PMFIAS Science Technology Part 1 PF

Science & Technology Compilation by Pmfias.
com – Part I
Print-Friendly PDF – Contents
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Laws & Rules that govern Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ........................................................................................ 7
Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) ................................................................................................... 7
Types of Intellectual Property .......................................................................................................................................... 7

Patents .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020 ................................................................................................................................................... 11
Industrial Designs ............................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Copyright ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Trademarks ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Geographical Indications ................................................................................................................................................................. 12
Trade secrets ................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Plant Variety Protection .................................................................................................................................................................. 12
National IPR Policy, 2016................................................................................................................................................ 13

Objectives under policy are ............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Intellectual Property Rights Issues: The Five Major Challenges Faced ....................................................................... 14
Patent Evergreening Prevention ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
Subsidies & IPR Issues ..................................................................................................................................................................... 14
The Product Patents Process ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
Protecting traditional knowledge.................................................................................................................................................... 14
Compulsory Licensing & Drug Price Control Order ......................................................................................................................... 15
Some other issues ........................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Related Topics .................................................................................................................................................................. 15

Cell for IPR Promotion & Management (CIPAM) ............................................................................................................................ 15
IP Nani ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 15 1
Contemporary Technologies and Their Applications ....................................................................................................... 15

PMF IAS – Learn Smart
3D Printing ....................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Artificial Intelligence ....................................................................................................................................................... 17

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? .................................................................................................................................................. 18
Categories of Artificial Intelligence ................................................................................................................................................. 18
Significance of Artificial Intelligence ............................................................................................................................................... 19
India & AI ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Challenges before AI in india ........................................................................................................................................................... 21
FASTag .............................................................................................................................................................................. 21
RFID ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Fuel Cell ............................................................................................................................................................................ 22

Fuel Cell Mechanism ....................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Advantages of fuel cells................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Disadvantages of fuel cells .............................................................................................................................................................. 22
Nuclear Fusion – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) ............................................................ 23

Nuclear Fission vs. Nuclear Fusion .................................................................................................................................................. 25
Lithium-ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs ..................................................................................................... 26

Lithium-ion battery ......................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Lithium ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 28
Cobalt .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles vs. Electric Vehicles ............................................................................................................. 29
Economies of EV .............................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Nanoparticles ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Gold Nano Particles (GNP) .............................................................................................................................................................. 32
Param Siddhi Supercomputer ........................................................................................................................................ 32

National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) ....................................................................................................................................... 32
The speed of a Supercomputer ....................................................................................................................................................... 33
Reverse osmosis (RO) ...................................................................................................................................................... 33

Basics ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Reverse Osmosis (RO) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Superconductor ............................................................................................................................................................... 36
Maglev trains ................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
Information and Communication Technologies ............................................................................................................... 36
5G ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 36 2
5G will enable .................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
Health concerns associated with 5G networks ............................................................................................................................... 37
Challenges in commercialization of 5G ........................................................................................................................................... 37
Fibre Optics ...................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Internet of Things (IoT) ................................................................................................................................................... 41

NB-IoT.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 41
Internet of Things ............................................................................................................................................................................ 41
Project Loon & Starlink ................................................................................................................................................... 42
Project Loon .................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Starlink ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 42
Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi) ............................................................................................................................................... 43

How does Voice over Wi-Fi benefit the mobile network operator (MNO)? ................................................................................... 43
How does VoWifi benefit the end user? ......................................................................................................................................... 43
How is VoWifi different from OTT calling? ...................................................................................................................................... 43
How is VoWifi different from VoLTE?.............................................................................................................................................. 43
Why are MNOs adopting VoWifi technology now? ........................................................................................................................ 44
Privacy and Data Protection Related Topics ..................................................................................................................... 44
Data Localization and Data Protection .......................................................................................................................... 44

What is Data Localization? .............................................................................................................................................................. 44
B.N Shrikrishna report on Data Protection ..................................................................................................................................... 44
GDPR vs Data Protection Bill ........................................................................................................................................................... 46
Virtual Private Network (VPN) ....................................................................................................................................... 47

VPN and privacy .............................................................................................................................................................................. 48
India Space Programmes and Related Concepts .............................................................................................................. 48
Terms and Concepts related to Satellite Launches and Satellite Orbits ..................................................................... 48
Kepler's laws of planetary motion (applicable to satellites also) .................................................................................................... 48
Perigee and Apogee ........................................................................................................................................................................ 49
Why satellites revolve rather than staying still in space? ............................................................................................................... 49
Low Earth Orbit (LEO: 200-2000 km) .............................................................................................................................................. 50
Highly Elliptical Orbits ..................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Geosynchronous Orbits (GSO) ........................................................................................................................................................ 51
Geostationary Orbit or Geosynchronous Equatorial Orbit (GEO) ................................................................................................... 51
Geostationary vs Geosynchronous ................................................................................................................................................. 52
Medium Earth Orbits (MEO: 2000-36,000 km) ............................................................................................................................... 53
Polar Orbits (PO) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 53 3
Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO) ......................................................................................................................................................... 53
Parking Orbit ................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Hofmann transfer orbit ................................................................................................................................................................... 54

Geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) ............................................................................................................................................. 54
Escape velocity ................................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) .............................................................................................................................................. 54
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) ........................................................................................................................... 55
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV-III) ......................................................................................................... 55
Chandrayaan-2 ................................................................................................................................................................. 56
Gaganyaan Mission ......................................................................................................................................................... 57
GEMINI: Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation & Information ......................................................... 58
The need for GEMINI ....................................................................................................................................................................... 58
How GEMINI works? ....................................................................................................................................................................... 58
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) ....................................................................................................... 58

Satellite-based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) ............................................................................................................................... 58
India’s Communication Satellites ................................................................................................................................... 59

Why are the Geostationary satellites launched from east coast in eastward direction and from locations that are close to the
equator? .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
NavIC Navigation System ............................................................................................................................................... 62

Countries are working on building their navigation systems .......................................................................................................... 62
NavIC (IRNSS) .................................................................................................................................................................................. 62
Additional Reading .......................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Private Sector Participation in Space Sector ................................................................................................................. 64

IN-SPACe ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
About ISRO ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Indian Missile Systems ........................................................................................................................................................ 65
Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile ................................................................................................................................... 65

Ballistic Missiles ............................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Cruise missile ................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Differences between Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile ................................................................................................................ 66
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) .................................................................................. 66

India’s Missiles ................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Prithvi Missiles ................................................................................................................................................................................ 68
Agni Missiles .................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) ......................................................................................................................................................... 68
Brahmos Missiles............................................................................................................................................................................. 68 4
Shaurya Missile ............................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Space and Astronomy Related Concepts ........................................................................................................................... 70
Asteroids .......................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Hayabusa Mission 2......................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Closest stars to the Sun ................................................................................................................................................... 71

Gravitational waves ......................................................................................................................................................... 72
LIGO ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
Northern Lights ............................................................................................................................................................... 73

Magnetosphere ............................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA) .......................................................................................................................... 74

Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) .............................................................................................................................................................. 74
Potentially Hazardous Objects (PHO) .............................................................................................................................................. 75
Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment (AIDA) .............................................................................................................................. 76
Superhabitable Planets ................................................................................................................................................... 77

What are Exoplanets? ..................................................................................................................................................................... 77
What is Dark Energy? ...................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Dark Matter ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Superhabitable Planet ..................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Biotechnology Related Concepts ....................................................................................................................................... 78
Bioweapons ...................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Bacillus Anthracis (Anthrax) ............................................................................................................................................................ 80
Australia Group ............................................................................................................................................................................... 80
Multilateral Export Control Regime (MECR) ................................................................................................................................... 80
IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project ............................................................................................................... 80

Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 80
Difference between DNA vs RNA .................................................................................................................................................... 81
Genome ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Genome Sequencing ....................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Stem Cell or Cord Blood Banking ................................................................................................................................... 83

Stem Cells ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 83
Digital India Project............................................................................................................................................................. 84
Optical-Fibre Connectivity .............................................................................................................................................. 84
National Digital Health Mission ..................................................................................................................................... 84 5

National Health Policy 2017 ............................................................................................................................................................ 85
Cybersecurity Policy 2020 ............................................................................................................................................... 85

National Cyber Security Strategy 2020 (NCSS 2020) ....................................................................................................................... 85
Objectives of National Cyber Security Policy .................................................................................................................................. 86
Diseases and Related Topics that are Frequently in News ............................................................................................... 86
Antimicrobial resistance (AR) ......................................................................................................................................... 86

2019-05: World’s rivers loaded with antibiotics waste ................................................................................................................... 87
2019-07: Colistin banned in animal food industry .......................................................................................................................... 87
Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) ................................................................................................................... 87

Vaccines provided under UIP .......................................................................................................................................................... 88
Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) ............................................................................................................................... 89

The link between hypoglycaemic encephalopathy (HE) and litchi .................................................................................................. 89
Diabetes ............................................................................................................................................................................ 89
Type 1 diabetes ............................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Type 2 diabetes ............................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Gestational diabetes ....................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) ............................................................................................................................................... 90

Hepatitis ........................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Influenza (Flu) .................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Nipah virus ....................................................................................................................................................................... 92

Nipah virus infection ....................................................................................................................................................................... 92
Plasmodium Vivax Malaria ............................................................................................................................................. 92
Pneumonia ....................................................................................................................................................................... 93
Rotavirus .......................................................................................................................................................................... 93
Sickle Cell Anemia ........................................................................................................................................................... 93

What is Thalassemia? ...................................................................................................................................................................... 93
What is Sickle Cell Disease? ............................................................................................................................................................ 93
Tuberculosis (TB) ............................................................................................................................................................. 94

TB Treatment .................................................................................................................................................................................. 94
Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) .................................................................................................................................................... 94
Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) ........................................................................................................................................... 94
Causes of multidrug resistant-TB .................................................................................................................................................... 94
Treatment for drug-resistant TB ..................................................................................................................................................... 95
The goal to end TB by 2025 ............................................................................................................................................................. 95
6
National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP) ................................................................................................................................... 95
Typhoid fever ................................................................................................................................................................... 96

Miscellaneous Topics........................................................................................................................................................... 96
Criticality .......................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Graphene .......................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Malware (malicious software) ........................................................................................................................................ 97
Different types of malware ............................................................................................................................................................. 98
Super Apps ....................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Trans-Fat .......................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Fats .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 99
Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat and Trans Fat ................................................................................................................................ 99
This file covers Sci & Tech related concepts that are repetitive in nature | These topics are already cov-
ered in the Current Affairs files | You should focus on the relevant topics only when they are in news.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
• Intellectual property is a category of prop- Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual

erty that includes intangible creations of the Property Rights (TRIPS)
human intellect.
• In simple terms, it refers to creations of the • TRIPS is an international agreement on intellec-
mind, such as tual property rights.
✓ inventions • The Agreement covers most forms of intellec-
✓ literary & artistic works tual property including
✓ designs & symbols,
✓ patents,
✓ names & images used in commerce.
✓ copyright,
• The main purpose of intellectual property law is
✓ trademarks,
to
✓ geographical indications,
✓ encourage the creation of a wide variety
✓ industrial designs,
of intellectual goods &
✓ trade secrets, &
✓ strike the right balance between the inter-
✓ exclusionary rights over new plant varie-
ests of innovators & wider public interest.
ties.
Laws & Rules that govern Intellectual Prop- • It came into force in 1995 & is binding on all
erty Rights (IPR) members of the World Trade Organization
(WTO).
• The importance of IPR was first recognized in
the
Types of Intellectual Property
1. Paris Convention for the Protection of In-
dustrial Property (1883) & Patents
7
2. Berne Convention for the Protection of Lit-
erary & Artistic Works (1886). • A patent is an exclusive right granted for an in-
• Both are administered by World Intellectual vention, which is a new product or process
Property Organization (WIPO). that meets conditions of
• IPRs have been outlined in Article 27 of Uni- ✓ novelty,
versal Declaration of Human Rights. ✓ non-obviousness, &
• WTO governs IPR through Trade Related As- ✓ industrial use.
pects of the Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS).
• A patent provides the owner with the right to de-
cide how - or whether - the invention can be
used by others.
8
PMF IAS – Learn Smart 9
Criteria for issuing Patents in India Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020
1. Novelty: it should be new (not published • The central government has published
earlier + no prior Public Knowledge/ Public amended Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020.
Use in India) • The new rules have amended the format of a
2. Non obviousness: It must involve an in- disclosure statement that patentees & licen-
ventive step (technical advanced in compari- sees are required to annually submit to the
son to existing knowledge + non‐obvious to Patent Office.
a person skilled in the relevant field of tech- • Format contains disclosing the extent to which
nology) they have commercially worked or made the pa-
3. Industrial use: It should be capable of Indus- tented inventions available to the public in
trial application the country.
• Patents in India are governed by “The patent • The disclosure is to be made in the Form 27 for-
Act 1970” which was amended in 2005 to make mat as prescribed under the Patent Rules, 2003.
it compliant with TRIPS. • The patentees & licensees as well as the Patent
Office have blatantly disregarded this statutory
What cannot be patented? requirement.
11
• There has been significant pressure from
• Frivolous Invention: Invention that harms public MNCs & the U.S. to do away with this re-
order/Morality/ health of animals, plants & hu- quirement.
mans
• Methods of agriculture or horticulture Criticism of Patent (Amendment) Rules,
• Traditional Knowledge 2020
• Computer Program
• Inventions related to Atomic Energy • The amendment has significantly weakened the
• Plants & Animals requirement of submitting information in the
• Mere discovery of scientific principle disclosure.
• This could hamper the effectiveness of India’s product (handicrafts & industrial goods) origi-
compulsory licensing regime which depends nating from a definite geographical territory.
on full disclosure of patent working infor- • GI tag conveys an assurance of quality & dis-
mation. tinctiveness of a product, which is essentially
• This in turn could hinder access to vital inven- attributable to the place of its origin.
tions including life-saving medicines. • Most commonly, a geographical indication in-
cludes the name of the place of origin of the
Industrial Designs goods.
• Once the GI protection is granted, no other
• An industrial design constitutes the ornamental
producer can misuse the name to market sim-
or aesthetic aspect of an article/object.
ilar products.
• A design may consist of three-dimensional fea-
• It also provides comfort to customers about the
tures, such as the shape or surface of an article,
authenticity of that product.
or of two-dimensional features, such as pat-
• Geographical Indicators in India are gov-
terns, lines or colors.
erned by “The Geographical Indications of
• Industrial Designs in India are governed by
Goods (Registration & Protection) Act,
“The Designs Act 2000”.
1999”.
Copyright What is the difference between a Geograph-

