● Industrial-Medical Revolution
Lesson Proper for Week 1
What is ecology? Ecology, the study of
relationships between organisms and the
environment, has been a focus for human
study for as long as we have existed as a
species. Our survival has depended upon
how well we could observe variations in
the environment and predict the responses
of organisms to those variations. The
earliest hunters and gatherers had to know
the habits of their animal prey and where
to find food plants. Later, agriculturists
had to be aware of variations in weather
and soils and of how such variation might
affect crops and livestock.
Brief History of Environmental Science
There are three "revolutions" that play a
significant role in the development of
environmental science.
● Agricultural Revolution
-Agricultural revolution can be
traced back 10,000 years ago
where nomadic lifestyles of hunters
moved gradually to farming of
domesticated plants and animals.
This lifestyle shift resulted to a
negative effect on the environment.
Landscapes undergone intense
alterations and people lived longer
and reproduce more resulting to an
increase in population. During this
time, there was limited awareness
on environmental threats.
Deforestation was unregulated
causing soil erosion which was
believed to have contributed to the
downfall1 of many civilizations.
-The mid-1700s to mid-1800s was
the beginning of Industrial-Medical
Revolution. It is an Age of
enlightenment, as Science
continues to progress and develop.
Development of these new
technologies led to pollution and
other environmentally related
problems. Nuclear weapons, DDT
and other pesticides and synthetic
problems. Materials like plastics
were produced during this time.
Population increased causing
famine because food supply time.
Does not increase. People started to
become more aware of the things
happening around them. In fact,
Ben Franklin fought against
pollution in Philadelphia as
industries continue to pollute the
air. In 1854, Dr. John Snow first as
industries recognized a pattern in
an epidemic and linked it to the
environment. He found out that
contaminated water from one pump
led to the spread of cholera.
Concern about the environment in
the US was voiced only in the
mid-1800s by people like Henry
David Thoreau.
● Information-Globalization
Revolution.
- started way back in 1950 and
flourish during the 1970's. In spite
of the growing awareness on
environmental threats, people
growing continue to develop
products and methods that have
detrimental effects to the
environment. Computers were
 developed to gain access to more lessen the dangerous effects
information in a global Scale brought about by technologies on
through the use of the internet. the Environmental awareness is
Phones and remote- sensing given emphasis by the by emphasis
satellites were invented. These by governments all over the world
developments do not only affect to save only planet we all live the
our personal lives, our culture and earth.
economy but it greatly affects our
Branches of Ecology:
environment. Continuous
destruction of the environment Terrestrial Ecology
became alarming that people
Terrestrial ecology is a branch of ecology
started to formed movement to
that deals with the study of land organisms
raise awareness of the effects of
and how they interact with each other and
technologies to our environment.
adapt to their environment. Aside from
On the other hand, this revolution
that, the diversity and distribution of
also helps increase awareness on
different organisms in various terrestrial
environmental issues through the
habitats are also being focused on.
Internet.
Terrestrial ecology has a wide variety of
● The Environmental Era emerged in
applications like resources management,
1960 up to the present. Several
and in the long run, be effective for
environmental movements existed
conservation measures. Additionally, soil
to increase to increase
properties like moisture, pH, nutrient and
environmental awareness. Rachel
chemical content, and soil type may be
Carson published the Silent
studied.
Spring" in 1962 which helps propel
the modern environmental Aquatic Ecology
movement and raised awareness of
Basically the opposite of terrestrial
the dangerous effects of pesticides
ecology, aquatic ecology deals with the
and other chemicals. Another
study of the ecosystems found in bodies of
ecologist by the name of Paul
water, be it the marine, freshwater, or the
Ehrlich wrote "Population Bomb"
estuarine.Aquatic ecology focuses on the
which made predictions about the
interactions among living organisms in a
effects of Overpopulation.
particular aquatic habitat which can
● In 1970, the formulation of
directly affect various factors in the
environmental laws was deemed
ecosystem. Such factors include
necessary to protect and conserve
competition for food and predation,
the environment to maintain the
temperature, nutrient concentration, and
balance in nature. It is also in 1970
oxygen demand.
that Earth Day was started to be
celebrated to remind people every Microbial Ecology
year that the environment should
Microbial ecology focuses on the study of
not be taken for granted. At
how communities of microorganisms
present, environmental scientists
establish themselves on abiotic substrates
are busy searching for solutions to
and how such organizations enable them to branch of ecology attempts to find the link
interact with each other. between an animal’s behavior to its
environmental adaptation and reproductive
The scope of microbial ecology is quite
success.
huge as it can cover the vast micro-flora in
animal guts, the seemingly simple yet Applied Ecology
actually genotypically complicated
Bringing together all the concepts and
bacterial communities called the biofilms,
principles of ecology, applied ecology
and the complex relationship between
aims to apply these significant knowledge,
prokaryotes and eukaryotes that somehow
findings, and technological advances to
led to their divergence.
understand real world situations and to
Evolutionary Ecology address practical human problems.
Applied ecology includes applications like
Evolutionary ecology merges the two
management of wildlife and natural
scientific studies of evolution and ecology
resources, epidemiology, and even natural
and focuses on the physical and genetic
disaster risk reduction and management.
changes that occurred among organisms
The scope of applied ecology is huge and
and how such modifications were affected
encompasses the fields of biotechnology,
by ecological factors. Basically, it also
ecology, to study how anthropogenic
considers the effect of forces like
activities affect not only micro-systems but
competition, predation, parasitism, and
the biosphere as well.
mutualism in the evolution of individual
species, in a population, or in the entire Like other natural sciences, environmental
community. science is a science that gathers knowledge
about the natural world. The methods of
Population Ecology
science include careful observation, record
As its name suggests, population ecology keeping, logical and mathematical
deals with the study of population reasoning, experimentation, and
structures and dynamics, rather than submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of
looking at the individual behavioral others.
patterns of living organisms. Population
ecology studies the various factors that
affect population size, density, dispersion
modes, and growth rate and mortality rate.
Behavioral Ecology
The next branch of ecology, behavioral
ecology, integrates the study of the
interaction between survival value to the
behavior of organisms and their offspring.
Interestingly, it somehow related to
evolutionary as it examines how an
organism changes its behavior to ensure
survival and perpetuation. At present, this
Lesson Proper for Week 2

