PNG University of Technology

Department of Electrical &

Communication Engineering

LAB #1: Experiment 1 & 2

Name ID Course
Danstan Kule 21300712 BEEL-2

Joseph Nomane 20100430 BEEL-2

Brian Titley 21300990 BEEL-2

Subject: EE222 – Analog & Electronics

Lecturer: Mr. Mathew Pua
Date of Submission: 21/09/2022
 Lab 1: Experiment 1 & 2
Introduction

Circuitry is a system of interconnected electrical components that communicate with each other and
is designed to carry out a desired process. Voltage (V) and Current (I) are the heartbeat of a circuitry
and it is often convenient to manage these two variables to achieve an estimated outcome such as
current or voltage regulation. The management of current and voltage is done by passive electronic
elements and each exhibit a different behavior or condition which is important for the type of
circuitry itself. This Lab, which consists of two experiments, was conducted using Proteus 8 software
to analyze a specific passive element called a diode, its modes and the kind of volage-current (IV)
behavior it exhibits in a circuit. Experiment 1 was conducted with a PN-Junction diode and
Experiment 2 with a Zener diode.

Aim

• To plot the I-V characteristics of the normal diode and the Zener diode
• To understand the basic principles behind voltage regulation
• To understand the I-V characteristics of both the normal and Zener diode associated with its
different modes
• Learn basic Proteus 8 modelling

Theory

Experiment 1: Standard Diode

A PN-Junction diode consists of a P-Type and N-Type semiconductor sandwiched together. In

between the sandwich is a region called the depletion region and it has a barrier voltage Vb. Vb is a
resultant of an electric field, E, that’s in the direction from the N to P type semiconductor and is the
core of a diodes two modes; Forward-bias and Reverse-bias. When a battery is connected to the
diode and the flow of the conventional current is from P to N, the electric field thereby Vb can be
gradually opposed and eventually overcome hence allowing current to flow across the diode. In this
state the diode is considered to be on. Should the direction of conventional current from the
external source be from N to P then this is in the same direction as the electric field E resulting in a
buildup of the depletion region. This buildup disallows current to flow through the diode however a
very small reverse-biased saturation current is given off due to minority charge carries. In this state
the diode is considered to be off. This theory is typical of a standard diode.

Experiment 2: Zener Diode

In addition to the PN-Junction diode is its modified Zener diode. Generally, when a standard diode is
switched to reverse-biased the in-built electric field, E, builds up and current flow is impeded.
However, should E be greatly increased by an external voltage source it can cause a collision of
electrons and holes within the depletion region causing a phenomenon called Breakdown. The
depletion region “breaks down” and a significant reverse-biased current flows through the Zener
diode. The required voltage to overcome Vb in a reverse-biased state is called the Breakdown
Voltage and the Zener diode operates using the breakdown voltage in addition to the normal
forward-biased state.
Procedure

Experiment 1: Standard Diode

Using Proteus 8 software the circuit in Figure 1 (forward-biased diode circuit) was modelled and
simulated into Figure 1.1. Vs was changed with steady increasing increments and the corresponding
IF and EF values were recorded each time to a total of 17 measurements. These values were inputted
into MS Excel and graphed to show the IF and EF relationship.

Figure 1

Figure 1.1

With the forward-biased diode circuitry analyzed the proceeding step was to analyze a reverse-
biased diode circuitry as given in Figure 1.2 and modelled and simulated using Proteus 8 as in Figure
1.3. In this circuitry Vs was changed with steady increasing increments and the corresponding IF and
EF values were recorded each time to a total of 17 measurements. These values were inputted into
MS Excel and graphed to show the IF and EF relationship.

Figure 1.2
 Figure 1.3

Experiment 2: Zener Diode

Using Proteus 8 software the circuit in Figure 2 (forward-biased Zener diode circuit) was modelled
and simulated into Figure 2.1. Vs was changed with steady increasing increments and the
corresponding IF and EF values were recorded each time to a total of 17 measurements. These values
were inputted into MS Excel and graphed to show the IF and EF relationship. A 1N4732A Zener diode
was used.

