
Jail Inspectors or its equivalent in the PDEA, NBI, and other law
enforcement agencies:

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 3

 • Provided, That they possess the general qualifications for appointment as
provided in the existing laws on appointment of Police Officers in the PNP, BJMP,
BFP, PDEA, or NBI:

• Provided, further, That those who are already in the police, fire, and jail service as
non-commissioned officers and who are already registered and licensed
criminologists shall be given preference for lateral entry.

WHAT IS CRIMINOLOGY?

• Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. It

covers in its scope study of lawmaking, law breaking, and the response to
law breaking (Edwin Sutherland)
• It is also a study of crime as a social phenomenon.
• It includes within its scope the processes of making laws and of reacting toward
the breaking laws (Edwin Sutherland)
• In its broadest sense, it is the entire body of knowledge regarding crimes and
criminals and the effort of society to repress and prevent them.

• In its narrowest sense, criminology is the scientific study of crimes and

criminals
The scientific study is extended to three (3) basic lines.

1. Investigation of the nature of criminal law & its administration.

2. Analysis of the causation of crimes & the behavior of the criminal; and
3. Study of the control of crimes and rehabilitation of offenders.

• A body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon

(Tradio 1999)

• It is also a multidisciplinary study of crimes (Bartol 1995). This means that many
disciplines are involved in the collection of knowledge about criminal action,
including psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology, neurology, political
science, and economics.

• Sutherland & Cressey defined Criminology as a study of crime as a social

phenomenon, or of criminals – the mental traits, habits and discipline.

• Elliott and Merill – define it as the study of crimes and its treatment.
• Taft meaning - Criminology is the study of all subject matters necessary in
understanding and preventing crime, the punishment and treatment of criminals .

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 4

ETYMOLOGY OF WORD CRIMINOLOGY

Criminology (from Latin crīmen, "accusation"; and Greek logia, study) is

the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both
the individual and in society. The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law
professor Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia. Around the same time, but later,
French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the analogous French term criminologie

CRIMINOLOGY VS. CRIMINAL JUSTICE

➢ Criminology is the scientific study of crime as a social phenomenon—

that is, the theoretical application involving the study of the nature and extent of
criminal behavior.

➢ Criminal Justice is the applied and scientific study of the practical

applications of criminal behavior—that is, the actions, policies, and functions
of the agencies within the criminal justice system charged with addressing this
behavior.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING CRIMINOLOGY

1. A source of philosophy in life.

• A background for a profession or for social service.
2. Because criminals are legitimate objects of interest.
• Because crime is a costly problem.

PURPOSES OF STUDYING CRIMINOLOGY

✓ To prevent the crime problem

✓ To understand crimes and criminals
✓ To prepare for a career in law enforcement and scientific crime detection
✓ To develop an understanding of the constitutional guarantees and due process of
law.
✓ To foster a higher concept of citizenry and leadership

WHY IS KNOWLEDGE OF CRIMINOLOGY NECESSARY?

1. To let LEGISLATOR may pass proper penal laws.

2. So that the JUDGE may be able to understand the root cause of criminal behavior and
thus impose the correct penalty or treatment.
3. So that POLICE officers may know what is the proper way of conducting an
investigation and gathering evidence.

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 5

4. So that the CHIEF EXECUTIVE may know when to pardon a particular prisoner.
5. So that the PAROLE OFFICER may know when to parole or free a person.

What are studies and sciences related to Criminology?

1. Study of law
2. Science of medicine, chemistry & psychology
3. Religion
4. Education
5. Social work
6. Public Administration

IS CRIMINOLOGY A SCIENCE?

1. Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey – Not a science but has the hope of
becoming a science for the reason that man is the subject of the study.
2. George Wilker – Absolutely not a science due to the variations of behavior.
3. Cirilo Tradio – It is a science for the causes of crimes are universally alike such
as biological, physical, psychological, and economical. Criminology is not a science
but has the hope of becoming a science Criminology is not a perfect science.

NATURE OF CRIMINOLOGY

• An Applied Science – Able to be put to practical use.

• A Social science – In as much as crime is a societal creation and it exists in a
society, its study must be considered a part of social science.
• Dynamic – The progress of criminology is concordant with the advancement of
other sciences that have been applied to it.
• Nationalistic – The study of crime must always be in relation with the existing
criminal law within the territory.

OBJECT INTEREST OF CRIMINOLOGY

A. CRIME
B. CRIMINALS
C. CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
D. VICTIMS

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 6

MAJOR ALLIED SCIENCES OF CRIMINOLOGY AS FIELD OF STUDY

1. SOCIOLOGY (SOCIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY)

✓ Study of crime that Is focused on a group of people and the society as a
whole.