Biotic Components
The live component of an ecosystem
comprises plants, animals, and
microorganisms (Bacteria and Fungi).
They carry out different functions and
Ecologists have carry traditionally divided
organisms 'roles in ecosystems into three
broad categories: producers, consumers,
and decomposers.
Primary consumers, also known as
Producers are organisms that are able to herbivores, are animals that eat
use sources of energy to make complex, producers (plants or phytoplankton) as
organic molecules from the simple a source of food. Herbivores, such as
inorganic substances in their environment. leaf-eating insects and seed-eating birds,
In nearly all systems, energy is supplied by are usually quite numerous in ecosystems,
the sun, and organisms such as plants, where they serve as food for the next
algae, and tiny aquatic organisms called organisms in the chain.
phytoplankton use light energy to carry on
photosynthesis. Since producers are the
only organisms in an ecosystem that can
trap energy and make new organic material
from inorganic material, all other
organ-isms rely on producers as a source
of food, either directly or indirectly.
Consumers are organisms that require
organic matter as a source of food. They
consume organic matter to provide
themselves with energy and the organic Secondary consumers or carnivores are
molecules necessary to build their own animals that eat other animals.
bodies. Ari important part of their role is Secondary consumers can be further
the process of respiration in which they subdivided into categories based on what
break down organic matter to inorganic kind of prey they capture and eat. Some
matter. However, consumers can be further carnivores, such as ladybird beetles,
subdivided into categories based on the primarily eat herbivores, such as aphids;
kinds of things they eat and the way they others, such as eagles, primarily eat fish
obtain food. that are themselves carnivores. While
these are interesting conceptual
distinctions, most carnivores will eat any
animal they can capture and kill. In
addition, many animals, called omnivores,
include both plants and animals in their
diet. Even animals that are considered to
be carnivores (foxes, bears) regularly
include large amounts of plant material in
their diets. Conversely, animals often
thought of as herbivores (mice, squirrels,
and seed- eating birds) regularly consume
animals as a source of food. Parasites are
also consumers that have a special way of
obtaining their food. Decomposers are
organisms that use nonliving organic
matter as a source of energy and raw
materials to build their bodies. Whenever
an organism sheds a part of itself, excretes
waste products, or dies, it provides a
source of food for decomposers. Since
decomposers carry on respiration, they are
extremely important in recycling matter by
converting organic matter to inorganic
material. Many small animals, fungi, and
bacteria fill this niche.
Keystone Species
Ecosystems typically consist of many
different species interacting with each
other and their physical surroundings.
However, some species have more central
roles than others. In recognition of this
idea, ecologists have developed the
concept of keystone species
A keystone species is one that has a
critical role to play in the maintenance of
specific ecosystems. In prairie ecosystems,
grazing animals are extremely important in
maintaining the mix of species typical of
grassland. Without the many influences of
the grazers, the nature of the prairie
changes. The relationship among sea
urchins, sea otters, and kelp forests
suggests that sea otters are a keystone
species. Sea otters eat sea urchins, which
eat kelp. A reduction in the number of
otters results in an increase in the number
of sea urchins. Increased numbers of sea
urchins lead to heavy grazing of the kelp
by sea urchins. When the amount of kelp
severely reduced, fish and many other
animals that Iive within the kelp beds lose
their habitat and biodiversity is
significantly reduced.
Abiotic Components
The physical factors of the environment
(which are nonliving) have a major
influence on the life of organisms.
The abiotic components are of two types.
They are:
1. Climatic factors consist of
Temperature, rainfall and snow, wind,
light, humidity etc. The climate of an area
is the result of several factors such as
latitude, elevation, nearness to the sea, and
monsoon activities and ocean currents.
Temperature influences the rates of
biochemical reactions in plants, with the
reaction rates approximately doubling with
every 10°C increase. Plant species require
a range of temperature to survive. Below a