Figure 2

Figure 2.1
With the forward-biased Zener diode circuitry analyzed the proceeding step was to analyze a
reverse-biased Zener diode circuitry as given in Figure 2.2 and modelled and simulated using Proteus
8 as in Figure 2.3. In this circuitry Vs was changed with steady increasing increments and the
corresponding IF and EF values were recorded each time to a total of 17 measurements. These values
were inputted into MS Excel and graphed to show the IF and EF relationship.

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

After analyzing the reverse-biased Zener configuration was the analysis of Zener diode circuit as a
voltage regulator as depicted in Figure 2.4 and simulated and modelled as in Figure 2.5. Two

Figure 2.4
analyses were made. One analysis was voltage regulation with a constant input voltage. Vs was set to
15 V and VNL (voltage with no load) was determined via a voltmeter with RL removed. Then RL was
placed back into the circuitry and RL was varied with steady increasing increments and its
corresponding VFL and IL values were measured. Using these values, the voltage regulation was
calculated for each RL case using the voltage regulation percentage formula and the results were
recorded.

Figure 2.5

Briefly after the previous analysis was the second analysis. This case RL was kept constant at 15 kilo
ohms as in Figure 2.6. The voltage supply was varied steadily with increasing increments and its
corresponding EFL and IL values were measured and recorded.

Figure 2.6

The analysis for the various measurements were both recorded, tabled and then represented in
graphs using MS excel.

Discussion & Lab Questions

Experiment 1

Forward-bias calculations
Static Resistance at Dynamic Resistance at
8mA → 94 Ω 8mA → 5 Ω
2mA → 460 Ω 2mA → 15 Ω
 Reverse-bias calculations
Static Resistance at Dynamic Resistance at
10 V → 76,923,077 Ω 10 V → 66,666,667 Ω

From Ohms law, V = IR. Current is inversely proportional to resistance which is clearly seen in the
forward-bias static and dynamic resistance calculations. Static resistance at 8mA gave 94 Ω however
2mA gave 460 Ω which agrees with ohms law. Same went for the dynamic resistance. For the reverse
-bias calculations 10 V gave 76,923,077 Ω static resistance and 66,666,667 Ω dynamic resistance. In
reverse-bias there is little or no current flow across the diode even at 10 V which is the same as
saying resistance is infinite or a very large number. Having such high resistance values at 10 V agrees
with ohms law and is sensible to the theory.

Pre-lab Questions:

1. Define depletion region of a diode.

The depletion region is the junction of a P-Type and N-type semiconductor sandwich. Since
the P-Type semiconductor and N-Type have opposite majority charge carriers, when they
are placed together these charges attract and cross to the opposite type semiconductor. The
movement of charges causes a build-up in the PN sandwich in which eventually reach
equilibrium and has an induced electric field from the N to P direction. This build-up, after
reaching equilibrium, prevents additional charges from crossing across the P to N or N to P
thereby creating a barrier. This region is the depletion or space-charge region.
2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
These two terms refer to the state in which the PN junction diode acts as a capacitor. When
in the reverse-biased with a sufficient voltage source, a diode will experience a build-up in its
depletion due to the polarity of the reversed voltage source matching the induced electric
field in the depletion region. A build-up of the depletion region means a buildup of charges
within that region thereby giving the diode a space-charge capacitance. And of course, the
voltage from the external source is not always steady so transition is the amount of
capacitance changed with increasing voltage.
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
It is exponential.
4. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?

5. What is the diode equation?

𝑞𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇 − 1)

where,
 I → net current flow
I0 → saturation current
q → electron charge
V → applied voltage across the diode
K → boltzmann’s constant
T → absolute temperature
n → ideality factor

Post-lab Questions:

1. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
Cut-in voltage is also known as the barrier voltage of a diode. It is the amount of voltage
needed to be overcome in order for current to flow through the diode. The cut-in voltage for
Silicon (Si) is 0.7 V whilst for Germanium (Ge) is 0.3 V.
2. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
A PN junction diode allows current to flow in one direction only therefore its main
application lies in half and full wave rectification. That is to produce a current consistent in
one direction only such as converting AC to DC.
3. What is PIV?
PIV stands for Perk Inverse Voltage. PIV is the maximum voltage in which a diode in reverse-
biased state can withstand before breakdown.
4. What is the break down voltage?
Breakdown voltage is the reverse-biased barrier voltage of a diode which needs to be
overcome in order for a large revere-biased current to flow.
5. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?
Increasing temperature increases charge carrier energy so the barrier voltage can be easily
overcome. Increased temperature means ease of breach of the depletion region.