ical Indication (GI) & a Trademark?
• Copyright is a legal term used to describe the
rights that creators have over their literary &
• A trademark is a sign/word/phrase used by an
artistic works.
entity to distinguish its goods & services from
• Works covered by copyright range from books,
those of others.
music, paintings, sculpture & films, to computer
• A geographical indication tells consumers that a
programs, databases, advertisements, maps &
product is produced in a certain place & has
technical drawings.
certain characteristics that are due to that
• Copyrights in India are governed by “The
place of production.
Copyright Act, 1957”.
• A trademark gives the entity the right to prevent
Trademarks others from using the trademark.
• On the other hand, GI may be used by all pro-
• A trademark is a sign capable of distinguish- ducers who make their products in the place
ing the goods or services of one enterprise designated by a geographical indication.
from those of other enterprises.
• Trademarks date back to ancient times when ar- Trade secrets
12
tisans used to put their signature or "mark" on
• Trade secrets are IP rights on confidential infor-
their products.
mation which may be sold or licensed.
• Trademarks in India are governed by Trade
• The unauthorized acquisition use or disclosure

Marks Act 1999 which was amended in 2010.
of such secret information by others is regarded
Geographical Indications as an unfair practice & a violation of the trade
secret protection.
• A GI tag is a legal recognition given primarily to • There is no specific law.
an agricultural, natural or a manufactured
Plant Variety Protection
• It refers to the protection granted for plant • Facilitate an effective system for protection of
varieties. plant varieties & the rights of farmers.
• These rights are given to the farmers & breeders • Encourage the development of new varieties of
to encourage the development of new varieties plants.
of plants. • Protect the rights of the farmers in respect of
• Plant variety protection in India is governed their contribution in conserving plant genetic
by “The Protection of Plant Varieties & Farm- resources.
ers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001”. • Facilitate the growth of the seed industry which
will ensure the availability of high quality seeds.
Protection of Plant Varieties & Farmers’
Rights (PPVFR) Act, 2001 Criticism of PPVFR Act, 2001
• PPVFR Act, 2001 has been enacted in India for • Discourages research & innovation: PPVFR
giving effect to the TRIPS Agreement. Act allows farmers to use patented varieties &
• The PPVFR Act retained the main spirit of TRIPS hence private companies are not keen to bring
viz., IPRs as an incentive for technological in- new technology.
• India neither invests in public sector nor re-
novation.
• However, the Act also had strong provisions to spects private & foreign players’ IPR (bad for
protect farmers’ rights. business).
• The act allows farmers to plant, grow, ex-
change & sell patent-protected crops, in- National IPR Policy, 2016
cluding seeds, & only bars them from selling
• The Policy aims to push IPRs as a marketable
it as “branded seed”.
financial asset, promote innovation & entre-
• It recognised three roles for the farmer: cultiva-
preneurship, while protecting public interest.
tor, breeder & conserver.
• The plan will be reviewed every five years in
1. As cultivators, farmers were entitled to plant-
consultation with stakeholders.
back rights.
• To have strong & effective IPR laws, steps would
2. As breeders, farmers were held equivalent to
be taken — including review of existing IP laws
plant breeders.
— to update & improve them or to remove
3. As conservers, farmers were entitled to rewards
anomalies & inconsistencies.
from a National Gene Fund.
• The policy is entirely compliant with the
• After joining WTO in 1995, the choice before
WTO’s agreement on TRIPS.
India was to either enact a law or to accept
• Department of industrial policy & promotion
the plant breeders’ rights given by the Inter-
(DIPP) is the nodal agency for all IPR issues.
national Union for Protection of New Plant
• The policy retains the provisions on Compul- 13
Varieties (UPOV Convention).
sory Licensing (CL) as well as preventing ever-
• UPOV option was earlier rejected because it
greening of drug patents (Section 3(d) of In-
denied the farmers the freedom to re-use
dia's Patents Act).

farm saved seeds & to exchange them with
• Under Indian Patents Act, a CL can be issued
their neighbours.
for a drug if the medicine is deemed unaf-
• However, in 2002, India joined the UPOV
fordable, among other conditions, & the gov-
convection.
ernment grants permission to qualified generic
Objectives of the PPVFR Act drug makers to manufacture it.
Objectives under policy are • This has discouraged investments from western
countries.
Subsidies & IPR Issues
• A major form of subsidies includes food subsidy,

fertilizer subsidy, education subsidy, etc.
• For the complete implementation of TRIPS
agreements, one needs to reduce or eliminate
these subsidies.
• Thus, GOI needs to create a balance between
providing subsidies & providing IP rights in
India.
The Product Patents Process
• A product patent protects a product.

• It offers high protection to the original inventor
to reduce the competition for the same product.
• Whereas a process patent protects the pro-
Intellectual Property Rights Issues: The Five cess through which one manufactures the
Major Challenges Faced product & not the product.
• It reduces the element of monopoly in the mar-
• There are many IPR issues that one faces while ket.
getting IP rights in India. The issues are as fol- • As India is a part of the TRIPS agreement, the
lows: agreement requires all its members to shift
their patent regime from process to product
Patent Evergreening Prevention patent.
• This remains a challenge for India, as process
• One of the most important intellectual property patent would be more helpful to a country like
rights issues challenges is the prevention of the India.
evergreening of the patents for multinational • This is since India is a developing country & or-
companies. dinary people are struggling with basic necessi-
• Evergreening is strategy for extending the term ties like food.
of granted patent which is about to expire with-
out increasing therapeutic efficacy in order to Protecting traditional knowledge 14
retain royalties.
• As we know, the companies cannot evergreen • Traditional knowledge, especially in the field of
their patents simply by making minor medicine, is like a gold mine.
changes. • GOI is bound to protect traditional knowledge

• So, section 3(d) in the Indian Patent Act by not allowing MNC’s to get patents on tradi‐
(IPA) possess as one of the biggest issues with tional culture.
regards to IPR. • Above all, the government has created a Tradi-
• This act bars the grant of patents to new tional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) to
forms of substances. prevent the patenting of traditional knowledge.
• So, this is one of the intellectual property rights 1. India is key exporter of counterfeit fake
issues in India. products such as foodstuffs, textiles, shoes,
electronics etc
Compulsory Licensing & Drug Price Control 2. Judicial delays in IPR disputes
Order • India maintains high custom duties on IP in-
tensive products as advocated by western coun-
• One of the most important intellectual property
tries impacting the investment (US puts India
rights issues that the government needs to ad-
into priority watch list i.e., special 301 report).
dress is the use of compulsory licensing.
• Compulsory licenses are authorizations given
Related Topics
to a third-party by the Government to make, use
or sell a particular patented product without Cell for IPR Promotion & Management (CI-
the need of the permission of the patent PAM)
owner.
• The provisions regarding compulsory licenses • CIPAM has been created as a professional body
are given in the Indian Patents Act, 1970 & in under the aegis of DIPP to take forward the im-
the TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual plementation of the National IPR Policy
Property Rights) Agreement. 2016.
• It is a relaxation available to the developing • Functions:
countries under the TRIPS agreement, some- ✓ CIPAM is working towards creating pub-
thing which organizations misuse sometimes. lic awareness about IPRs in the country,
• Moreover, under section 84 of the IPA, a com- ✓ Promoting the filing of IPRs through fa-
pany can acquire a compulsory license for cilitation.
“private commercial use” under certain cir- ✓ Providing inventors with a platform to
cumstances. commercialize their IP assets &
• With the Drug Price Control Order, the company ✓ Coordinating the implementation of the
needs to justify the price of the drug with re- National IPR Policy in collaboration with
gards to investments. Government Ministries/Departments &
• If someone plays foul, then the government has other stakeholders.
the right to intervene.
• Multinationals are asking the government to re- IP Nani
voke this provision.
• However, the government is not ceding the de- • IP Nani was launched by Ministry of Com-
mands to protect the interest of the masses. merce & Industry in 2018.
• It is a tech-savvy grandmother who helps the
Some other issues government & enforcement agencies in com- 15
bating IP crimes with the help of her grandson
• Trademark Violations: India has very high level “Chhotu” aka Aditya.
of trademark counterfeiting against which the • The IP mascot will spread awareness about the
authorities in India do not take proper actions. importance of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)
• Enforcement of IPR regulations is quite weak among people, especially children, in an inter-
in the country because of two important reasons esting manner.
Contemporary Technologies and Their Applications

3D Printing

• 3D printing (additive manufacturing), is the • Bioprinting: Biomaterials such as cells and
construction of a three-dimensional object growth factors are combined to create tissue-like
from a Computer Aided Design (CAD) model structures imitating their natural counterparts.
or a digital 3D model. • Orthopaedic implants and medical devices:
• The creation of a 3D printed object is achieved Due to 3D printing’s capabilities for creating po‐
using additive processes. rous surfaces, these types of implants more eas-
• In an additive process, an object is created by ily integrate with the patient’s own natural
laying down successive layers of material. bones.
• Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly sliced • 3D selfies: generates 3D selfie models from 2D
cross-section of the object. pictures of customers.
• 3D printing is the opposite of subtractive
manufacturing which is cutting (hollowing) out Issues with 3D printing
an object.
• 3D printing enables production of complex • Potential for misuse: 3D printing can be used
shapes using less material than traditional to manufacture parts of guns and weapons if a
manufacturing. 3D CAD model for the part is available.
• Reduction in Manufacturing Jobs since most
of the production is automated and done by
printers.
Artificial Intelligence
Source & Credits | Source & Credits

17
Envisaged time and money saving applica-

tions of 3D printing
• Affordable housing: 3D printing will slash time

and cost of construction required, by a signifi-
cant amount.
• Faster prototyping of ideas and designs in jew-
ellery, automobile and construction industries.
What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? 2. Deep Learning
3. Pattern Recognition
• Artificial intelligence (AI) is wide-ranging branch 4. Big Data
of computer science concerned with building 5. Self-Algorithms
smart machines capable of performing tasks
that typically require human intelligence.
• AI uses a set of algorithms & intelligence to try to
mimic, complement & supplement human in-
telligence.
• Machine learning is one of the AI techniques, &
deep learning is one of those machine learning
techniques.
Categories of Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial intelligence generally falls under Two

(2) broad categories:
Artificial Narrow Intillegnece (ANI)

18
• This kind of artificial intelligence operates
within a limited context & is a simulation
• AI powered intelligent machines perform high- of human intelligence.