minimum temperature they are inactive,
and above a maximum temperature
biochemical reactions stop. Normally in
many plants growth is possible above 6°C.
In areas with extremes of temperature,
such as the tundra and tropical deserts the
plants have mechanisms to adapt to such
conditions. Light levels decide the
magnitude of photosynthesis reactions. coarse gravel. The varying percentages of
Different plants have their characteristic each size range produce soils with
light requirements in respect of light different characteristics. Soil organic
intensity, duration and wavelength. Some matter is called humus that is formed by
plants, termed heliphytes, require high the decomposition of plant and animal
levels, whereas sciophytes can grow in matter. The rate of decay depends upon the
shady, low light conditions. Water is an nature of the material and the climate. Soil
essential factor for biochemical plant organisms carry out following three main
processes, including photosynthesis. Plants groups of processes.
growing on lands obtain their water
Decomposition of organic material: such
requirements from the soil through their
as plant and animal parts by bacteria,
roots by the osmosis process. Plants
fungi, actinomycetes and Earthworms.
called Hydrophytes grow in fresh water
Bacteria and fungi also breakdown soil
and they cannot withstand drought.
mineral matter generating nutrients.
Xerophytes survive long periods of
drought, and halophytes are able to A limiting factor is anything that
survive in saline water. Mesophytes constrains a population's size and slows or
require moderate conditions (neither stops it from growing. Some examples of
waterlogged nor drought) and are found limiting factors are biotic, like food, mates,
mainly in temperate areas. and competition with other organisms for
resources. Tolerance ranges for the abiotic
2. Edaphic factors or soil factors are pH,
environmental conditions.
mineral and organic matter in soil and
texture of soil. Soil is the major source of
nutrients and moisture in almost all the
land ecosystems. Soil is formed when a
rock weathers .The rocks brake down into
a collection of different inorganic or
mineral particles. The climate influences
the type and rate of the weathering of the
rocks as well as the nature of the
vegetation growing on it. Nutrients are
recycled in the soil by the plants and
animals in their life cycles of growth,
death and decomposition. Thus, humus
An ecological niche is the role and
material essential to soil fertility is
position a species has in its environment;
produced. Soil mineral matter is derived
how it meets its needs for food and shelter,
from the weathering of rock material.
how it survives, and how it reproduces. A
These consist of two types; stable primary
species' niche includes all of its
materials like quartz and various
interactions with the biotic and abiotic
secondary materials like clays and oxides
factors of its environment.
of Al and Fe.
Soil texture is the different size range of
mineral particles varying from fine clay to
 A forest ecosystem consists of several
plants, animals and microorganisms that
Ecosystem homeostasis is equilibrium, or
live in coordination with the abiotic factors
a balance of the organisms in an
of the environment. Forests help in
ecosystem. This means the populations of
maintaining the temperature of the earth
species in the ecosystem are relatively
and are the major carbon sink.
stable. Over time, these populations will
change, but in the short term, they should Grassland Ecosystem
move up and down in cycles around an
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is
average value.
dominated by grasses and herbs.
Types of Ecosystem Temperate grasslands, savanna grasslands
are some of the examples of grassland
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis
ecosystems.
in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning
thousands of miles. There are two types of Tundra Ecosystem
ecosystem: Terrestrial Ecosystem and
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and
Aquatic Ecosystem.
are found in cold climates or where rainfall
Terrestrial Ecosystems is scarce. These are covered with snow for
most of the year. The ecosystem in the
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively
Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.
land-based ecosystems. There are different
types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed Desert Ecosystem
around various geological zones. They are
Deserts are found throughout the world.
as follows:
These are regions with very little rainfall.
1. Forest Ecosystems The days are hot and the nights are cold.

