Running Head: CRITICAL ESSAY 1

Critical Essay

Name

Institution
CRITICAL ESSAY 2

Introduction

The present world is going through a phase characterised by increased globalisation

and migration. As such diversity has become a feature that defines our world. Being a

fundamental aspect of the global society, diversity is similarly fundamental in our

communities, places of work and learning institutions. Diversity is mostly contributed to by

culture, which is conceptually comprehensive in that it encompasses various components like

behavioural styles, values, dialects, worldviews, non-verbal communications and frames of

references. There is also a dynamic aspect of culture which can be described by the constant

change of people, their practices and environments in a manner that makes it difficult to

define culture using a single definition. Diversity has contributed to various outcomes in

society, but important to this research is the onset of culturally and linguistically diverse

(CLD) leaners (Shon et al, 2008).

Statement of the Problem

Culturally and linguistically diverse leaners in the United States are overrepresented

in special education. The term “culturally and linguistically diverse” has been accepted as

better term than its predecessors when referring to leaners whose primary language is not

English. However, the term shows little appreciation for diversity among the various

encompassed populations. Culturally and linguistically diverse leaners end up being

unnecessarily placed in special education programs yet they do not have language disabilities.

It is possible for leaners to depict behavioural or learning problems that are due to certain

factors unrelated to disabilities. Overrepresentation of CLD leaners in special education

programs limits the leaners opportunities be depriving them of a challenging and enriching

curriculum.
CRITICAL ESSAY 3

Review of the Literature:

The following literature seeks to show how the vulnerability of CLD leaners has been

contributed to, by lack of effective instructional practices and overrepresentation of CLD

learners in special education, and possible solutions to this problem.

Clare L. Brown (2004) depicts the overrepresentation of CLD leaners as both and

indicator and contributor of CLD learner’s vulnerability. Brown argues that the over-

representation of CLD leaners in special education is as a result of educator’s failure to

differentiate between second language acquisition problems and language disabilities.

Moreover, despite the plethora of terms associated to special education services such as

language deficit, language delay, learning disability, communication disorder and others, it is

still difficult to differentiate between language differences and language difficulties. The lack

of a consistent definition of the phenomena makes it difficult for educational practitioners to

understand them. As such this confusion significantly contributes to the overrepresentation of

CLD leaners in special education. According to Brown’s research there are certain

characteristics prominent in second language acquisition; language non-disorders that are

perceived as language disabilities. When CLD learners who cannot keep up with their native

English-speaking peers depict some language aspects, they are not necessarily language

disorders, disabilities or difficulties but are simply natural features of acquiring the new

language.

In a 2005 study on the same issue of overrepresentation of CLD leaners in special

education, Klinger, Kozleski, Zion and Duran narrow down the problem by researching

African American students. Using nationally aggregated data, the study shows that

disproportionate representation of CLD leaners in special programs has spiked concern for

decades and even mentioned twice by the National Research Councils, and even addressed by
CRITICAL ESSAY 4

reports, statements, resolutions and actions from professional bodies like the Council for

Exceptional Children. In addition to the court cases, such as the Diana vs. The California

State Board of Education and numerous efforts from small groups of researchers, this

problem has not significantly reduced. The rate at which the United States’ school aged

population is diversifying linguistically and culturally is unprecedented. Klinger et al, 2005

research uses three calculations; the composition index, risk index and risk ratio to calculate

disproportionate representation. This research showed that for three distinct disability

categories; mental retardation, learning disabilities and emotional disturbance, the risk index

of African Americans was significantly higher than that of whites (Klinger et al, 2005).

Artiles, A. J., & Harry, B. (2006) echoed the finding of previous research on

overrepresentation of CLD leaners in special education and prepared a guideline for parents.

This guideline affirms that inappropriate or bias practices contribute to the placement of CLD

students in special education. The calculations used in Artiles & Harry report coincides with

that of (Klinger et al 2005) and shows that African Americans are four times likely to be

place in special education than their white peers. Thus African American leaners have

become overrepresented in emotional and behavioural disorder classes. According to Artiles

& Harry, overrepresentation is not just a problem is the placement is special education is

made to leaners who do not have learning disabilities, but it is also a problem if the decision

to enrol CLD leaners to special education limits their opportunities for positive learning

experiences. By mistakenly placing CLD leaners in special education, they are denied access

to the general education curriculum thereby interfering with the leaners right to educational

services tailored to their needs. Their ability to obtain a high school diploma among other

quality programs is also limited. Furthermore Artiles & Harry’s guideline argues that

overrepresentation has become such a complex problem because of explanations that either;

assume that CLD leaners lack the experiences that can help them acquire skills necessary for
CRITICAL ESSAY 5

them to succeed in school; tend to value social, behavioural, emotional and linguistic skills

that differ from what CLD leaners depict, or argue that overrepresentation is a reflection of

the discrimination and racism suffered by culturally and linguistically diverse people in

society (Artiles & Harry, 2006).