level cognitive processes like thinking, perceiv- • Narrow AI (Weak AI) is often focused on per-
ing, learning, problem solving & decision-mak- forming a single task extremely well.
ing using data, analytics & computer processing • That is, in Narrow AI (ANI), technology outper-
power. forms humans in some very narrowly defined
• Artificial Intelligence encompasses of: task.
1. Machine Learning
• Unlike general artificial intelligence, narrow arti- • The Next Generation AGI is a machine with gen-
ficial intelligence focuses on a single subset of eral intelligence and, much like a human being,
cognitive abilities & advances in that spectrum. it can apply that intelligence to solve any prob-
• Examples of narrow AI: lem.
✓ devices like Alexa, Google Assistant, Siri, &
Cortana Examples of Artificial Intelligence
✓ Self-driving cars
✓ Facial recognition tools that tag you in pic- • Smart assistants (like Siri & Alexa)
tures • Manufacturing & drone robots
✓ Customer service bots • Optimized, personalized healthcare treatment
✓ Google’s page-ranking technology that recommendations
determines which websites appear at the • Conversational bots for marketing & customer
top of the search service
✓ Recommendation systems showing prod- • Robo-advisors for stock trading
ucts based on browsing history • Social media monitoring tools for dangerous
✓ Spam filters that keep your inbox clean content or false news
through automated sorting • Song or TV show recommendations from Spotify
& Netflix
Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) • Robot drones adjusting pesticide spray in preci-
sion farming
• AGI, or “Strong AI,” allows a machine to apply • Autonomous vehicles that rely on AI can for
knowledge & skills in different contexts. smart warnings & preventive & defensive tech-
• AGI closely mirrors human intelligence by en- niques.
abling autonomous learning & problem-
solving.
19
Significance of Artificial Intelligence • It has potential to overcome the limitations of

capital & human resources.
• AI has potential to drive growth. E.g. automate ✓ Smart Cities & Infrastructure: efficient
complex physical world tasks like manufacturing. connectivity for the burgeoning urban pop-
• Role in socio economic development i.e. increase ulation, and
in healthcare, education etc. ✓ Smart Mobility & Transportation:
• Advisory to farmers in increasing productivity. smarter & safer modes of transportation &
• Smart & efficient cities (mobility). better traffic & congestion problems.
• Exponentially growth of data constantly feeds AI • #AIforAll: the brand proposed for India implies
& vice versa. inclusive technology leadership, where the full
• AI helps in data analysing. potential of AI is realised in pursuance of the
• AI for efficient use of resources. country’s unique needs & aspirations.
• Increases accessibility & affordability of services. • It has been estimated that by 2030, the global
• AI helps in ease of doing business, strengthening AI market is likely to be in the range of $15-15.5
‘make in India ‘initiatives i.e. making manufactur‐ trillion, out of which India’s share will be close to
ing hub with AI Assisted tech. $1 trillion.
India & AI Centre of excellence in AI created by NIC
• Recognising AI’s potential to transform econo‐ • This is the official website of National Informatics
mies, the Finance Minister’s budget speech for Centre, the premier ICT Organization of GOI.
2018 – 2019, mandated NITI Aayog to establish • The website provides Information about the var-
the National Program on AI, with a view to ious projects, products, services rendered by NIC
guiding the research & development in new Headquarters, State & District Units.
& emerging technologies.
• In pursuance of the above, NITI Aayog has Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence
adopted a three-pronged approach – (GPAI)
1. Undertaking exploratory proof-of-concept
AI projects in various areas, • India joins GPAI as founding member to support
2. Crafting a national strategy for building a responsible, human-centric development, use of
vibrant AI ecosystem in India & AI.
3. Collaborating with various experts & stake- • GPAI will be supported by a Secretariat, to be
holders. hosted by the OECD in Paris, as well as by two
• NITI Aayog has decided to focus on five sectors Centers of Expertise - one each in Montreal &
that are envisioned to benefit the most from AI Paris.
in solving societal needs: • GPAI is an international & multi-stakeholder ini-
✓ Healthcare: increased access & affordabil- tiative to guide the responsible development &
ity of quality healthcare (analyzing complex use of AI, grounded in human rights, inclusion, 20
medical data can help researchers make diversity, innovation, & economic growth.
new discoveries ad offer better treatment
with least human intervention), National AI Portal

✓ Agriculture: enhanced farmers’ income, in‐
creased farm productivity & reduction of • Govt. Launched National AI Portal & Skilling
wastage, Programme to Strengthen AI Game in the Coun-
✓ Education: improved access & quality of try.
education, • Developed by the Ministry of Electronics & IT &
IT Industry, National e-Governance Division of
Ministry of Electronics & IT & NASSCOM, it aims • AI outside the reach of Indian researchers in gov-
to boost AI developments in India. ernment labs & many industries ie difficulties in
• It will enable sharing of resources such as articles, making technologies from lab to market.
startups, investment funds in AI, resources, com- • India lacks opportunities for formal education in
panies & educational institutions related to AI in data science but slowly trying to encourage the
India. adoption of AI in educational institutions.
• Lack of broad-based expertise in research & ap-
Responsible AI for Youth Programme plication of AI i.e. human resources are less (Hu-
man resources are required for coding & algo-
• National e-Governance Division, Ministry of rithms & various applications).
Electronics & Information Technology, Govern- • Lack of data: AI works on historical data and a lot
ment of India & Intel India have designed a Na- of data is with the government & not in public
tional Program for Government Schools: Re- domain.
sponsible AI for Youth. • Indian technical universities are not doing
• The aim of this program is to empower youth to enough to strengthen AI ecosystem unlike their
become ‘AI ready’ & help reduce the AI skill gap global counterparts.
in India.
• The Program is designed to reach out to stu- FASTag
dents from the government schools pan India &
provide them with an opportunity to become • FASTag is an electronic toll collection system.
part of the skilled workforce in an inclusive man- • It is operated by the National Highways Au-
ner. thority of India (NHAI).
• The National Programme is open to students of • The device employs Radio Frequency Identifi-
classes 8-12 from Central & State government- cation (RFID) technology for payments directly
run schools (including KVS, NVS, JNV) from from the prepaid or savings account linked to it.
across the country. • It is affixed on the windscreen, so the vehicle
can drive through plazas without stopping.
Challenges before AI in india • It is valid for five years & can be recharged as
& when required.
• Lack of broad-based expertise in research & ap-
• It was launched in 2016.
plication of AI.
• As per the Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989,
• Absence of enabling data ecosystems – access to
since December 1, 2017, FASTag had been made
intelligent data.
mandatory for registration of new four-
• Most of India’s data is located outside India.
wheelers.
• High resource cost & low awareness for adop-
• It has also been mandated that renewal of the
tion of AI. 21
fitness certificate of a vehicle will be done only
• Privacy & security, including a lack of formal reg-
if it has the electronic tag.
ulations around anonymisation of data.
• Difficulty in access to industry-specific data re-

RFID
quired to build customised platforms.
• High cost & low availability of computing infra- • RFID is an acronym for “radio-frequency iden-
structure required. tification” & refers to a technology whereby
• Lack of capital & infrastructure for AI based start- digital data encoded in RFID tags or smart labels
ups. are captured by a reader via radio waves.
Fuel Cell Mechanism
• A fuel cell consists of a cathode, an anode, and

an electrolyte.
• The electrolyte enables the movement of the
ions between the electrodes.
• At the anode, catalyst causes the fuel to undergo
oxidation and generates +ve charged ions and
electrons.
• The ions move from the anode to the cathode
• RFID belongs to a group of technologies referred and the same time, the electrons flow from the
to as Automatic Identification & Data Capture anode to the cathode through an external circuit,
(AIDC). producing direct current electricity.
• AIDC methods automatically identify objects, • At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions,
collect data about them, & enter those data di- electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water as
rectly into computer systems with little or no by-product.
human intervention. • The reaction rate of this electrochemical reaction
• RFID tags contain an integrated circuit & an an- is quite low.
tenna, which transmit data to the RFID reader (in- • The reaction rate between the fuel and the oxi-
terrogator). dizing agent is quite low.
• The reader then converts the radio waves to a • Catalysts such as platinum or palladium or gold
more usable form of data. are used speed up the reaction.
• Information collected from the tags is stored in a
Advantages of fuel cells
database & analysed.
• RFID is like barcoding in that data from a tag is
• Fuel cells are more efficient than thermal power
captured by a device that stores the data in a da-
plants (thermal energy ➔ mechanical energy ➔
tabase.
electrical energy) as there is direct conversion
• RFID, however, has several advantages over sys-
of chemical energy into electrical energy.
tems that use barcode asset tracking software.
• Hydrogen fuel is abundantly available.
• The most notable is that RFID tag data can be
• The by-product of fuel cells are water and non-
read outside the line-of-sight, whereas bar-
toxic products that pose no risk to our climate.
codes must be aligned with an optical scan-
ner. Disadvantages of fuel cells
Fuel Cell • They are very expensive to produce (platinum, 22

palladium catalysts are expensive).
• A fuel cell uses electrochemical reactions to gen- • As of now, there is no simple means of producing
erate electrical energy. hydrogen fuel in a cost effective way.
• A fuel cell requires a continuous input of fuel and • Hydrogen itself is very prone to catching on fire,
an oxidizing agent in order to sustain the reac- or even exploding.
tion. • In order to actually generate hydrogen fuel, fossil
• Hydrogen is the most common fuel used. fuels are needed.
• They were initially used by NASA to power space
capsules and satellites.
Nuclear Fusion – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER)
23
24
• ITER is an international nuclear fusion research • ITER will be the first fusion device to pro-
& engineering megaproject. duce net energy.
• It was launched in 1985. • Net Energy: When the total power produced
• It is an experimental Tokamak Nuclear Fusion during a fusion plasma pulse surpasses the ther-
Reactor that is being built in southern France. mal power injected to heat the plasma.
• The ITER reactor has been designed to create a
plasma of 500 megawatts for around twenty ITER Members
minutes on an input of 50 megawatts of thermal
power (ten–fold gain of plasma heating power).
• China, the EU, India, Japan, Korea, Russia and • ITER Organization (IO) is the central team re-
the United States (collaboration of 35 na- sponsible for site construction & operation.
tions). • ITER partners created their own domestic agen-
• They are collaborating to build the world's cies to deliver their commitments to ITER.
largest tokamak. • ITER–India is the Indian domestic agency, a spe-
• They are engaged in a 35-year collaboration to cially empowered project of the Institute for
build and operate the ITER experimental device, Plasma Research (IPR), an aided organization
and together bring fusion to the point where a under Dept. of Atomic Energy.
demonstration fusion reactor can be designed. • ITER–India is responsible for delivery of the
following ITER packages:
Tokamak
✓ ITER India has shipped the base, upper cylin-
der & lower cylinder for the cryostat.
• It is a magnetic fusion device that has been de-
✓ Cryostat is a cylindrical vessel which will act
signed to prove the feasibility of fusion as a
has a huge refrigerator & provide cooling to
large-scale and carbon-free source of energy
the fusion reactor that will attempt to har-
based on the same principle that powers our
ness the energy produced by fusion of at-
Sun and stars.
oms.
HL-2M Tokamak
Funding of Project
• The HL-2M Tokamak reactor is China’s largest
and most advanced nuclear fusion research de- • The project is funded & run by seven member
vice. entities:
• Scientists hope that the device can potentially 1. The European Union,
unlock a powerful clean energy source. 2. China,
• It uses a powerful magnetic field to fuse hot 3. India,
plasma and to contain & control the hot 4. Japan,
plasma. 5. Russia,
• It can reach temperatures of over 150 million 6. South Korea and
degrees Celsius — ten times hotter than the 7. The United States.
core of the sun.
Nuclear Fission vs. Nuclear Fusion
• Located in Sichuan province, the reactor is of-
ten called an “artificial sun” on account of the
• Nuclear Fusion and Nuclear Fission are differ-
enormous heat and power it produces.
ent types of reactions that release energy due to
the presence of high-powered atomic bonds
India & ITER
between particles found within a nucleus. 25
• India formally joined the ITER Project in 2005. • In fission, an atom is split into two or more
• The ITER Agreement between the partners was smaller, lighter atoms.
signed in 2006. • In fusion, two or more smaller atoms fuse to-

gether, creating a larger, heavier atom.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

Definition • Fusion is the fusing of two or more lighter atoms
• Fission is the splitting of a large
into a larger one.
atom into two or more smaller
ones.
Natural oc- • Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun.
• Fission reaction does not normally
currence of
occur in nature.
the process
By-products
• Fission produces many highly radi- • Few radioactive particles are produced by fu-
of the reac-
oactive particles (nuclear waste). sion reaction, but if a fission "trigger" is used, ra-
tion
dioactive particles will result from that.
Conditions • High density, high temperature environment
• Critical mass of the substance and
is required.
high-speed neutrons are required.
Energy Re- • Extremely high energy is required to bring
• Takes little energy to split two at-
quirement two or more protons close enough that nu-
oms in a fission reaction.
clear forces overcome their electrostatic re-
pulsion. (This is what makes developing a Nu-
clear Fusion Reactor so challenging)
Energy Re- • The energy released by fusion is three to four
• The energy released by fission is a
leased times greater than the energy released by fis-
million times greater than that re-
sion.
leased in chemical reactions, but
lower than the energy released by
nuclear fusion.
Nuclear • One class of nuclear weapon is the hydrogen
• One class of nuclear weapon is a
weapon bomb, which uses a fission reaction to "trigger"
fission bomb, also known as an
a fusion reaction.
atomic bomb or atom bomb.
Energy pro- • Fusion is an experimental technology for pro-
• Fission is used in nuclear power
duction ducing power.
plants.
Fuel • Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium and Tritium)
• Uranium is the primary fuel used
are the primary fuel used in experimental fusion
in power plants.
power plants.
Reactions • There is no chain reaction involved.
• It involves a chain reaction, which
can lead to dangerous meltdowns
Waste • There is no nuclear waste.
• Nuclear waste, a by-product of
fission, is an environmental chal-
lenge.
26
Lithium-ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. • The two electrodes are immersed in the electro-
ICEVs lyte and are separated by the separator.
• The anode is usually made up of graphite (car-