2. Grassland Ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystem

3. Tundra Ecosystems Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems

present in a body of water. These can be
4. Desert Ecosystem
further divided into two types, namely:
5. Forest Ecosystem
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic
ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds,
rivers, streams and wetlands. These have
no salt content in contrast with the marine
ecosystem

Trophic Levels
Each step in the flow of energy through an
Marine Ecosystem ecosystem is known as a trophic level.
The marine ecosystem includes seas and Producers (plants, algae, and
oceans. These have a more substantial salt phytoplankton) constitute the first trophic
content and greater biodiversity in level, and first trophic level, and
comparison to the freshwater ecosystem. Herbivore’s constitute the second trophic
level. Carnivores that eat herbivores are
Lesson Proper for Week 3 the third trophic level, and carnivores at
eat other carnivores are the fourth trophic
Energy Flow through Ecosystems
level. Omnivores, parasites, and
An ecosystem is a stable, self-regulating scavengers occupy different trophic levels,
unit. This does not mean that an ecosystem depending on what they happen to be
is unchanging the organisms within it are eating at the time.
growing reproducing, dying and decaying.
In addition, an ecosystem must have a
continuous input of energy to retain its
stability. The only significant source of
energy for most ecosystems is sunlight.
Producers are the only organisms that are
capable of trapping solar energy through
the process of photosynthesis and making
it available to the ecosystem. The energy is
stored in the form of chemical bonds in
large organic molecules such as
carbohydrates (sugars, starches), fats, and
proteins. The energy stored in the
molecules of producers is transferred to
other organisms when the producers are
eaten.