2. PSYCHOLOGY (PSYCHOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY)

✓ Human behavior and mental processes of criminals.

3. PSYCHIATRIC (PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGY)

✓ Criminal behavior in terms of motives and drives.

4. ANTHROPOLOGY (ANTHROPOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY)

✓ Study of mankind, culture and features of distinctive groups of people.

5. PHYSIOLOGY (PHYSIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY)

✓ Studies of various organs of the body in relation to the behavior.

PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY

• Criminal Etiology – The scientific analysis of the causes of crimes.

• Sociology of Law – The study of law and its application.
• Penology or Correction – The study that deals with the punishment and the
treatment of criminals.
• Criminalistics – The study of criminal things.

ORIGIN OF CRIMINOLOGY

Criminology (from Latin crīmen, "accusation"; and Greek logia, study) is the scientific
study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual
and in society. The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele
Garofalo as criminologia. Around the same time, but later, French anthropologist Paul
Topinard used the analogous French term criminologie.

CRIMINOLOGY

In its broadest sense, it is the entire body of knowledge regarding crimes and criminals
and the effort of society to repress and prevent them.
In its narrowest sense, criminology is the scientific study of crimes and criminals.
The scientific study is extended to three (3) basic lines.
1. Investigation of the nature of criminal law & its administration.
2. Analysis of the causation of crimes & the behavior of the criminal; and
3. Study of the control of crimes and rehabilitation of offenders.

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 7

CRIMINOLOGY is the study of crime and criminals in society. While Criminologists
attempt to analyze scientifically the causes of crime, their explanations are mainly
sociological. It is best described as a social science dealing with human behavior and
employing scientific methods to discover the causes and correlations. Criminologists, are,
therefore, practical social scientists.

WHY IS KNOWLEDGE OF CRIMINOLOGY NECESSARY?

1. So that LEGISLATOR may pass proper penal laws.
2. So that the JUDGE may be able to understand the root cause of criminal behavior
and thus impose the correct penalty or treatment.
3. So that POLICE officers may know what is the proper way of conducting an
investigation and gathering evidence.
4. So that the CHIEF EXECUTIVE may know when to pardon a particular prisoner.
5. So that the PAROLE OFFICER may know when to parole or free a person.

What are studies and sciences related to Criminology?

1. Study of law
2. Science of medicine, chemistry & psychology
3. Religion
4. Education
5. Social work
6. Public Administration

FOUR PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY

1. The explanation of crime
2. The identification of criminals and detection of crimes
3. The punishment or treatment of criminals
4. The prevention of crime
THEORIES OF CRIME (Old)
Several theories define the cause of crime. Some theories assume that criminality
is an inevitable consequence of economic and social progress. Others suggest the
psychological, biological, and sociological causes of crime. Here we will explore theories
of criminology.

POSITIVISM is a theory used within the field of criminology to explain and predict
criminal behavior. Learn more about the positivist theory of crime here. Criminology is a
broad field of study that prepares students for roles in the criminal justice system,
corrections, social work, law enforcement, and more.

The positivist school originated in the 19th century in the context of the “scientific
revolution”.

Doctrine of “Determinism” focused on the constitutional approach to crime,

advocating that structure or physical characteristics of an individual determine that
person’s behavior.

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 8

The positivist school presumes that criminal behavior is caused by internal and external
factors outside of the individual’s control.

AUGUSTE COMTE
▪ He is considered the founder of positivist school and sociology.
▪ He applied scientific methods in the study of society, from where he adopted the
word sociology.

UNHOLY THREE
1. CESARE LOMBROSO (founder of Italian School of Thought)
2. ENRICO FERRI
3. RAFAELLE GAROFALO

- They were Called “unholy three” by the religious leaders during the time of positivism
because of their belief in evolution as contrasted to biblical interpretation of the origin of
man and woman.

Key assumptions of the positivist school of thought

1. Human behavior is determined and not a matter of free will.
2. Criminals are fundamentally different from non-criminals.
3. Positivists search for such differences by scientific methods.
4. Social scientists (including criminologists) can be objective, or values-neutral, in
their work.
5. Crime is frequently caused by multiple factors.
6. Society is based on consensus, and not on social contract.

Positivist criminology is distinguished by three main elements: (1) the search for the
causes of crime, whether biological, psychological, or sociological; (2) the use of the
scientific method to test theories against observations of the world; and (3) the rejection
of punishment as a response to law-violating or deviant behavior, replaced with treatment
based on the medical (rehabilitation) model.