Lithium-ion battery bon).
• Carbon graphite has a layered structure that
• Anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator are can store the lithium ions in between its layers.
the main components of a lithium ion (recharge- • The cathode is made up of a combination of lith-
able) battery. ium-cobalt.
• Lithium is unstable in the element form; hence
• Charge Process: Positive electrode (cath-
the combination lithium-cobalt oxide is used for ode) is oxidized (loses electrons) and Li+
cathode. ions pass across the electrolyte and are in-
• Cathode plays an important role in determining tercalated (insert between layers) in nega-
the energy density of a Li-ion battery. tive electrode (anode – graphite).
• The higher amount of lithium, bigger the capac- • Discharge Process (opposite of charge pro-
ity. cess): An oxidation reaction occurs at the
anode (-ve), Li+ ions are de-intercalated
and migrate across the electrolyte to be re-
intercalated into the cathode material.
• Electrolyte (lithium salt) enables the movement

of lithium ions between the electrodes.
• The separator functions as a physical barrier
keeping cathode and anode apart.
• It prevents the direct flow of electrons and lets
Schematic of a rechargeable battery (Image Credits)
only the ions pass through.
• While the cathode determines the performance
Working of a typical lithium-ion battery
of a battery, electrolyte and separator deter-
• Both electrodes in a li-ion battery can interca- mines its safety.
late or ‘absorb’ lithium ions. • Permeable polymer membranes such as poly-
• When the battery is being charged, lithium ethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are used as
ions are absorbed (stored) in the anode. separators.
• During discharge, lithium ions naturally flow
Why lithium?
back to the cathode through the electrolyte.
• This creates free electrons in the anode which
• Lithium is the lightest metal and a powerful re-
move along the wire generating electricity.
ducing agent (willing to donate its electrons).
• The process (to and fro movement of lithium ion)
• Lithium ion batteries capitalize on the strong re-
repeats with each charge and discharge cycles.
ducing potential of lithium ions to power the re-
dox reaction — reduction at the cathode, oxida-
tion at the anode.
Comparison: Lead-acid battery & Lithium ion battery
Lead-acid battery Lithium ion battery

Comparison table
27
Electrolyte Sulphuric acid Lithium salt (Lithium hexafluorophosphate)
Anode Lead Carbon (graphite)
Cathode Lead dioxide Lithium-Cobalt Oxide
(Lithium-Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt Oxide)
Applications Inverters, automobile batteries, solar batteries Mobile, laptop, electric vehicle batteries
Energy Density (Wh/kg) 30 to 40 350
Weight and Space Heavy and occupies more space Comparatively lighter and occupies less
space
Lifecycle Low (2-4 years) High (6-8 years)
Maintenance Yes No
Reliability Low (full discharge damages battery) High
Initial cost Low High
Lifecycle cost High Low
Toxicity High Low
Lithium
Among twelve minerals identified as strategic minerals, Lithium and Cobalt are significant.
• Lithium is lightest known metal. It has a density of 0.534 g/cm3 (half as dense as water).
• It's light and soft and has lowest melting points of all metals and a high boiling point.
• Lithium-ion batteries are key to lightweight, rechargeable power for laptops, phones, electric vehicles.
• Lithium and another battery component, cobalt, could become scarce as demand increases.
• China controls most of the lithium supply across the world.
World’s Lithium Production in Thousand Tons

World’s Lithium Reserves in Million Tons
Country Reserves Country Production
Chile 7.5 47% Australia 18.7 43%
China 3.2 20% Chile 14.1 33%
Australia 2.7 17% Argentina 5.5 13%
Argentina 2 13% China 3 7%
World total 16 MT World total 43 TT
Cobalt
• Cobalt is an important ferromagnetic alloying metal having irreplaceable industrial applications.

• Cobalt is extracted as a by-product of copper, nickel, zinc or precious metals.
• Super alloys made of cobalt are wear & corrosion-resistant at elevated temperatures.
Role of cobalt in Lithium ion batteries
• Lithium-cobalt-oxide is used as cathode in rechargeable batteries.

• Lithium-cobalt-oxide is an intercalation compound with the lithium, cobalt and oxygen arranged in layers.
• Cobalt is indispensable to assure the rate performance (rate of charging & discharging occurs).
• When the lithium ion arrives or departs from cathode, cobalt changes its oxidation state (compensates for
the gain/loss of charge) so that the lithium-cobalt-oxide stays electrically neutral.
• Cathodes are commonly oxides made from transition metals such as nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, etc. 28
• Replacing the costly cobalt with significantly cheaper nickel can be a fire hazard.
• Aluminium & manganese can be added to stabilize, but it lowers the capacity of the cell by a small amount.
Distribution of Cobalt Reserves across India and the World
Reserves in MT Region with reserves

State
1. Odisha 69% Kendujhar and Jajpur districts
31
2. Jharkhand 20% Singhbhum district
9
3. Nagaland 11% Tuensang district
5
Total 44.9 MT Presently, there is no production of cobalt from cobalt resources.
• India is aggressively pushing electric mobility. All electric vehicles at present use Lithium ion batteries.
• Hence, India has to aggressively push to secure lithium and cobalt (strategic minerals) resources both
internally and externally.
• China has already taken a substantial lead in the race by aggressively procuring these minerals from Congo.
• The demand for cobalt is usually met through imports.
• Recycling technologies for recovery of cobalt from waste Li-ion batteries have been an evolving process.
• Imports of cobalt and alloys were at 875 tonnes in 2017-18.
• Imports were mainly from USA & Canada (13% each), Belgium (12%), Norway & UK (9% each) and China
(8%) & Morocco (7%).
World’s Production of Cobalt Content in 2017 (in TT)

World’s Reserves of Cobalt Content (in TT)
Country Reserves Country Production
Congo (Kinshasa) 3400 49% Congo 82.5 59%
Australia 1200 17% New Caledonia 9.4 7%
Cuba 500 7% China 9 6%
World Total 6900 TT Total 139 TT
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles vs. Electric Vehicles
Mains Practise: “The Internal Combustion Engine Is A Dead Man walking.” Critically analyse this state-
ment.
Mains Practise: “The age of the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is over. Electric cars are the future.”
Critically analyse this statement.
EVs are a lot better than ICEVs
Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Electric Vehicles (EV) Winner

(ICEV)
Major IC engine, Transmission System. DC/AC motor, digital controller, battery pack. EV
Components
29
Image Credits
Weight Comparatively heavier. Comparatively lighter. EV
Heavy due to large and heavy metallic Motor engines are relatively lighter as they EV
engines with complicated design. have fewer components and simplistic design.
Space occupied Comparatively more because of large Comparatively less ➔ more space for seating EV
by components engines. ➔ good for congested countries like India
Efficiency Less efficient because of loss of energy More efficient as the loss of energy in the form EV
in the form of heat in IC engines and of heat is very low (not many moving parts in
due to friction between transmission motors) and transmission losses are minimum
systems (rotatory motion has to be (the motor engine shaft transmits rotatory
transmitted using a complex set of motion either directly to the wheels or with
bearings and shafts). the help of fewer bearings and shafts).
Maintainance More maintenance (frequent, oil Less maintenance as the battery is the only EV
change, components replacement) is major component to be replaced. (low
required as there are many moving recurring cost)
parts.
The initial cost Comparatively low as the technology is High as the technology is still evolving. IC
of development in place for a century now.
and ownership
Total lifecycle High Low (electricity cost associated with operating EV
economic cost an EV over a distance of 1 km is significantly
lower than the petrol/diesel cost required to
operate a comparable IC vehicle)
Acceleration Comparatively less as there many states EVs are much faster as the transmission of EV
and speed like ignition, four stages of IC engine, power, and rotatory motion is almost instanta-
control transmission, etc. neous.
Environmental High Comparatively low (EV are more efficient)
footprint
Range Once the tank is full ICEVs can travel The range of EVs at present is only a few hun- IC
non-stop for hundreds of km dred km.
Fuelling Done in a few minutes. Charging batteries take a few hours IC
Infrastructure Filling stations and other infrastructure Charging stations are slowly popping up. IC
is in place.
Resale value Resale value is falling as EVs are the fu- Better EV
ture
Import-substitu- Heavy dependence on imported fuels. Clean electricity can replace fossil fuels. EV
tion. India now generates 22% (79 GW) of its elec-
tricity from renewable sources alone.
Share of major fuels in Power Generation in India
Total Installed Capacity (As on 31.05.2019)
Fuel Giga Watt % share
Thermal Total Thermal 226.3 63.2%
Coal 194.5 54.3%
Lignite 6.3 1.7% 30
Gas 24.9 7.0%
Oil 0.64 0.2%
Hydro (Renewable) 45.4 12.7%

Nuclear 6.8 1.9%
Renewable 79.3 22.0%
Total 357.9
Demand for EVs is rising rapidly • The key-components of the battery contribute
the most (60%) to the total cost.
Electric car battery life is increasing • Labour charges, overheads and profit margins
account for the rest.
• One major factor that turned into a bottleneck in • Any reduction in the cost of the battery pack will
adopting EVs is the battery life. have to come from a reduction in battery mate-
• At present lithium ion batteries in EVs have a rials cost.
lifecycle of 6-8 years which is decent.
• With improving technologies, this is only set to Can costs be further decreased?
go up.
• The price of Li-ion battery packs has consistently
Battery capacity is increasing, and prices are fall- fallen over the past few years.
ing • This decrease is in part due to technological im-
provements, economies of scale and increased
• Lithium-Ion batteries are increasing in energy
demand.
density at a rate of 5-8% per annum.
• Given that raw materials account for 60% of the
• Battery Costs are falling: The main cost of an
cost of the battery pack, the room for further cost
electric vehicle is the cost of the battery. Lith-
reduction is limited.
ium-Ion batteries cost $1,000 per kWh in 2010.
By 2017 that cost had fallen to $200 per kWh, What does it mean to India?
and it won't stop there.
• India needs to manufacture Li-ion cells in-house
Favourable policy and recycle existing Li-on batteries to bring
down costs.
• China and India are aggressively pushing for
• However, the government has not taken any sig-
electric mobility with a slew of measures.
nificant steps in this direction.
• India reduced GST on EVs from 12% to 5%. Intro-
duced schemes like FAME, FAME II.
Nanoparticles
Economies of EV
• A Nanoparticle is a small particle that ranges be-
tween 1 to 100 nanometres (nm) in size.
• NITI Aayog has proposed to ban all IC (internal
• Undetectable by the human eye, nanoparticles
combustion) engine powered two-wheelers
can exhibit significantly different physical &
(below 150cc) and three-wheelers in India
chemical properties to their larger material
starting in 2025 for two-wheelers and in 2023
counterparts.
for three-wheelers.
• Nanoparticles (NPs) have wide variety of poten-
• The automobile industry had objected to the
tial applications in the fields of biomedical, opti- 31
proposal as EVs are still not financially viable.
cal & electronics research.
The battery pack takes up nearly half the cost of
an average electric vehicle What is Nanotechnology?
• For EVs to be viable, the cost of battery packs • Nanotechnology is science, engineering, & tech-
needs to reduce significantly. nology conducted at the nanoscale (1 to 100 na-
• The predominant battery chemistry used in EVs nometres).
is lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion). • Nanoscience & nanotechnology can be used
across all the other science fields.
Gold Nano Particles (GNP) established under National Supercomputing
Mission (NSM) at C-DAC.
• Gold Nano Particles (GNP) are a small gold par- • The supercomputer has Rpeak of 5.267 Peta-
ticle with a diameter of 1 to 100nm which, once flops and 4.6 Petaflops Rmax.
dispersed in water, are also known as colloidal • Rmax and Rpeak are scores used to rank super-
gold. computers based on their performance.
• The versatile surface chemistry of gold nano-
particles allows them to be coated with small National Supercomputing Mission (NSM)
molecules, polymers, & biological recognition
molecules, thereby extending their range of ap- • NSM was set up to provide the country with su-
plication. percomputing infrastructure by manufacturing
• The morphology of gold nanoparticles is spher- supercomputers indigenously in India.
ical, & they appear as a brown powder. • NSM is steered jointly by the
✓ Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY) and