Food Chains and Food Webs
In practice, ecologists define the term
ecological community in two ways; one
method defines the community as a set of
interacting species found in the same place
and functioning together thus enabling life
to persist. Ecologists therefore may use a
practical or an operational definition, in
which the community consists an all the
species found in an area, whether or not
they are known to interact. Animals in
different cages in a zoo could be called a
community. One way that individuals in a
community interaction by feeding on one
another.
Energy, chemical elements, and some
compounds are transferred from creature
to creature along food chains.
The more complex linkages are called
food webs.
Food web is a connection of multiple food
chains. Food chain follows a single path
whereas food web follows multiple paths.
Ecologists group the organisms in a food
web into trophic levels. A trophic level
(from the Greek word trephein)
meaning to nourish, thus the
"nourishing level") consists of all
organisms in a food web that are the same
number of feeding levels away from the
original energy source. Then original
source of energy in most ecosystems is the
sun. In other cases, it is the energy in
certain inorganic compounds. Green
plants, algae, and certain bacteria produce
sugars through the process of
photosynthesis, using only energy from the
sun and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air.
They are called autotrophs, from the words
auto (self) and trephein (to nourish), thus
"self- nourishing," and are grouped into
the first trophic level.
Trophic level, step in a nutritive series, or
food chain, of an ecosystem. The
organisms of a chain are classified into
these levels on the basis of their feeding
behaviour. The first and lowest level
contains the producers, green plants. The
plants or their products are consumed by
the second-level organisms—the
herbivores, or plant eaters. At the third
level, primary carnivores, or meat eaters,
eat the herbivores; and at the fourth level,
secondary carnivores eat the primary
carnivores. These categories are not
strictly defined, as many organisms feed
on several trophic levels; for example,
some carnivores also consume plant
materials or carrion and are called
omnivores, and some herbivores
occasionally consume animal matter. A
separate trophic level, the decomposers or
transformers, consists of organisms such as
bacteria and fungi that break down dead
organisms and waste materials into
nutrients usable by the producers.
Energy Pyramid
An energy pyramid (sometimes called a
trophic pyramid or an ecological pyramid)
is a graphical representation, showing the
flow of energy at each trophic level in an
ecosystem.
A pyramid of energy shows how much
energy is retained in the form of new
biomass at each trophic level, while a
pyramid of biomass shows how much
biomass (the amount of living or organic
matter present in an organism) is present in
the organisms.
The width of each bar represents the units
of energy available within each trophic
level; the height is always the same. The
flow of energy moves through the layers of
the energy pyramid from the bottom-up,
and is gradually reduced as energy is used
up by the organisms at each level
The base of the energy pyramid indicates
the energy available within primary
producers. Primary producers, also known
as autotrophs, are organisms which create
their own food by taking their energy from
non-living sources of energy. In most
cases, these are photosynthesizing plants,
which use energy from the sun to create
their own nutrition in the form of simple
sugars, although there are exceptions such
as deep sea organisms, which use chemical
energy from hydrothermal vents. In this
description we will focus on ecosystems
that take energy from the sun.
All other levels in the energy pyramid
consist of heterotrophs – organisms that
obtain their nutrition from organic carbon,
usually in the form of other plants and
animals.
The second trophic level consists of
primary consumers. These are the
herbivores that feed solely on primary
producers. The third and fourth levels are
made up of secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers. These are carnivores
and omnivores, which can feed on any of processes, and reproduction. So, of the
the lower levels, although mainly consume 100% total energy available to the plants,
organisms from the trophic level directly only around 10% is made into plant
beneath them. The top layer of the energy tissues, while 90% is used up and is lost as
pyramid contains apex predators. These heat.
are mostly carnivorous animals that have
At each of the subsequent trophic levels,
no natural predators.
the same amount of energy (90%) is lost as
Ecological Pyramid heat, while 10% is turned into available
biomatter. By the time the energy reaches
The pyramid shape is used to represent the
the top trophic level, the apex predators
flow of energy because of the way that
will only receive 0.01% of the primary
energy is used up and lost throughout the
energy! Because there is so little energy
system.
available at the highest trophic level, food
The primary producers take in energy from chains are typically limited to a maximum
the sun. However, only around 1% of the of six levels.
total available sun energy is actually
Throughout the entire energy pyramid,
absorbed into the plants (it can move
decomposers and detritivores break down
through, or bounce off, the plants); this is
the tissues and other organic matter which
the GPP or the Gross Primary Productivity.
has not been consumed by animals higher
Fortunately, such a high amount of energy
in the food chain. In doing so, these
is emitted from the sun, that 1% is
organisms recycle the nutrients back into
sufficient to support plants; in areas of
the soil, playing a vitally important role in
high energy input from the sun, e.g.,
the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
tropical biomes, the GPP is higher than in
those areas where energy input from the
sun is low.
Plants use photosynthesis in order to
convert energy from the sun into chemical
energy, which is stored as organic
compounds such as sugars. The plants then
carry out cell respiration in order to
convert the sugars into the useable energy
molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Cell respiration is a metabolic reaction
which uses up around 60% of the plant’s
energy, leaving around 40% of the GPP as
the NPP, or Net Primary Productivity. This
NPP value represents 100% of the total Laws of Thermodynamics in an
energy units made available for the plants Ecosystem
to use. Energy Flow in an Ecosystem- Laws of
Energy is used up for all life processes thermodynamics describes the energy flow
such as respiration, movement, metabolic in an Ecosystem. 1st law of
thermodynamics- Energy cannot be
created or destroyed, only transformed
from one step to another. 2nd law of
thermodynamics- In the path of energy
transformation some energy loss in the
form of heat and the entropy increases.
The word entropy finds its roots in the
Greek “entropia”, which means "a
turning toward" or "transformation."
The word was used to describe the
measurement of disorder by the
German physicist Rudolph Clausius and
appeared in English in 1868. A common
example of entropy is that of ice melting in
water. The resulting change from formed
to free, from ordered to disordered
increases the entropy.
● 1st law of thermodynamics in
Ecosystem
Energy from Sun to Plant, Chlorophyll of