CESARE LOMBROSO
- One of the largest contributors to biological positivism and founder of Italian
School of Criminology.
- Known as the father of modern criminology
Lombroso’s work closely followed Charles Darwin’s theory of man’s evolution.
The criminal was a product of biology, and not much could be done for this “born
criminal”.
His approach was scientific, anthropological and biological.
Lombroso’s major contributions to positivist criminology

1. THE THEORY OF ATAVISM – criminals were developed from primitive or

subhuman individuals characterized by some inferior mental and physical
characteristics such as asymmetrical cranium, long jaw, flattened nose, scanty
beard, low sensitivity to pain, long earlobes, bulging eyes, thick eyebrows, curly
hair.
NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 9
 2. The application of the experimental or scientific method to the study of criminal.
3. The development of criminal typology.
a) BORN CRIMINALS – these refer to individuals who are born with a
genetic predilection toward criminality.
b) EPILEPTIC CRIMINALS – these are criminals who commit crime
because they are affected by epilepsy.
c) INSANE CRIMINALS – these are those who commit crimes due to
abnormalities or psychological disorders. These criminals are not criminals
from birth; they become criminals as a result of some changes in their brains
which interfere with their ability to distinguish between right and wrong.
d) OCCASIONAL CRIMINALS – these are criminals who commit crime
due to insignificant reasons that push them to do at a given occasion.

Lombroso also identified the various types of occasional criminals as:

a. Pseudo criminals – these individuals are not real criminals. They have
neither any inborn tendency towards crime nor are they under the influence
of any bad crime-inducing habit. They do something criminal on account of
acute pressure of circumstances that leave them with no choice.
b. Criminaloids – means “like a criminal” or “having resemblance with the
criminal”. They are not born criminals but non criminals who have adopted
criminal activity due to pressure of circumstances and less physical stamina
or self-control.
c. Habitual Criminals – they have no organic criminal tendency, but in the
course of their lives they have developed some foul habits that force them
into criminality. Some attributing factors are poor parenting and education
or contact with other criminals.
d. Passionate criminals – these are individuals who are easily influenced
by great emotions like fit of anger.
4. The belief in the indeterminate sentence.
5. The application of statistical techniques to criminology.
ENRICO FERRI is a student of Lombroso. His interest in socialism led him to recognize
the importance of social and environmental factors in the study of criminal behavior.

RAFFAELE GAROFALO He rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the
position that the only way to understand crime was to study it by scientific methods.

He traced the roots of criminal behavior, not to physical features, but to their
psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies”.

Garofalo defined crime, not as a violation of a law, but as a violation of nature.

These acts that violated nature were mala in se (evil in themselves).

Classification of criminals according to Garofalo

1. Murderers – those who are satisfied from vengeance or revenge.
2. Violent criminals – those who commit very serious crimes.
3. Thieves – those who commit crimes against property.
4. Lascivious criminals – those who commit crimes against chastity
NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 10
CARTOGRAPHIC SCHOOL The cartographic school focused primarily on the
mapping of crime and the relationship between society and the physical environment.

ADOLF QUETELET – a Belgian Mathematician

ANDRE MICHEL GUERRY – a French lawyer
Sociological positivism

GABRIEL TARDE – another scholar who worked on the relationship of crime and
social factors. His major contribution was his concept of the criminal as a professional
type. Tarde considered imitation, conscious and unconscious, as a fundamental
interpersonal trait, with the imitation of fathers by sons as the primal situation, resting
on prestige.

EMILE DURKHEIM – according to him crime is an inevitable aspect of society. It could

disappear only if all members of society had the same values, and such standardization is
neither possible nor desirable. He called the concept as anomie.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIMINALITY

Heredity and Crimes – early biological theories believed that criminality was an inherited
trait passed on in the genes.

A. Family Studies
1. The Study of the Juke Family (Richard Dugdale)
❑ The Juke family consisted of 6 girls, some of whom were illegitimate.
❑ Ada Juke was known as “The Mother of Criminals”
1200 descendant were traced for 75 years and found 280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7
murderers, 40 other criminals, 40 with sexual diseases, 300 infants prematurely born, 50
prostitutes, and 30 were prosecuted for bastardy.

2. The Study of the Kallikak Family (Henry Goddard)

Martin Kallikak first married a Quaker woman and all of the offspring that came from the
marriage were intelligent and resourceful and demonstrated no indications of mental
defectiveness. Goddard discovered that Kallikak’s liaison with a feeble-minded girl,
however, resulted in “a race of defective degenerates.”
About 489 descendants from this lineage were traced which included 143 feeble-minded
and 46 normal. Thirty-six were illegitimate, 3 epileptics, 3 criminals, 8 kept brothels, 82
died in infancy.

3. The Study of Sir Jonathan Edwards’ Family

Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher during the colonial period.

When his family was traced none of the descendants was found to be a criminal. Rather,
many became presidents of the US, governors, members of the SC, famous writers,
preachers and teachers.