Applications of Gold Nano Particles (GNP)
✓ Department of Science and Technology
• GNPs can be used as a composite therapeutic (DST).
agent clinical trials, especially in Anti–cancer, • It is implemented by the
Anti–Viral, anti–diabetic, & cholesterol–lowering
drugs. ✓ Centre for Development of Advanced
• Researchers have coated gold particles with Computing (C-DAC), Pune and
DNA & injected them into plant embryos or ✓ Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Benga-
plant cells. This will ensure that some genetic luru.
material will enter the cells & enhances plant
• The target of the mission was set to establish a
plastids.
network of supercomputers ranging from a few
• Gold nanoparticles are used to detect breast
Tera Flops to greater than or equal to 3 Peta
cancer.
Flops (PF) in institutions of National importance
• Photodynamic therapy: when light is applied to
across the country by 2022.
a tumour containing gold nanoparticles, the par-
• This network of Supercomputers envisaging a
ticles rapidly heat up, killing tumour cells.
total of 15-20 PF was approved in 2015 and was
• It was also discovered that the nanoparticles
later revised to a total of 45 PF (45000 TFs).
could detect toxins & pathogens.
• Supercomputer PARAM 8000 (made by C-
• The scattered colours of gold nanoparticles are
DAC) launched on July 1, 1991 is considered In-
currently used for biological imaging applica-
dia's first supercomputer. It was indige-
tions.
nously built in 1991 by C-DAC.
• The optical–electronics properties of gold na- 32
• National Supercomputing Mission's first indige-
noparticles are being explored widely for use in
nously build supercomputer is called ‘Param
high technology applications.
Shivay’
• Param Shivay was followed by Param Shakti and

Param Siddhi Supercomputer Param Brahma supercomputers.
• It is the-high performance computing-artifi- Focus of the mission

cial intelligence (HPC-AI) supercomputer
• The Mission envisages empowering national ac- • NGT has recently passed an order prohibiting the
ademic and R&D institutions spread over the use of reverse osmosis (RO) purifiers where total
country by installing a vast supercomputing grid dissolved solids (TDS) in the supplied water are
comprising of more than 70 high-performance below 500 mg per litre.
computing facilities. • The NGT had ordered the ban on the grounds
• These supercomputers will also be networked on that RO filters often deprived drinking water of
the National Supercomputing grid over the Na- essential salts (affecting the nutritional security)
tional Knowledge Network (NKN). and were also wasting a lot of water and power.
• The NKN is another programme of the govern- • Current BIS regulations consider 500 mg/litre to
ment which connects academic institutions and 1,200 mg/litre of total dissolved solids, which
R&D labs over a high speed network. consist of salts and some organic matter, as ac-
ceptable.
Significance of supercomputers • MoEF has recently issued a draft notification that
seeks to regulate membrane-based RO water fil-
• Most to the supercomputers across the world are tration systems in areas where the source of wa-
dedicated for weather and climate research. ter meets drinking water norms of the Bureau of
• Weather prediction has reached accuracy of Indian Standards.
forecast as well as real time tracking of natural
phenomenon. Basics
• Timely warning of cyclones in the recent past
have saved many lives and property. Solution
The speed of a Supercomputer • In chemistry, a solution is homogeneous mixture

composed of two or more substances.
• The average computer’s processor performance • In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dis-
is measured by megahertz (MHz) units to calcu- solved in another substance, known as a sol-
late its clock speed. vent.
• Since supercomputers are far more capable, the • For example, in salt water, salt is the solute and
performance is calculated in Floating-point op- water is the solvent.
erations per second, or FLOPS which is of a
considerably larger scale. Diffusion
 1 billion flops = 1 giga flops (109)
 1000 giga flop = 1 tera flop (1012) • Diffusion is a spontaneous movement of a sub-
 1000 tera flop = 1 peta flop (1015) stance from an area of high concentration to an
• Param 8000 supercomputer had a maximum area of low concentration.
speed of one giga flop. 33
• PARAM SHIVAY (February 2019) ➔ 833 TFLOPS
• PARAM Brahma (September 2019) ➔ 0.85
PFLOPS
• Pratyush and Mihir (fastest supercomputers in
India) ➔ 6.8 PetaFlops
• The most advanced supercomputer Summit
• Diffusion through a permeable membrane
(U.S.) ➔ ~150 PFLOPS.
moves a substance (solute) from a region of high
solute concentration (hypertonic solution) to
Reverse osmosis (RO)
a region where its concentration is low (hypo- semi-permeable membrane to a region of
tonic solution). high solute concentration (hypertonic).
• Semi permeable means that the membrane will
allow small molecules and ions to pass through
it but acts as a barrier to larger molecules or dis-
solved substances.
• In living organisms, diffusion plays an important

role in gaseous exchange between the cells as
well as the cell and its external environment.
• Exchange of O2 & CO2 in alveoli (millions of tiny,
balloon-shaped air sacs in lungs) is an example
of diffusion.
• Thus, osmosis is a special case of diffu-

sion through a selectively permeable mem-
brane.
• Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant
cells tend to gain water through osmosis.
• Absorption of water by plant roots is also an
example of osmosis.
Reverse Osmosis (RO)

• In a person suffering from pneumonia, the air
sacs may fill with fluid or pus. This prevents dif- • Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification
fusion of O2 & CO2 in alveoli (breathing issues technology that uses a semipermeable mem- 34
in Coronavirus patients). brane to remove larger particles from drinking
water.
Osmosis • In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used

to overcome osmotic pressure so that pure
• Water obeys the law of diffusion.
water flows from a region of high solute con-
• Osmosis is the passage of water (diffusion of
centration (hypertonic) through a semi-per-
molecules of a solvent) from a region of low
meable membrane to a region of low solute
solute concentration (hypotonic) through a
concentration (hypotonic).
• It all depends on the filtering material and the
number of filters that incoming tap water must
pass through.
Problem with RO water purifiers
• In making tap water pass through multiple

stages of cleaning, RO systems end up wasting a
lot of water.
• Anywhere between three-five times more water
is wasted by them (high carbon footprint).
• RO system filters out essential micronutrients
such as calcium, zinc, magnesium. Drinking
such water over time could be harmful.
Note: In NCERT Biology Compilation, I have • However, many manufacturers claim to over-
given a wrong explanation for both Osmosis come this challenge by “post-treatment” (added
and Reverse Osmosis. What I have given here is minerals).
the correct explanation. • RO system only reduces Total Dissolved Solids,
ensure water is odourless and has a pH from 6.5-
Application of Reverse Osmosis (RO) 8.5.
• The National Institute of Virology (NIV) claimed
• RO was originally a technology devised in the that most RO methods did not eliminate Hepati-
late 1950s to desalinate sea water. tis E virus.
• At present, it is possible to deploy a wide array • However, a combination of filtration systems can
of membranes and multiple stages of filters to eliminate most contaminants (more power con-
filter a wide variety of solutes — arsenic, fluo- sumption).
ride, hexavalent chromium, nitrates, bacteria. • RO systems reduce the incentive for public-
• This has led to an industry of home-RO systems funded water distribution systems and vast ma- 35
for drinking water. jority of the country can ill-afford such systems.
• To create external pressure, RO relies on a pump • In case of sea water desalinization, deposition of
and electric motors.
brine (highly concentrated salt water) along the

• It uses “activated carbon” components, such as shores affects plankton, which is the main food
charcoal and carbon black that can filter out for small fish species.
contaminants as well as organic substances
such as bacteria (UV light is also used to kill bac- How is the quality of piped water in the
teria). country?
• Under the Jal Jeevan Mission, GOI has committed • Currently, a lot of energy must be used in the
to provide tap water to the entire country by cooling process making superconductors uneco-
2024. nomical.
• However, studies show that the existing quality • Applications: Maglev trains (in use), lossless long
of piped water is deficient in much of India. distance electrical transmission (futuristic appli-
• In Delhi, all tap water samples drawn from vari- cation).
ous places did not comply with the BIS’s require‐
ments. Maglev trains
• The case is the same with a lot of other cities.
• Maglev (magnetic levitation) trains use super-
What is the quality of water globally? conducting magnets to achieve levitation.
• Superconducting magnets are electromagnets
• Countries with a high development index tend to that are cooled to extreme temperatures during
have good quality tap water. use.
• Finland, Denmark, Germany, UK have access to • They dramatically increase the power of the
freshwater lakes or glacier melt (clean and min- magnetic field.
eral rich). • In maglev trains, superconducting magnets sus-
• Singapore and Israel rely on extensive recycling pend a train car above a concrete guideway.
and even making sewage water fit for drinking. • Like ordinary magnets, these magnets repel one
• But for much of the world, access to clean piped another when matching poles face each other.
water from the public supply remains a chal- • The magnets employed (superconducting) and
lenge. they can generate magnetic fields up to 10 times
stronger than ordinary electromagnets, enough
Superconductor to suspend (levitate) and propel a train.
• A superconductor is a material that can conduct

electricity (transport electrons) with zero re-
sistance.
• This means no heat, sound or any other form of
energy would be released from a superconduc-
tor.
• Hence, superconductors will help build highly
efficient devices leading to huge energy sav-
ings. Maglev Train and Track (Source)
• Critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature at • One great advantage of maglev trains is that they
which the material becomes superconductive. are least noisy as there is no physical contact be-
36
• Critical temperature (Tc) for the currently devel- tween the track and the train. Also, there are no
oped superconductive materials is much below moving parts except for the train.
0 °C.
Information and Communication Technologies
5G • 5G wireless internet network is 50 times faster

than 4G.
• It enables superfast data transfer with minimal • 5G will promote cell phone use, and therefore
delay (a latency as low as 1 millisecond). human exposures from phones and base sta-
• The US and South Korea have already rolled out tions.
the network on a trial basis. • 5G requires Radio Frequency Electromagnetic
• In May 2018, five Nordic countries—Sweden, Fields (RF-EMF) radiation between 600 MHz and
Norway, Denmark, Finland and Iceland—an- 86 GHz.
nounced their plan to create the world’s first in‐ • Typically, RF radiations are nonionizing and
terconnected 5G region. cause only dielectric heating effects (unlike ion-
• In March 19, Germany began auctions of 5G ising radiations like X-rays and gamma rays).
bandwidth spectrum in Bonn. • The higher frequencies will concentrate the radi-
• India plans to begin trials by 2020. India has not ation in a smaller portion of the human body,
yet allocated spectrum for 5G. and children are particularly vulnerable to its ef-
fects.
5G will enable • Higher frequencies of 5G will also penetrate
much deeper into the human body because of a
• Development of new services for smart mobility
phenomenon called beam-forming unique to
and automated transport, accelerating auto-
the technology.
mation of the whole transport sector from mar-
• Beam forming brings together electromagnetic
itime to road to air.
signals from multiple antennas to create signals
• Deeper penetration of artificial intelligence
with greater intensity and better reach.
(AI)-based technologies (E.g. Amazon’s Alexa,
• In 2011, WHO’s studies detailed the effects of
Google’s Google Home, Apples’ Siri, etc.).
RF-EMF radiations (from 30 kilohertz to 300 gi-
• Internet of Things (which includes smart wear-
gahertz) on humans as well as rats and con-
ables and virtual reality headsets).
cluded that the radiations are “possibly carcino-
• Commercial application of driverless autono-
genic to humans”.
mous vehicles (they can become usable only if
• In 2018, a report published in US found RF-EMF
they communicate with other vehicles and traffic
of 900 megahertz, used by 3G and 4G networks,
signals).
led to incidences of malignant heart schwanno-
• Low-latency applications, including industrial
mas (cancer that attacks nerve tissues) in male
robots to remote surgery.
and female rats.
• Inter-working of different technologies and net-
• Scientists have so far linked 5G to at least 20 ail-
works and machine to machine communica-
ments, including heart diseases, type-2 diabetes
tions.
and mental disturbances such as depression,
• Integration of satellites in 5G networks for new
anxiety and suicidal tendencies.
applications in domains such as agriculture,
emergency response for communities living in Challenges in commercialization of 5G
37
rural areas, etc.
• Businesses and services exploiting its potential
Health concerns associated with 5G net- are not fully evolved.

works • Greater power in the hands of corporations and
governments for surveillance.
• All artificial electromagnetic radiations are bad
• Internet governance is not evolving to safeguard
because our biological systems are not adapted
security and privacy of data.
to it.
• RF-EMF generated as a consequence of 5G will
have a wide range of health impacts.
• Loss of employment opportunities in the manu- • Some scientists suggest designing networks
facturing sector due to automation. based on fibre optic cables (2 crore times faster
• More satellites are required, which means rapidly than 5G).
accumulating space junk/debris.
• Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light