green plants traps the light energy from
sun and produce food with the help of
water, CO2 and minerals.
Energy users Producers– Green plants use
light energy (sunlight) to produce food
(chemical energy). Primary consumers–
Feed on herbivores and get energy from
plants (Carnivores). Secondary
consumers– Feed on primary consumers
and get energy form them. Tertiary
consumers- Feed on secondary consumers
and get energy. Decomposers- Break down
dead or decaying organism
(decomposition) and get energy.
Food chain or food web support the 1st
law of thermodynamics
Energy Recycling Plants or Producers 1st
tropic level Energy Sun The energy house
Energy Consumers 2nd tropic level
Decomposers 3rd tropic level E n e r g y
Energy Soil, Air, Water with matter Heat
● 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
In the path of energy transformation some
energy loss in the form of heat and the
entropy increases.
The Path Way of Energy Loss Not all food
consumed by heterotrophs (consumers) is
transformed into biomass. At each tropic
level about 90% of energy is loss to
perform metabolic activities. Entropy
increases.
Lesson Proper for Week 4
Biogeochemical cycle, any of the natural
pathways by which essential elements of
living matter are circulated. The term
biogeochemical is a contraction that refers
to the consideration of the biological,
geological, and chemical aspects of each
cycle.
Elements within biogeochemical cycles
flow in various forms from the nonliving
(abiotic) components of the biosphere to
the living (biotic) components and back. In
order for the living components of a major
ecosystem (e.g., a lake or a forest) to
survive, all the chemical elements that
make up living cells must be recycled
continuously. Each biogeochemical cycle
can be considered as having a reservoir
(nutrient) pool—a larger, slow-moving,
usually abiotic portion—and an exchange
(cycling) pool—a smaller but more-active
portion concerned with the rapid exchange
between the biotic and abiotic aspects of
an ecosystem.
All matter is made up of atoms. These
atoms are cycled between the living and
non-living portions of an ecosystem. The
activities involved in the cycling of atoms
include biological, geological, and
chemical processes. Therefore, these
nutrient cycles are often called
biogeochemical cycles.
Some atoms are more common in living
things than are others. Carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, hydrogen, and phosphorus are
found in important organic molecules such
as proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and fats,
which are found in all kinds of living
things. Organic molecules contain large
numbers of carbon atoms attached to one
another. These organic molecules are
initially manufactured from inorganic
molecules by the activities of producers
and are transferred from one living
organism to another in food chains. The
processes of respiration and decay
ultimately break down the complex
organic molecules of organisms and
convert them to simpler, inorganic
constituents that are returned to the abiotic
environment. In this section, we will look
at the flow of six kinds of atoms within
communities and between the biotic and
abiotic portions of an ecosystem: water,
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and
Sulphur.
Water Cycle
The water cycle, also known as the
hydrologic cycle or the HO cycle,
describes the continuous movement of
water on, above and below the surface of
the Earth. The mass water on Earth
remains fairly constant over time but the
partitioning of the water into the major
reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water
and atmospheric is variable depending on
a wide range of climatic. The water moves
from one reservoir to another, such as from
river to ocean, or from the ocean to the
atmosphere, by the physical processes of
evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In
so doing, the water goes through different
phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor).
The water cycle involves the exchange of
energy, which leads to temperature
changes. For instance, when water
evaporates, it lakes up energy from its
surroundings and cools the environment.
When it condenses, it releases energy and
warms the environment. These heat
exchanges influence climate. The
evaporative phase of the cycle purifies
water which then replenishes the land with
freshwater. The flow of liquid water and
ice transports minerals across the globe. It
is also involved in reshaping the
geological features of the Earth, through
processes including erosion and
sedimentation.
The water cycle is also essential for the
maintenance of most life and ecosystems
on the planet. The Sun, which drives the
water cycle, heats water in oceans and
seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into
the air. lce and snow can sublimate directly
into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is
water transpired from plants and
evaporated from the soil. Rising air
currents take the vapor up into the
atmosphere where cooler temperatures
cause it to condense into clouds. Air
currents move water vapor around the
globe; cloud particles collide, grow, and
fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as
precipitation. Some precipitation fails as
snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as them into organic molecules that are used
ice caps and glaciers, which can store by organisms, and the ultimate release of
frozen water for thousands of years. Most inorganic carbon molecules back to the
water falls back into the oceans or onto abiotic environment.
land as rain, where the water flows over
The same carbon atoms are used over and
the ground as surface. A portion of runoff
over again. In fact, you are not exactly the
enters rivers in valleys in the landscape,
same person today that you were
with stream flow moving water towards
yesterday. Some of your carbon atoms are
the oceans. Runoff and water emerging
different. Furthermore, those carbon atoms
from the ground (groundwater) may be
have been involved in many other kinds of
stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff
living things over the past several billion
flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the
years. Some of them were temporary
ground as infiltration. Some water
residents in dinosaurs, extinct trees, or
infiltrates deep into the ground and
insects, but at this instant, they are part of
replenishes aquifers, which can store
you. Carbon atoms are cycled through
freshwater for long periods of time. Some
ecosystems. Plants can incorporate carbon
infiltration stays close to the land surface
atoms from carbon dioxide into organic
and can seep back into surface-water
molecules when they carry on
bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater
photosynthesis, The carbon-containing
discharge. Some groundwater finds
organic molecules are passed to animals
openings in the land surface and comes out
when they eat plants or other animals.
as freshwater springs. In river valleys and
Organic wastes or dead organisms are
flood-plains there is often continuous
consumed by decay organisms. All
water exchange between surface water and
organism, plants, animals, and
ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over
decomposers return carbon atoms to the
time, the water returns to the ocean, to
atmosphere when they carry on
continue the water cycle.
respiration. Oxygen atoms are being
cycled at the same time that carbon atoms
are being cycled.