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 11

B. TWIN BEHAVIOR STUDIES

The logic of this method is that if there is greater similarity in behavior between identical
twins than between fraternal twins, the behavior must be due to heredity. In the 1920’s,
Lange studied 30 pairs of same-sex twins – 13 identical and 17 fraternal twins. He found
out that one member of each pair was a known criminal.
Moreover, both twins in 10 of the 13 pairs of identical twins were criminal; 2 of the 17
pairs of fraternal twins were both criminal.

C. ADOPTION STUDIES

This method compared the criminal records of adopted children who were adopted at a
relatively early age with the criminal records of adopted parents.

Hutchings and Mednick (1975) studied 14,000 adopted children and found that a high
proportion of boys with criminal convictions had biological parents with criminal
convictions too, suggesting a link between aggression and genetics.

D. THE XYY “SUPERMALE” STUDIES

XYY syndrome is a rare chromosomal disorder that affects males. It is caused by the
presence of an extra Y chromosome.

This study was undertaken by Patricia A. Jacobs, by a simple blood test known as
karyotyping.

Studies of XYY males tend to show that supermales:

• Are taller than average male, often standing 6’1”
• Suffer from acne or skin disorders
• Are of less than average intelligence
• Are overrepresented in prisons and mental hospitals
• Come from families with less history of crime or mental illness

CLASSICAL ORIENTATION IN CRIMINOLOGY

The relationship between crime and punishment should be balanced and fair. Cesare
Beccaria pioneered the development of a systematic understanding of why people
committed crime. According to him, the crime problem could not be traced to bad people
but to bad laws, that a modern criminal justice system should guarantee all people equal
treatment before the law.

Cesare Beccaria was an Italian philosopher and politician best known for his treaties on
“Essay on Crime and Punishment”. Beccaria believed that the behavior of people
regarding their choice of action is based on HEDONISM, the pleasure-pain principle.

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 12

BASIC ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
✓ In every society, people have free will to choose criminal or law solutions to meet
their needs or settle their problems.
✓ Criminal solutions may be more attractive than lawful ones because they usually
require less work for a greater payoff; if left unsanctioned, crime has greater utility
than conformity.
✓ A person’s choice of criminal solutions may be controlled by his fear of
punishment.
✓ The more severe, certain, and swift the punishment, the better able it is to control
criminal behavior.
JEREMY BENTHAM, a contemporary of Becarria.
o He devoted his life to developing a scientific approach to the making and breaking
of laws.
o He was concerned with achieving “the greatest happiness of the greatest number.”
UTILITARIANISM – philosophy of social control by Bentham.
It assumes that all human actions are calculated in accordance with their likelihood of
bringing happiness (pleasure) or unhappiness (Pain).

NEO-CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY
It flourished in the 19th century, had the same basis as the classical school – a belief in
free will.

Modification of classical theory; it is believed that certain factors such as insanity will
inhibit the exercise of free will.

NEW CRIMINOLOGY THEORIES

1. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY The rational choice theory has its roots in the
classical school of criminology developed by the Italian social thinker Cesare
Beccaria. They believe that all criminal behaviors take place by thought and
decision-making.
According to Beccaria and other philosophers:
✓ People choose all behavior, including criminal behavior.
✓ Their choices are designed to produce pleasure and reduce pain
✓ Criminal choices can be controlled by fear of punishment.
✓ The more severe, certain, and swift the punishment, the greater its ability to
control criminal behavior.

2. CULTURAL CRIMINOLOGY Cultural Criminology examines and describes crime and

forms of crime control as cultural products. It puts the onus of criminality and its control
squarely in the context of culture; that is, it views crime and the agencies and institutions
of crime control as cultural products.

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 13

 3. ENVIRONMENTAL CRIMINOLOGY

The important key points of this theory are:

1. Environmental criminology is concerned with crime, not criminals who get the
opportunity to commit the crime. This theory suggests that crime is influenced, if
not caused, by a person’s spatial environment.
2. Crimes tend to occur in known places or near limited travel knowledge space
3. Offenders tend to limit their search area for victimization targets near their nodes
and travel routines, which is called the “offender’s awareness space the important
environmental criminology theories are:
a. Routine activity theory,
b. Offender search theory,
c. Situational crime prevention theory, and
d. Broken windows theory

4. PENOLOGICAL THEORIES

Penology theories stand for inflicting punishment to the wrongdoers but should
reasonably cover other policies, not punitive in character, such as probation, medical
treatment, and education, aimed at the cure or rehabilitation of the offender.
The main aims of penology are:

1. To bring to light the ethical bases of punishment, along with the motives and
purposes of society inflicting it.
2. It helps to make a comparative study of penal laws and procedures through history
and between nations
3. To evaluate the social consequences of the policies in force at a given time.

NOTES IN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY 14