Fibre Optics
particles -or photons - that pulse through a fi-
ber optic cable.
• Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the me-
• The glass fiber core & the cladding each have
dium & the technology associated with the
a different refractive index that bends light at
transmission of information as light pulses
an angle.
along a glass or plastic strand or fiber.
• Fiber optics is used in long-distance & high- • When light signals are sent through the fiber
performance services such as internet, televi- optic cable, they reflect off the core & clad-
ding in a series of zig-zag bounces, adhering
sion & telephones.
to a process called total internal reflection.
• Advantages over copper cables:
• The light signals travel 30% slower than the
✓ Optic fibres have higher bandwidth & 38
speed because of the denser glass layers.
transmit speeds.
• To renew, or boost, the signal, fiber optics trans-
✓ Optic fibres are not affected by elec-
mission sometimes requires repeaters at dis-

tromagnetic interference (reduces
speed of transmission). tant intervals.
Total Internal Reflection

How Fiber optics works?
• When light travels from an optically denser
medium to a rarer medium at the interface, it
is partly reflected back into the same medium & Conditions for Total Internal Reflection:
partly refracted to the second medium.
• This reflection is called the internal reflection. 1. The incident ray must be in optically
• In total internal reflection, there is no refrac- denser medium.
tion & the entire incident ray will get re- 2. The angle of incidence in the denser me-
flected. dium must be greater than the critical an-
gle for the pair of media in contact.
39
indoor coverage, low cost, long battery life, &
Internet of Things (IoT)
large number of devices.
• Context: BSNL to come up with satellite-based • Simply put it is new designed mobile, wireless
narrow band-Internet of things (NB-IoT). network specially for IoT.
• It will be world’s largest NB-IoT system. • It operates at narrow band of the spectrum.
• It will be helpful for Industries, including agricul- • It supports very few kilobytes per seconds
ture, Railways & fisheries, construction,etc. (since IoT devices are small & have simple sen-
sors).
NB-IoT • NB-IoT significantly improves the power con-
sumption of user devices, system capacity &
• NB-IoT is a radio technology deployed over spectrum efficiency.
mobile networks which is especially suited for
41
Applications of NB-IoT • Security (smart intruder alarms, smart fire alarms

,smart home alarms).
• Connected cities (Smart Waste, Smart Parking, • Smart metering (smart gas, electricity & water
smart streetlights etc). metering).
• Connected Agriculture (crop/animal/soil moni-
toring). Internet of Things
• Smart wearables (smart watches etc)
• Smart cars
• The Internet of Things, or IoT, is a system of in- • The project involves helium-filled balloons
terrelated computing devices, mechanical & that remain in the stratosphere & create aerial
digital machines, objects, animals, or people. networks.
• They are provided with unique identifiers (UIDs).
• They transfer data over a network without re- Starlink
quiring human-to-human or human-to-com-
• It is a satellite internet constellation being con-
puter interaction.
structed by SpaceX with the aim to bring inter-
• A thing on the internet of things can be:
net access to rural & underserved areas around
1. A person with a heart monitor implant,
the world.
2. A farm animal with a biochip transponder,
• The constellation will consist of 1600 thousand
3. An automobile that has built-in sensors to
small satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO).
alert the driver when tire pressure is low or
any other natural,
What is Starlink system trying to solve?
4. A human-made object that can have an In-
ternet Protocol (IP) address & is able to 1. SpaceX wants to cut that long-distance lag.
transfer data. 2. It wants to provide internet access almost an-
• IoT devices share the sensor data they collect by
ywhere in the world.
connecting to an IoT gateway where data is ei- • The company plans to do this through an un-
ther sent to the cloud to be analysed or analysed precedented network of satellites in LEO.
locally.
• IoT can also make use of artificial intelligence
(AI) & machine learning to aid in making data
collecting processes easier & more dynamic.
Project Loon & Starlink
Project Loon
42
• It is a project under a Google subsidiary.

• It consists of a network of stratospheric bal-
loons designed to bring Internet connectivity Major problem with the current systems – high
to rural & remote communities worldwide. latency over long distances
• Optic fibre cables have a speed limit — light Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi)
signals travel 30% slower because of the denser
glass layers. • Bharti Airtel has introduced Voice over Wi-Fi
• This is not an issue for normal browsing. But over (VoWiFi) which is a first for India.
international distances, it leads to high latency, • VoWiFi calling makes use of high speed Inter-
or lag. net to make and receive HD voice calls to any
• The time delay is especially pronounced in long- mobile or landline number across operators.
distance videoconferencing & calls. • Wi-Fi calling can be configured on compatible
• Latency also matters to financial institutions. smartphones that supports Wi-Fi calling.
• With markets that move billions in fractions of a
second, any delay can lead to big losses over a How does Voice over Wi-Fi benefit the mo-
competitor. bile network operator (MNO)?
• Data beamed over current satellites also has high
latency (~0.5 seconds!). • Employing VoWiFi enables MNOs to quickly and
• That is because nearly all those spacecraft orbit easily extend their coverage or service range
Earth from about 35,786 kilometres high without having to setup extra radio access net-
(GSO). work (RAN) infrastructure.
• There is no need for new licensed spectrum or
Concerns with Starlink like projects engaging in complex roaming agreements.
• With so many new satellites in orbit, spaceflight How does VoWifi benefit the end user?
experts are concerned about the potential for
creating space junk that can damage or maim • The end user will be able to make uninterrupted
other spacecraft. calls independent of the network’s cellular cov‐
erage.
Starlink cannot be better & cannot compete in • Where possible, VoLTE calls can be seamlessly
price with optic fibre handed over between LTE and Wi-Fi and vice
versa.
• Over short distances fibre-optic will always win • VoWif will improve voice calling in areas with
as it can carry much more data at low cost. weak cellular signals but stable WiFi connection.
• The advantages of Starlink improve only over • It will particulary benefit rural areas, areas with
long distances (it reduces latency) & in remote tall structures where cellular network is poor,
areas. mountainous areas and indoors.
• Starlink cannot handle high load akin to a cell
tower being overloaded with too many users. How is VoWifi different from OTT calling?
43
• VoWifi is not much different from a voice call us-
Q. 'Project Loon', sometimes seen in the ing WhatsApp or any other over-the-top (OTT)
news, is related to (UPSC Prelims 2016) messaging platform, but the call is from one
number to another, and not using an app.

a) Waste management technology
b) Wireless communication technology How is VoWifi different from VoLTE?
c) Solar power production technology
d) Water conservation technology • In Voice over LTE (VoLTE), a MNO’s licensed
spectrum (i.e. 4G LTE) is used to carry packetized
voice.
• In VoWifi, packetized voice is carried over high • However, MNOs were hesitant to use VoWifi
speed internet. technology as that would hurt their voice-related
• That is, in VoWifi calling cellular packets from the revenue including revenue from roaming
smartphone are transferred to the carrier over charges.
the internet and then injected back into the cel- • However, with the advent of VoLTE, MNO’s rev‐
lular network. enue base started shifting from voice & roaming
charges to data charges.
Why are MNOs adopting VoWifi technology • Moreover, OTT applications like Whatsapp are
now? eating out into MNO’s market share.
• Hence, MNOs are taping into the VoWifi technol-
• VoWifi technology has been in place since a long
ogy to regain the lost ground and stay relevant.
time.
Privacy and Data Protection Related Topics
Data Localization and Data Protection • Technologies like machine learning, Artificial In-
telligence (AI) & Internet of Things (IoT) can
What is Data Localization? produce tremendous value out of various data.
It can be disastrous if data is not contained
• Data localisation is the act of storing data on within boundaries.
any device physically present within the borders • To curtail the threatening of unregulated & ar-
of a country. bitrary use of personal data, data localization is
• Localisation mandates that companies collect- necessary.
ing critical data about consumers must store &
process them within the borders of the coun- B.N Shrikrishna report on Data Protection
try.
• The SC in 2017 declared “privacy” a funda-
Why is it important? mental right.
• A committee headed by retired SC Judge BN
• The main intent behind data localisation is to Srikrishna was constituted by GOI in 2017, to
protect the personal & financial information deliberate on a "Data Protection Framework".
of the country’s citizens from foreign surveil‐ • The report has emphasized that interests of the
lance. citizens & the responsibilities of the state have
• Storing of data locally is expected to help law– to be protected, but not at the cost of trade &
enforcement agencies to access information industry.
that is needed for the detection of a crime or to • The committee proposed a draft Personal Data
44
gather evidence. Protection Bill.
• On–shoring global data could also create do-
mestic jobs & skills in data storage & analytics Highlights of the report and the proposed
too. Personal Data Protection Bill

• Where data is not localised, the agencies need
to rely on mutual legal assistance treaties Individual Consent
(MLATs) to obtain access, delaying investiga-
• The bill makes individual consent the centre-
tions.
piece of data sharing, awards rights to users,
imposes obligations on data fiduciaries (person
or organization that acts on behalf of another • The law will have jurisdiction over the pro-
person, including the State). cessing of personal data if such data has been
• It will make the data fiduciary liable for harms used, shared, collected or otherwise processed
caused to the data principal. in India.
• It also calls for privacy by design on part of data • It has proposed that critical personal data of In-
processors, & defines terms like consent, data dians be processed in centres located within
breach, etc. the country.
• Additionally, personal data processed by com-
panies incorporated under Indian law will be
covered, irrespective of where it is actually pro-
cessed in India.
Sensitive personal data
• Sensitive personal data will include financial

data, health data, sex life, sexual orientation, bi-
ometric & genetic data, caste, tribe, religious or
political beliefs or affiliations of an individual.
• DPA will be given the residuary power to notify
further categories in accordance with the crite-
ria set by law.
Data Storage
• The Bill makes it mandatory for a copy of per-

sonal data to be stored in India.
Link: Source & Credits Appellate Tribunal
Right to be forgotten • The Central Government shall establish an ap-

pellate tribunal or grant powers to an existing
• It refers to the ability of individuals to limit, de-
appellate tribunal to hear & dispose of any ap-
link, delete, or correct the disclosure of per-
peal against an order of the DPA.
sonal information on the internet that is mis-
leading, embarrassing, irrelevant, etc. Penalties
Data Protection Authority • Penalties may be imposed for violations of the 45

data protection law.
• The law will set up a Data Protection Authority
• The penalties paid by violating entities will be
(DPA), which will be an independent regulatory
deposited to a Data Protection Fund, which

body responsible for the enforcement & effec-
will, among other purposes, finance the func-
tive implementation of the law.
tioning of the Data Protection Authority.
Personal Data
Obligations on Fiduciaries
• The law will cover processing of personal data

by both public & private entities.
• Obligations would include “purpose limita- Limitations
tion” where data will be used only for clear,
specific & lawful purposes & “collection limi- • The Bill proposes that personal data of individ-
tation” where only data necessary for the pur‐ uals can be processed for any function of the
pose would be collected. state.
• This runs directly counter to the SC’s articula‐
Impact on allied laws tion of informed consent as central to infor-
mational privacy.
• The report has also listed the impact of the pro-
• There is very little legislative & judicial over-
posed data protection framework on allied
sight on surveillance activities and even the bill
laws, including the Aadhaar Act & the RTI Act.
doesn’t include any safeguards concerning sur‐
• The committee has noted that the Aadhaar Act
veillance activities.
is silent on the powers of the Unique Identifica-
tion Authority of India (UIDAI) to take enforce- GDPR vs Data Protection Bill
ment action against errant companies in its
ecosystem. • GDPR stands for General Data Protection
• The report has also recommended amend- Regulation that is in effect in EU since 2018.
ments to the RTI Act, pointing out that disclo- • It is a new set of rules designed to give EU citi-
sure of information from public authorities may zens more control over their personal data.
lead to private harm being caused. • GDPR framework applies to organisations in all
EU member-states.
Exceptions • GDPR has almost become a common noun for
personal data protection regulation.
• The state can process data without consent
• Justice BN Srikrishna committee has referred to
of the user on ground of public welfare, law &
GDPR repeatedly.
order and emergency situations.
• Processing of data for certain interests such as The key differences between GDPR and Data
security of the State, legal proceedings, re- Protection Bill
search & journalistic purpose, may be exempt
from certain obligations of the proposed data • GDPR is not an Act; individual member nations
protection law. have enacted their own legislations based on
GDPR.
Cross border data transfers
• Unlike in GDPR, Indian draft legislation does
not require the data fiduciary to share the
• Cross border data transfers of personal data will
names and categories of other recipients of the
be through model contract clauses.
personal data with the data principal. 46
• Personal data determined to be critical will be
• There is no obligation on data fiduciary to share
subject to the requirement to process only in
with the data principal for how long the data
India (there will be a prohibition against cross
will be stored while collecting or at any time, as