Experiment 2

Forward-bias calculations
Static Resistance at Dynamic Resistance at
6mA → 0.029 Ω 6mA → 0.0007 Ω

Reverse-bias calculations
Static Resistance at Dynamic Resistance at
6mA → The diode couldn’t reach 6mA as Vs was 6mA → The diode couldn’t reach 6mA as Vs was
too small in this experiment. too small in this experiment.

Pre-lab Questions:

1. What type of temperature Coefficient does the Zener diode have?

Below 5 V the Zener diode has a negative temperature coefficient. Above 5 V it has a
positive coefficient.
2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how will the depletion width be eeffected?
Impurity or doping is done to increase conductivity or flow of charges. If the impurity
concentration is increased more charges are allowed to flow meaning less ions will be able
to be stuck in the depletion region. Increased concentration means smaller depletion width.
 3. How will the breakdown voltage of a particular diode be controlled?
It will be controlled with doping concentration. Doping concentration influences how many
ions get stuck in the depletion region and the magnitude of the depletion region determines
the required breakdown voltage for current to flow through the diode.
4. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown have?
Since breakdown voltage increases with temperature in avalanche breakdown, therefore the
temperature coefficient for avalanche breakdown is positive only.

The lab was carried out using Proteus 8 software. All precision of the data was limited to the
simulated precision of the software and there appeared to be no error. In the real world, there will
always be error but as for this simulated work, it proceeded smoothly and ohms law in general was
obeyed.

Results & Explanation

Experiment 1: Standard Diode

Forward-biased Reverse-biased
Es (V) Ef (V) If (mA) Es (V) Ef (V) If (mA)
0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0
0.2 0.2 0 0.2 0.2 0
0.3 0.3 0 0.3 0.3 0
0.4 0.4 0 0.4 0.4 0
0.5 0.48 0.02 0.5 0.5 0
0.6 0.52 0.08 0.6 0.6 0
0.7 0.54 0.16 0.7 0.7 0
0.8 0.56 0.24 0.8 0.8 0.00001
0.9 0.57 0.33 0.9 0.9 0.00001
1 0.58 0.42 1 1 0.00001
2 0.63 1.37 2 2 0.00002
4 0.66 3.34 4 4 0.00005
6 0.68 5.32 6 6 0.00007
8 0.69 7.31 8 8 0.0001
10 0.70 9.30 10 10 0.00013
12 0.71 11.30 12 12 0.00015
14 0.71 13.30 14 14 0.00018

Es is the volts for the external voltage source or battery. Ef is the voltage across the diode and If is the
current flowing through the diode and the circuit. For the forward-biased state it was seen that as Es
increased, Ef and If also increased but slowly until Es hit 0.7 V which Ef and If increased dramatically.
Since this value jump was achieved at 0.7 V it can be deduced that this diode had a barrier voltage of
0.7 V and is a silicon diode. For the reverse-biased config, despite increases in Es, Ef and If barely
increased at all. The reverse barrier voltage which is also the breakdown voltage is significantly high
in this config which explains that no current can be achieved with a low voltage from Es. In order for
significant current to flow, Es must be between 50 V and 100 V however in this case the maximum
voltage was a poor 14 V.
 Forward-Bias I-V Graph Reverse-Bias I-V Graph
14 0.0002
12
10 0.00015
If (mA)

If (mA)
8
0.0001
6
4 0.00005
2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 5 10 15
Ef (V) Ef (V)