Carbon Cycle
Oxygen cycle, circulation of oxygen in
All living things are composed of organic
various forms through nature. Free in the
molecules that contain atoms of the
air and dissolved in water, oxygen is
element that carbon. The carbon cycle
second only to nitrogen in abundance
includes the processes and pathways
among uncombined elements in the
involved in capturing inorganic
atmosphere. Plants and animals use
carbon-containing molecules, converting
oxygen to respire and return it to the air
and water as carbon dioxide (CO2). CO2
is then taken up by algae and terrestrial
green plants and converted into
carbohydrates during the process of
photosynthesis, oxygen being a
by-product. The waters of the world are
the main oxygen generators of the
biosphere; their algae are estimated to
replace about 90 percent of all oxygen
used. Oxygen is involved to some degree
in all the other biogeochemical cycles. For
example, over time, detritus from living
organisms transfers oxygen-containing
compounds such as calcium carbonates
into the lithosphere.
Nitrogen cycle, circulation of nitrogen in
various forms through nature. Nitrogen, a
component of proteins and nucleic acids, is
essential to life on Earth. Although 78
percent by volume of the atmosphere is
nitrogen gas, this abundant reservoir exists
in a form unusable by most organisms.
Through a series of microbial
transformations, however, nitrogen is
made available to plants, which in turn
ultimately sustain all animal life. The
steps, which are not altogether sequential,
fall into the following classifications:
nitrogen fixation, nitrogen assimilation,
ammonification, nitrification, and
denitrification.
The phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus is a chemical element found
on Earth in numerous compound forms,
such as the phosphate ion (PO43-), located
in water, soil and sediments. The quantities
of phosphorus in soil are generally small,
and this often limits plant growth. That is
why people often apply phosphate
fertilizers on farmland. Animals absorb
phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating
animals. The role of phosphorus in animals
and plants
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for
animals and plants. It plays a critical role
in cell development and is a key
component of molecules that store energy,
such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate),
DNA and lipids (fats and oils). Insufficient
phosphorus in the soil can result in a
decreased crop yield.
The phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus moves in a cycle through
rocks, water, soil and sediments and
organisms.
Here are the key steps of the phosphorus
cycle
Over time, rain and weathering cause
rocks to release phosphate ions and other
minerals. This inorganic phosphate is then
distributed in soils and water.
Plants take up inorganic phosphate from
the soil. The plants may then be consumed
by animals. Once in the plant or animal,
the phosphate is incorporated into organic
molecules such as DNA. When the plant
or animal dies, it decays, and the organic
phosphate is returned to the soil.
Within the soil, organic forms of
phosphate can be made available to plants
by bacteria that break down organic matter
to inorganic forms of phosphorus. This
process is known as mineralisation.
Phosphorus in soil can end up in
waterways and eventually oceans. Once
there, it can be incorporated into sediments
over time.
Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur is released from geologic sources
through the weathering of rocks. Once
sulfur is exposed to the air, i+ combines
with oxygen, and becomes sulfate
SO4Plants and microbes assimilate sulfate
and convert it into organic forms. As
animals consume plants, the sulfur is
moved through the food chain and released
when organisms die and decompose. Some
bacteria - for example Proteus,
Campylobacter, Pseudomonas and
Salmonella - have the ability to reduce
sulfur, but can also use oxygen and other
terminal electron. Others, such as
Desulfuromonas, use only sulfur. These
bacteria get their energy by reducing
elemental sulfur to hydrogen sulfide. They
may combine this reaction with the
oxidation of acetate, succinate, or other
compounds. Organic The most
well-known sulfur reducing bacteria are
those in the domain Archea, which are
some of the oldest are forms of life on
Earth. They are often extremophiles, living
in hot springs and thermal vents where
other organisms cannot live. Lots of
bacteria reduce small amounts of sulfates
to synthesize sulfur-containing cell
components; this is known as assimilatory
sulfate reduction. By contrast, the sulfate-
reducing bacteria considered here reduce
sulfate in large amounts to obtain energy
and expel the resulting sulfide as waste.
This process is known as dissimilatory
sulfate known as reduction. In a sense,
they breathe sulfate. Dissimilatory sulfate
Sulfur metabolic pathways for bacteria
have important medical implications. For
example, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (the
bacteria causings tuberculosis) and
Mycobacteriumn leprae (which causes
leoprosy) both utilize sulfur, so the sulfur
pathway is a target of drug development to
control these bacteria.
1. Mineralization of organic sulfur into
inorganic forms, such as hydrogen (HS),
elemental sulfur, as
well as sulfide minerals.
2. Oxidation of. hydrogen sulfide, sulfide,
and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate
(SO42-).
3. Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
4. Incorporation of sulfide into organic
compounds (including metal-containing
derivatives)
Lesson Proper for Week 5