border transfer for such data).
GDPR mandates.
Data of Children • The data fiduciary does not need to share the
source of the personal data to the data princi-
• Committee has made specific mention of the pal in case the data has not been collected
need for separate & more stringent norms for from him/her which is an explicit requirement
protecting the data of children. in GDPR
• Unlike GDPR, there is no requirement that the this to specific countries most of which have
data fiduciary share with the data principal the chosen to allow free flow of data.
existence of automated decision making, in-
cluding profiling. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
• In India, a citizen has not been given the right
to demand his/her data to be erased. Data • VPNs is a tool designed for large organisations
erasure, which is an article in itself in GDPR to securely share their resources with their em-
does not even find a mention in the Indian draft ployees, as well as connect their employees and
bill. branches in a reduced-risk environment.
• In case of a breach, there’s no requirement • To ensure security, the VPN connection is estab-
by Indian draft bill to share it with the data lished using an encrypted layered tunnelling
principal. This is also in contrast to GDPR pro- protocol and users can use a host of authentica-
visions. tion methods like passwords, certificates, to gain
• In India, every data fiduciary should ensure the access to the network.
storage of personal data locally. GDPR leaves
47
• Since the line is encrypted between the network • With an IP address, you can be tracked down as
and the device connected to it, the traffic re- easily as with a regular street address.
mains private. • VPN replaces a user’s real IP addresses with
• VPN technology can check whether a connected the IP address of the gateway, which can be
device meets certain security requirements, thus located in a different country.
making the connections secure.
You may need a VPN it in the following cases
VPN and privacy
• You do not want anyone to have access to the
• VPN is also a good tool to circumvent censor- data you submit to the internet.
ship. • You do not want your ISP (Internet Service Pro-
• We can connect securely to a proxy network via vider) to know and log your internet activity.
a VPN which, in turn, will connect to a destination • You do not want various government agencies
website. to track you and your actions on the internet.
• Whenever you are connected to the Internet, you • You do not want various sites that you visit, and
are assigned an IP address – a numerical combi- programs installed on your computer, to collect
nation that is essentially similar to a regular and send marketing information about you and
street address. about what you are doing on the internet.
India Space Programmes and Related Concepts
Terms and Concepts related to Satellite

Launches and Satellite Orbits
• The terms like Kepler’s laws, geosynchronous or‐

bit, geostationary orbit, polar orbit, PSLV, GSLV,
etc. keep on appearing in the news columns
whenever there is a satellite launch.
• So, I thought it is better to keep all the related
concepts at one place.
Titbit: Russia's Sputnik, the world’s first artificial sat‐

ellite, was launched in 1957.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion (applica-

ble to satellites also) 48
• Kepler’s First Law: The orbit of a planet is an el-

lipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.

• Kepler’s Second Law: A line segment joining a
planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas dur-
The varying orbital speed of the earth (in the figure,
ing equal intervals of time.
the orbit of the earth is exaggerated)
• In simple words, the speed of the planet in-
creases as it nears the sun and decreases as it
recedes from the sun.
• Kepler’s Third Law: The square of the orbital pe- • In accordance with Kepler’s second law, the sat-
riod of a planet is proportional to the cube of the ellites are fastest at the perigee and slowest
semi-major axis of its orbit. at the apogee.
Why satellites revolve rather than staying

still in space?
• There are two important forces acting on the sat-

Hankwang, Wikipedia
ellite:
Orbital period (T): time taken by a plant to com-
1) the gravitational force which will pull the sat-
plete one revolution around the sun.
ellite towards earth and
Semi Major Axis (a1 and a2): half of the major axis of
2) the centrifugal force (due to revolution)
the ellipse.
which counters the gravitational pull.
T1 /a13 = T22/a23
2
• In simple terms, the distance of a planet from the

sun determines the time it takes for that planet
to revolve around the sun (farther the planet is,
greater the orbital period).
Orbital Average T2/R3

Planet
Period Distance
(T) in (R) in AU
years
Mer- 0.241 0.39 0.98 Source
cury
Venus .615 0.72 1.01 • Revolution causes centrifugal force (the object
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00 tends to move away from the centre).
Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01 • Higher the speed of the revolving satellite (or- 49
bital velocity), higher the centrifugal force.
Perigee and Apogee • Thus, by varying the speed (orbital velocity) of
the satellite, we can make the satellite
• Most satellites orbit the earth in elliptical pat- 1) fall back to earth by decreasing the orbital
terns. velocity (centrifugal force < gravitational
• When a satellite is at its farthest point from the force)
earth, it is at the apogee of the orbit. 2) stay in its orbit by adjusting the speed so
• When a satellite is at its closest point to the that the centrifugal force balances the
earth, it is at the perigee of the orbit. gravitational pull (centrifugal force =
gravitational force). (Lower the orbit, higher Advantages of LEO
should be the orbital velocity).
3) escape earth’s influence by keeping the or‐ • Low Earth Orbit is used for things that we want
bital velocity above the required speed (cen- to visit often, like the International Space Station,
trifugal force > gravitational force). the Hubble Space Telescope and some satellites
(usually spy satellites and other observation
Low Earth Orbit (LEO: 200-2000 km) satellites).
• This is convenient for installing new instruments,
• International Space Station (400 km), the experiments, and return to earth in a relatively
Hubble Space Telescope (560 km) and some short time.
observation satellites are all rotating the earth in
Low Earth Orbit. Disadvantages of LEO
• LEO is high enough to significantly reduce the
atmospheric drag yet close enough to observe • Atmospheric drag will lead to more fuel con-
the earth (remote sensing). sumption and constant speed adjustments.
• In LEO, the satellite’s orbital period is much • A satellite traveling in LEO do not spend very
smaller than the earth’s rotational period (24 long over any one part of the Earth at a given
hours). time.
• That is, the satellites in LEO complete multiple • Hence, satellites in LEO are not suitable for
revolutions in 24 hours (Lower the orbit, higher communication and weather observation and
should be the speed). forecasting.
Solution
• One solution is to put a satellite in a highly ellip-

tical orbit (eccentric orbit ― non-geosynchro-
nous).
• The other is to place the satellite in a geosyn-
chronous orbit.
Source
50
What is the speed required to keep a satel-
lite in LEO?
Highly Elliptical Orbits
• The speed is dependent on the distance from the

centre of the Earth. • Kepler's second law: an object in orbit about
• At an altitude of 200 km, the required orbital ve- Earth moves much faster when it is close to Earth
locity is a little more than 27,400 kmph. than when it is farther away.
• In the case of the space shuttle, it orbits the Earth • Perigee is the closest point and apogee is the far-
once every 90 minutes at an altitude of 466 km. thest.
• If the orbit is very elliptical, the satellite will spend • In this way, there is a satellite over every part of
most of its time near apogee (the furthest point the Earth at any given time.
in its orbit) where it moves very slowly.
• Thus, it can be above a specific location most of
the time.
Satellite constellation (Source)

Disadvantages of Highly Elliptical Orbits
Geosynchronous Orbits (GSO)
• In a highly elliptical orbit, the satellite has long
• Another solution to the dwell time problem is to
dwell time over one area, but at certain times
have a satellite whose orbital period is equal
when the satellite is on the high speed portion of
to the period of rotation of the earth (24 hrs)
the orbit, there is no coverage over the desired
(satellite’s revolution is in sync with the earth’s
area.
rotation).
Solution • In this case, the satellite cannot be too close to
the Earth because it would not be going fast
• We could have two satellites on similar orbits but enough to counteract the pull of gravity.
timed to be on opposite sides at any given time. • Using Kepler's third law it is determined that the
• In this way, there will always be one satellite over satellite has to be placed approximately 36,000
the desired coverage area at all times. km away from the surface of the Earth (~42,000
km from the centre of the Earth) in order to re-
main in a GSO orbit.
• By positioning a satellite so that it has infinite
dwell time over one spot on the Earth, we can
constantly monitor the weather in one location,
provide reliable telecommunications service, 51
etc.
• The downside of a GSO is that it is more expen-
sive to put and maintain something that high up.

• If we want continuous coverage over the entire
planet at all times, such as the Global Positioning Geostationary Orbit or Geosynchronous
System (GPS satellites are in Medium Earth Orbit Equatorial Orbit (GEO)
though), then we must have a constellation of
satellites with orbits that are both different in lo- • A geostationary orbit or geosynchronous equa-
cation and time. torial orbit is a circular geosynchronous orbit
above Earth's equator and following the direc-
tion of Earth's rotation.
• Because the satellite stays right over the same
spot all the time, this kind of orbit is called "ge-
ostationary."
Geostationary vs Geosynchronous
Geosynchronous Orbit
Geostationary Orbit or Geosynchronous Equa-
torial Orbit (GEO)
• They are both geosynchronous orbits (orbital period = 24 hours).

• Line of sight transmission
• Orbital path is circular. • Orbit is an inclined circle or an inclined ellipse.
• Orbital tilt is zero. • The orbital tilt is non-zero (inclined orbit)
• An observer on the ground would not perceive • A person on a point on Earth, will see a satellite in this
the satellite as moving and would see it as a orbit in the same place in the sky at the same time of
fixed point in the sky the day, every day.
• Since the orbit has some inclination and/or eccen-
tricity, the satellite would appear to describe a more
or less distorted figure-eight in the sky and would rest 52
above the same spots of the Earth's surface once per
day.
• There are a limited number of positions avail- • There are more orbital planes and positions available
able (traffic jam, interference of signals due to to satellites using this technique
more satellites in the same orbit and risk of
damage due to space debris) in this orbit due
to safety and manoeuvring limits.
• Can receive signals with a simple antenna as • Requires a parabolic antenna as the satellite’s position
the satellite is in relatively same position (DTH, slightly changes longitudinally.
VSAT services).
• (Parabolic antenna is used to nullify the effect
of atmospheric distortions)
• Steering the antenna is not required. • It may sometimes require steering the antenna to
achieve line of sight
Medium Earth Orbits (MEO: 2000-36,000 below to observe the entire surface of the Earth
km) as it passes below.
• Pictures of the Earth's surface in applications
• Medium Earth Orbits (MEO) range in altitude such as Google Earth come from satellites in po-
from 2,000 kms up to the geosynchronous orbit lar orbits.
at 36,000 km which includes part of the lower
and all of the upper Van Allen radiation belts.
• The Van Allen Radiation Belt is a region of high
energy charged particles moving at speeds close
to that of light encircling the Earth which can
damage solar cells, circuits, and shorten the life
of a satellite or spacecraft.
• Practical orbits therefore avoid these regions.
53
Polar Orbits (PO) Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO)
• Satellites in these orbits fly over the Earth from • Polar orbit and sun-synchronous orbits are low
pole to pole in an orbit perpendicular to the earth orbits.

equatorial plane. • Sun-synchronous orbit is a near polar orbit in
• This orbit is used in surface mapping and ob- which the satellite passes over any given point of
servation satellites since it allows the orbiting the planet's surface at the same local mean solar
satellite to take advantage of the earth's rotation time.
• When a satellite has a sun-synchronous orbit, it • A geosynchronous transfer orbit is a
means that the satellite has a constant sun illu- Hohmann transfer orbit — an elliptical or-
mination. bit used to transfer between two orbits in the
• Because of the consistent lighting, the satellites same plane — used to reach geosynchro-
in sun-synchronous orbit are used for remote nous or geostationary orbit.
sensing applications (image the Earth's sur-
face in visible or infrared wavelengths) like
imaging, spying, etc.
Parking Orbit
• It is not always possible to launch a space vehicle Escape velocity

directly into its desired orbit.
• The launch site may be in an inconvenient loca- • Escape velocity is the minimum launch velocity
tion or the launch window may be very short. (assuming the object is launched straight up) re-
• In such cases the vehicle may be launched into a quired for an object to escape earth’s gravita-
temporary orbit called a parking orbit. tional pull (it doesn’t fall back to earth).
• The parking obit provides more options for real- • One condition is that once launched the object
ising the ultimate orbit. is not supplied with any additional energy nor
• For manned space missions the parking orbit hindered by external force (like atmospheric
provides an opportunity to recheck the systems. drag) other than earth’s gravity.
• The escape velocity required for an object to es-
Hofmann transfer orbit cape earth’s gravitational pull is ~11.2 m/s
(40,000+ kmph).
• The transfer orbit is the orbit used to break out • It is neither feasible (atmospheric friction will
of the parking orbit and break into the geosyn- turn it into ash) nor desirable (cannot place sat-
chronous or geostationary orbit. ellites in desired orbit) to launch rockets at es-
cape velocity.
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