Experiment 2: Zener Diode

Forward-biased Reverse-biased
Es (V) Ef (V) If (mA) Es (V) Ef (V) If (mA)
0.1 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0
0.2 0.2 0 0.2 0.2 0
0.3 0.3 0 0.3 0.3 0
0.4 0.4 0 0.4 0.4 0
0.5 0.5 0 0.5 0.5 0
0.6 0.58 0.02 0.6 0.6 0
0.7 0.62 0.08 0.7 0.7 0
0.8 0.64 0.16 0.8 0.8 0.00001
0.9 0.65 0.25 0.9 0.9 0.00001
1 0.66 0.34 1 1 0.00001
2 0.70 1.30 2 2 0.00002
4 0.72 3.28 4 4 0.00005
6 0.74 5.26 6 4.67 1.33
8 0.75 7.25 8 4.69 3.32
10 0.75 9.25 10 4.71 5.29
12 0.76 11.20 12 4.72 7.28
14 0.76 13.20 14 4.72 9.28

In the forward-biased state, the Zener diode acts exactly like the standard diode in Experiment 1
even having the same trend after bypassing 0.7 V indicating the Zener diode to be a silicon one.
Since the Zener diode is designed to operate with breakdown voltage, it was no wonder that a
reverse current was able to be produced with a low voltage supply as compared to Experiment 1. In
the reverse-biased state a large current was produced when Es was 6 V and Ef was 4.67 V. This
indicated that the breakdown voltage of the Zener diode was approx. 4.7 V.
 Forward-Bias I-V Graph Reverse-Bias I-V Graph
14 10
12
8
10
6
If (mA)

If (mA)
8
6 4
4
2
2
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 1 2 3 4 5
Ef (V) Ef (V)

Varying RL with fixed Vin = Vs Fixed RL with varying Es = Vs

Vin = 15 V VNL = 4.73 V RL = 15 k Ω
RL (Ω) VFL (V) IL (mA) Regulation (%) Es (V) EFL (V) IL (mA)
100 1.36 13.6 278 1 0.94 0.06
200 2.5 12.5 89.2 2 1.87 0.13
500 4.66 9.32 1.5 4 3.75 0.25
1000 4.71 4.71 0.4 6 4.66 0.31
2000 4.72 2.36 0.2 8 4.69 0.31
5000 4.72 0.94 0.2 10 4.71 0.31
10000 4.73 0.47 0 12 4.72 0.31
20000 4.73 0.24 0 14 4.72 0.31

Two cases were analyzed. One was when Vin was constant whilst RL was varied and the other was
when RL was constant and Vin=Vs was varied. For the first case when Vin was constant with changing
RL, it can be seen that IL decreases with increasing resistance. With increased resistance there needs
to be more driving force for the eventually small current to flow which explains why VFL increased
with increasing RL. The voltage regulation was calculated using the formula below:
𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 100 ∗ ( )
𝑉𝐹𝐿
On a side note, VNL was the voltage across the circuit without RL. The new voltage across RL is
basically called the output voltage and regulations are usually done with that output voltage.

The max voltage VFL can reach was 4.73 V which was equal to VNL and all the other VFL for the other
values of RL was measured against this for voltage regulation percentage. In other words, the
maximum voltage that can pass through the Zener diode is 4.73 V which was confirmed in the
second case of the analysis where RL was constant while Es=Vs was varied. In the second case it can
be seen that Es was increased to 14 V but the corresponding EFL remained at 4.66 – 4.72 V when Es
 surpassed 4 V. Current is proportional is voltage so when Es was increased IL increased also. For both
graphs below it can be easily seen that the dots come to a complete stop somewhere before 5 V.

Varying RL with Fixed Vin Graph Varying Vs with Fixed RL Graph

16 0.35
14 0.3
12 0.25
10

IL (mA)
IL (mA)

0.2
8
0.15
6
4 0.1
2 0.05
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
VFL (V) EFL (V)
Reference

Neamen A. D. (2022). Microelectronics: Circuit Analysis and Design [pdf]. Retrieved from PNG
University of Technology BEEL-2 Google Classroom

Toppr Answr. (2022). Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits. Retrieved
from https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/temperature-coefficient-of-avalanche-breakdown-
diodes-is/