Blanchett J. (2006) approaches the problem of disproportional representation of CLD

leaners; especially, African American students in behavioural and emotional disorder classes

in a racism and white privilege context. The author shows that, inappropriate curriculum,

educational resource allocation and pedagogy have not only contributed to this problem but

have also maintained the disproportionality evident in special education. The author shows

that African Americans while making up 14.8% of the general population of students aged 6

to 21 make up 20% of the students placed in special education population for all disabilities.

Moreover, CLD leaners in this case are 2.42, 1.13 and 1.68 times more likely to have mental

retardation, be learning disabled and have behavioural or emotional disorders respectively.

This makes the African American child placed in special education vulnerable to post-school

and in-school outcomes characterized by segregation, general education limitations,

underperformance, substandard curricula and high dropout rates (Blanchett, 2006).

Medina R. in his 2017 thesis argues that the United States’ education system was not

designed for the Hispanic, Black and non-white children. This opinions is founded on the

evidence that such minorities disproportionately end up being placed in special education

once they enter the US education system. Medina uses public archival data from the State of

New Jersey Department of Education to assess the disproportionate overrepresentation of

minorities who make up most of the CLDs, in special education. Medina’s research shows

that, using New Jersey’s data refutes the hypothesis that minorities are disproportionately

represented in special education programs. However the existing overrepresentation of CLD

leaners in New Jersey was attributed to an educational system that disadvantages the minority
CRITICAL ESSAY 6

CLD leaners. This agrees with similar finding dating back in the 1990s by Garcia. (Garcia

1991) research on students entering the formal education system in the US tend to display

unrealized academic success especially if the come from communities or homes where

English is not their primary language of communication. Using statistical data relevant to

such a Hispanic student population, Garcia summarizes the findings about the educational

situation of CLD. The statistics paint a deplorable picture where there is a 40% rate of non-

graduation, 35% rate of grade retention, 70% school segregation and a 2 to 4 grade-level gap

in achievements. However this generation of children who make up racial and ethnic minority

continue to be at risk in present day social and learning institutions. Moreover, national and

state reports show that the economic condition, academic achievements and employments

prospects for CLD learners indicate are not favourable.

In a recent study by Morgan et al (2018), a best-evidence synthesis is used in 22

studies to investigate whether the minority disproportionate overrepresentation evident in

special education can be explained by a system bias. The regression models showed that

6.6% 6.7%, 4.2%, 5.4% and estimates indicate a significant overrepresentation of English

Language Learners, Asian, Hispanic and Native American respectively. Interestingly, out of

90 estimates with strong external and internal validity, 0% indicated that ethnic or racial bias

contributed to overrepresentation. However 3 out of 18 (16.7) estimates attributed

overrepresentation to language use while 50% estimates pertaining ELL attributed that

children learning English as a second language or CLD are indeed overrepresented and

mistakenly placed in special education. Children are thus misidentified as having learning

disabilities merely based on their ethnicity, race and mostly use of the English language.
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Conclusion

The literature review shows that this problem has continually persisted within the

education system since the 1990s till now and it is yet to be silenced. Culturally and

linguistically diverse leaners are capable of achieving academic success when they are

provided with the appropriate instruction tailored to their specific needs. Research shows that

it is possible to use effective instructional practices on leaners who do not primarily

communicate in English. Also, while special education programs have proven helpful to

leaners with learning disabilities, they are not the most appropriate for culturally and

linguistically diverse leaners. Such problems contributing to the vulnerability of CLD leaners

need to be solved in the best way possible to ensure equal learning opportunities for all

American children.
CRITICAL ESSAY 8

References

Ochoa, S. H., Rhodes, R. L., & Ortiz, S. O. (2005). Assessing culturally and

linguistically diverse students: A practical guide. Guilford press.

Klingner, J., Artiles, A. J., Kozleski, E., Harry, B., Zion, S., Tate, W. & Riley, D.

(2005). Addressing the Disproportionate Representation of Culturally and Linguistically

Diverse Students in Special Education through Culturally Responsive Educational Systems.

Education Policy Analysis Archives/Archivos Analíticos de Políticas Educativas, 13.

Brown, C. L. (2004). Reducing the over-referral of culturally and linguistically

diverse students (CLD) for language disabilities. NABE Journal of research and

practice, 2(1), 225-243.

Artiles, A. J., & Harry, B. (2006). Addressing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse

Student Overrepresentation in Special Education: Guidelines for Parents. NCCREST

Practitioner Brief. Online Submission.

Blanchett, W. J. (2006). Disproportionate representation of African American

students in special education: Acknowledging the role of white privilege and

racism. Educational Researcher, 35(6), 24-28.

Larson, K. E., Pas, E. T., Bradshaw, C. P., Rosenberg, M. S., & Day-Vines, N. L.

(2018). Examining how proactive management and culturally responsive teaching relate to

student behaviour: Implications for measurement and practice. School Psychology

Review, 47(2), 153-166.
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Medina, R. (2017). The disproportionate representation of minorities in special

education.

Garcia, E. (1991). Education of Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Students:

Effective Instructional Practices. Educational Practice Report: 1.