Population ecology is the study of

population in relation to their environment.
It explains how the biotic and abiotic
factors influence the abundance, dispersion
and age structure of population Characteristics of Population Ecology

Population is a subset of individuals of one Ecologists use various terms when

species that occupies a particular
geographic area and, in sexually
reproducing species, interbreeds. The
geographic boundaries of a population are
easy to establish for some species but more
difficult for others. For example, plants or
animals occupying islands have a
geographic range defined by the perimeter
of the island. In contrast, some species are
dispersed across vast expanses, and the
boundaries of local populations are more
difficult to determine. A continuum exists
from closed populations that are
geographically isolated from, and lack
exchange with, other populations of the
same species to open populations that
show varying degrees of connectedness.
Population is the group of individuals of a
single species living in the same general
area. Members of the population rely on
the same resources and are likely to
interact and breed with one another.
understanding and discussing populations
of organisms. A population is all of one
kind of species residing in a particular
location. Population size represents the
total number of individuals in a habitat.
Population density refers to how many
individuals reside in a particular area.
● Population Size is represented by
the letter N, and it equals the total
number of individuals in a
population. The larger a population
is, the greater it’s generic variation
and therefore its potential for
long-term survival. Increased
population size can, however, lead
to other issues, such as overuse of
resources leading to a population
crash.
● Population Density refers to the
number of individuals in a
particular area. A low-density area
would have more organisms spread
out. High-density areas would have
more individuals living closer
together, leading to greater
resource competition.
A population consists of all the organisms
of a given species that live in a particular
area.
The statistical study of populations and ● Time-Current/year/month-past
how they change over time is called
year
demography.
Two important measures of a population
Species distribution
are population size, the number of
individuals, and population density, the Often, in addition to knowing the number
number of individuals per unit area or and density of individuals in an area,
volume. ecologists will also want to know their
distribution. Species dispersion
Ecologists estimate the size and density of
patterns—or distribution patterns—refer to
populations using quadrats and the
how the individuals in a population are
mark-recapture method.
distributed in space at a given time.
The organisms in a population may be
The individual organisms that make up a
distributed in a uniform, random, or
population can be more or less equally
clumped pattern. Uniform means that the
spaced, dispersed randomly with no
population is evenly spaced, random
predictable pattern, or clustered in groups.
indicates random spacing, and clumped
These are known as uniform, random, and
means that the population is distributed in
clumped dispersion patterns, respectively.
clusters.
FORMULA:

● Uniform dispersion. In
uniform dispersion, individuals
of a population are spaced
more or less evenly. One
example of uniform dispersion
comes from plants that secrete
toxins to inhibit growth of
nearby individuals—a
Population Growth Rate- Total Change in
Population (N) phenomenon called allelopathy.

Time (t) We can also find uniform

● Total Change= current dispersion in animal species

population- past population

 where individuals stake out and
defend territories.
● Random dispersion. In
random dispersion, individuals
are distributed randomly,
without a predictable pattern.
An example of random
dispersion comes from
dandelions and other plants that
have wind-dispersed seeds. The
seeds spread widely and sprout
where they happen to fall, as
long as the environment is
favorable—has enough soil,
water, nutrients, and light.
● Clumped dispersion. In a
clumped dispersion, individuals
are clustered in groups. A
clumped dispersion may be
seen in plants that drop their
seeds straight to the
ground—such as oak trees—or
animals that live in
groups—schools of fish or
herds of elephants. Clumped
dispersions also happen in
habitats that are patchy, with
only some patches suitable to
live in.
Carrying capacity, the average population
density or population size of a species
below which its numbers tend to increase
and above which its numbers tend to
decrease because of shortages of
resources. The carrying capacity is
different for each species in a habitat
because of that species’ particular food,
shelter, and social requirements.
LIMITING FACTORS
A limiting factor is anything that
constrains a population's size and slows or
stops it from growing. Some examples of
limiting factors are biotic, like food, mates,
and competition with other organisms for
resources. Others are abiotic, like space,
temperature, altitude, and amount of
sunlight available in an environment.
Limiting factors are usually expressed as a
lack of a particular resource. For example,
if there are not enough prey animals in a
forest to feed a large population of
predators, then food becomes a limiting
factor. Likewise, if there is not enough
space in a pond for a large number of fish,
then space becomes a limiting factor.
There can be many different limiting
factors at work in a single habitat, and the
same limiting factors can affect the
populations of both plant and animal
species. Ultimately, limiting factors
determine a habitat's carrying capacity,
which is the maximum size of the
population it can support.
Food: Any nutritious substance that people
or animals eat or drink, or that plants
absorb, in order to maintain life and
growth.
Shelter: A place giving temporary
protection from bad weather or danger.
Water: A colorless, transparent, odorless,
tasteless liquid that forms the seas, lakes,
rivers, and rain and is the basis of the
fluids of living organisms.
Space: A continuous area or expanse that
is free, available, or unoccupied.
Disease: A disorder of structure or
function in a human, animal, or plant,
especially one that produces specific signs
or symptoms or that affects a specific
location and is not simply a direct result of
physical injury.
Parasitism/Predation: A non-mutual
symbiotic relationship between species,
where one species, the parasite, benefits at
the expense of the other, the host. / The
preying of one animal on others.
Nesting Sites: A pocketlike, usually more
or less circular structure of twigs, grass,
mud, etc., formed by a bird, often high in a
tree, as a place in which to lay and
incubate its eggs and rear its young; any
protected place used by a bird for these
purposes.
Weather: The state of the atmosphere at a
place and time as regards heat, dryness,
sunshine, wind and rain.