54
• PSLV is an indigenously-developed expendable
launch system.
Expendable launch system ➔ used only once to

carry a payload into space. E.g. PSLV, GSLV, etc.
Reusable launch system ➔ system intended to allow
Geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) for recovery of the system for later reuse. E.g. NASA's
space shuttles, SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket (reusable first
stage and expendable second stage), etc.
• PSLV was developed in 1990s by ISRO to place Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
satellites (mostly remote sensing satellites) in (GSLV)
polar and near polar (e.g. sun-synchronous
orbit) Lower Earth Orbits. • GSLV is also an expendable launch system.
• However, over the last decade, several PSLV mis- • The GSLV project was initiated to launch geo-
sions were successful in sending satellites to- synchronous satellites (most of them are heavy
wards geosynchronous transfer orbit. for PSLV).
• E.g. Chandrayaan-1 – 2008 and Mars Orbiter • GSLV uses solid rocket booster and the liquid-
Mission or Mangalyaan – 2014 were launched fuelled Vikas engine, similar to those in PSLV.
using PSLV. • GSLV has solid-fuelled first stage, liquid-fuelled
• PSLV can fly in different configurations depend- second stage and a cryogenic third stage.
ing on the mass of its payload and the target or- • A Cryogenic rocket stage is more efficient and
bit. provides more thrust.
• These configurations vary the number and type • However, cryogenic stage is technically a very
of solid rocket boosters attached to the rocket’s complex system due to its use of propellants
first stage, while the four core stages remain the (liquid oxygen ― minus183 °C and liquid hydro‐
same across all configurations. gen ― minus 253 °C) at extremely low temper-
• PSLV’s first stage and third stage are solid- atures.
fuelled stages. • India had to develop cryogenic technology in-
• PSLV’s second stage and forth stage are liquid- digenously as the US objected to Russia’s in‐
fuelled stages. volvement citing Missile Technology Control Re-
• The second stage engine, Vikas, is a derivative of gime (MTCR) May 1992.
France’s Viking engine. • A new agreement was signed with Russia for cry-
• The PSLV-C (PSLV Core Alone) version of the ogenic stages with no technology transfer.
rocket does not use additional boosters, while • GSLV rockets using the Russian Cryogenic
the PSLV-DL, PSLV-QL and PSLV-XL use two, four Stage (CS) are designated as the GSLV Mk I.
and six boosters respectively. • GSLV rockets using the indigenous Cryogenic
Upper Stage (CUS) are designated the GSLV
The Workhorse of India’s space program Mk II.
• GSLV Payload Capacity to LEO: 5,000 kg
• PSLV earned its title 'the Workhorse of ISRO' • GSLV Payload Capacity to GTO: 2,500 kg
through consistently delivering various satellites • GSLV's primary payloads are heavy communi-
to Low Earth Orbits, particularly the IRS (Indian cation satellites of INSAT class (about 2,500 kg)
Remote Sensing) series of satellites. that operate from Geostationary orbits (36000
• PSLV Payload Capacity to SSO: 1,750 kg km) and hence are placed in Geosynchronous
• PSLV Payload Capacity to Sub-GTO: 1,425 kg Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
55
• In forty-seven launches to date, PSLV has • The satellite in GTO is further raised to its final
achieved success forty-four times. destination by firing its in-built on-board en-
• Despite the failure of its maiden flight, PSLV went gines.

on to record thirty-six consecutive successful
launches from 1999 to 2017. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
• PSLVs were used to place the IRNSS satellite Mark III (GSLV-III)
constellation (3 in GEO and 4 in GSO) in orbit.
• GSLV-III is designed to launch satellites into ge-
ostationary orbit and is intended as a launch
vehicle for crewed missions under the Indian Hu- • GSLV-III Payload Capacity to LEO: 8,000 kg
man Spaceflight Programme. • GSLV-III Payload Capacity to GTO: 4000 kg
• The GSLV-III has a higher payload capacity than
GSLV.
• On entering the moon’s sphere of influence, it

Chandrayaan-2
will be eased into a circular orbit (100 km X 100
• Chandrayaan-2 has three modules namely Or- km).
biter, Lander (Vikram) & Rover (Pragyan). • Subsequently, Lander will separate from the Or-
• Chandrayaan 2 will be launched using GSLV biter (100 km orbit) & soft land close to lunar
Mark III rocket. South Pole.
• GSLV MK-III is a three-stage launch vehicle de- • The Rover will be carrying out scientific experi-
signed to carry four-tonne class satellites into ments on the lunar surface.
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO). (The • The instruments will collect scientific information 56
Chandrayaan-1 was launched on board a PSLV). on lunar topography, mineralogy, elemental
• The GSLV Mark III rocket will first launch the abundance, lunar exosphere & signatures of hy-
droxyl & water-ice.
spacecraft into an Earth Parking Orbit (170 km X

40,400 km). • The 3.84 lakh km journey will take five days, but
• Then the orbit will be enhanced until the space- the spacecraft must orbit the moon for about 28
craft can reach out to the Lunar Transfer Trajec- days before the lander separates itself from the
tory. orbiter.
• The mission life of the Orbiter is one year, &
the rover has an expected life of 14 Earth days
(one lunar day = 14 earth days; after 14 days it • A GSLV-Mk III launch vehicle will lift them to
will be lunar night & hence the rover will be de- their orbit.
prived of solar power). • India has signed agreements with Russia &
• If the landing is successful, it will make India only France for cooperation on the Gaganyaan mis-
the fourth country to soft-land on the lunar sion.
surface. • Recently Human space flight centre was inau-
• The erstwhile Soviet Union, the U.S & China gurated to coordinate Indian human space flight
are the only countries to have achieved lunar programme, it will also be responsible to imple-
landings. ment the project.
• Until now, only Russia, US & China have man-
aged to send manned missions to outer space.
Challenges for Astronauts
• The astronauts will have to adapt to the change

in gravitational field.
• The change in gravity affects hand-eye & head-
eye coordination.
• Bones may lose minerals adding to the risk of os-
teoporosis related fractures.
• Lack of exercise & improper diet make them lose
Source & Credits: The Hindu muscle strength & cause develop vision prob-
lems. 57
Gaganyaan Mission • Once they are in space, astronauts will receive

over 10 times more radiation than what peo-
• Gaganyaan is the 1st human space flight pro- ple are subjected to on earth.
gramme of ISRO. • It can cause cancer, nervous system damage &
• Under this mission Indian astronauts will go trigger nausea, vomiting, & anorexia & fatigue.
into space (low earth orbit) by 2022. • Without pressure, human blood heats up.
• This will be done by using its own capabilities. • Despite the training, behavioural issues may
• This crewed orbital spacecraft is expected to crop up due to isolation leading to depression.
carry 3 peoples into space for 7 days.
GEMINI: Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instru- • ISRO and Airports Authority of India (AAI)
ment for Navigation & Information have implemented the GAGAN project.
• GAGAN is operational through GSAT-8, GSAT-
• For dissemination of information on disaster 10 satellites & GSAT-15 satellites.
warnings, Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ) and • The system is inter-operable with other interna-
Ocean States Forecasts (OSF) to fishermen, tional SBAS systems like US-WAAS, European
GOI launched GEMINI device and mobile appli- EGNOS, etc.
cation. • GAGAN footprint extends from Africa to Aus-
tralia.
The need for GEMINI • GAGAN though primarily meant for aviation, will
provide benefits beyond aviation to many other
• PFZ forecasts, developed by INCOIS, will provide segments such as intelligent transportation, mar-
advisories on PFZ to fishermen 3 days in ad- itime, railways, etc.
vance.
• Ocean State Forecasts include the forecasts on
winds, waves, ocean currents, water temperature,
etc.
• However, PFZ & OSF advisories do not reach
fishermen when they move 10-12 km away
from the coast.
• The communication gap puts the life & property
of those involved in deep sea fishing in Indian
Ocean at risk.
• To overcome this difficulty, GEMINI portable de-
vice was developed.
Source: ISRO
How GEMINI works?
Satellite-based Augmentation Systems
• GEMINI device utilizes the GAGAN system to (SBAS)
transmit the PFZ, OSF and disaster warnings to
user’s cell phone. • The performance of Global Navigation Satellite
• The GEMINI app on the cell phone decodes the Systems (GNSSs) can be improved by regional
signals from GEMINI device and alerts the user Satellite-based Augmentation Systems (SBAS),
on imminent threats like cyclones, high waves, such as GAGAN.
strong winds along with PFZ and search and res- • SBAS improves the accuracy and reliability of
cue mission. GNSS information by correcting signal measure- 58
ment errors.
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GA-
Examples of Satellite-based Augmentation
GAN)
Systems (SBAS)
• GAGAN is a Satellite Based Augmentation Sys-
tem (SBAS) for the Indian Airspace. • USA: Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
• It provides the additional accuracy and integrity • EU: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay
necessary for all phases of flight. Service (EGNOS)
• India: GPS and GEO Augmented Navigation weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search
(GAGAN) and Rescue operations.
Examples of Global Navigation Satellite Sys- GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites)

tems (GNSSs)
• The new generation INSATs are now named as
• Global Positioning System (United States) GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites).
• GLONASS (Russia) • The GSAT satellites are used for digital audio,
• Galileo (EU) data and video broadcasting.
• BeiDou (China)
• IRNSS ― NAVIC (India) Transponder
• In a communications satellite, a satellite tran-

India’s Communication Satellites
sponder receives signals over a range of uplink
• Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) frequencies, usually from a satellite ground sta-
• GSATs (Geo synchronous Satellites) tion.
• The transponder amplifies them and re-transmits
Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) them on a different set of downlink frequencies
to receivers on Earth, often without changing the
• INSAT, is a series of multipurpose geostationary content of the received signal or signals.
satellites launched by ISRO.
• Established in 1983 with commissioning of IN-
SAT-1B, the INSAT system with more than 200
transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-bands
provides services to telecommunications, televi-
sion broadcasting, satellite newsgathering,
Satellite frequency bands
59
L-band (1–2 GHz) • Shorter wavelengths mean that you need a
smaller dish to receive these frequencies.
• Used by Global Positioning System (GPS) carriers
and satellite mobile phone communication de- K-band (18–26 GHz)
vices.
• Due to the 22 GHz water vapor absorption line
S-band (2–4 GHz) this band has high atmospheric attenuation and
is only useful for short range applications.
• Used by weather radar, surface ship radar, and
some communications satellites. Ka-band (26–40 GHz)
C band (4–8 GHz) • Used for communications satellites with high-

resolution, close-range targeting radars on mili-
• Used for satellite communications, for full-time tary aircraft.
satellite TV networks.
• Ssed in areas that are subject to tropical rainfall Why are the Geostationary satellites
(less susceptible to signal degradation than Ku launched from east coast in eastward direc-
band). tion and from locations that are close to the
• Because of the low frequencies, C band waves equator?
have longer wavelengths.
• Because of bigger wavelengths, a bigger dish is • If you observe the location of all the launch cen-
required to receive such frequencies. ters like Sriharikota, Kennedy Launch Center
(USA: Florida), Guiana Space Centre etc., all are
located on the East coast of the continent and
are close to the equator.
• The location of Kennedy Space Center and Satish
Dawan Space Center makes them particularly
vulnerable to tropical cyclones and other
weather “events”.
• However, they are good locations for rocket
launches as thay are on the east coast and close
X-band (8–12 GHz) to the equator.
• Also, the islands are less densely populated,
• Primarily used by the military.
making them safer to carry out launches.
• Sub-bands are used in civil, military and govern-
ment institutions for weather monitoring, air Why in eastward direction?
traffic control, maritime vessel traffic control, de- 60
fence tracking and vehicle speed detection for • As the earth rotates from west to east, a satellite
law enforcement. launched in the east direction will get an initial
boost equal to the velocity of Earth surface.

Ku-band (12–18 GHz)
Why at equator?
• Used for satellite communications, most notably
the downlink used by DTH television. Reason 1:
• Because of the higher frequencies, Ku band
waves have shorter wavelengths.
• Earth’s rotational velocity is maximum at the transfer orbit (the red ellipse), then makes a sec-
equator (on earth, centrifugal force is maximum ond burn to circularize the orbit into geostation-
at the equator). ary orbit (orange circle).
• Hence for maximum initial boost, the launch site
needs to be closer to the equator.
• Anything on the surface of the Earth at the equa-
tor is already moving at 1670 kilometers per hour
(rotational velocity of earth).
• But this benefit can be taken only for such satel-
lites which are placed in geo-stationary orbit or
which circle the Earth parallel to the equator.
Reason 2:
• Communication satellites are put into geosta-

tionary orbit above the equator with zero incli-
nation to the equatorial plane. • When a vehicle is launched from the equator, the
• The ideal place to launch to geostationary orbit three orbits shown are planar (they lie in the
is, obviously, on the equator. same plane).
• Equatorial launches only require the vehicle to • If the vehicle is launched from a non-equatorial
bring the payload to orbital speed and do not launch site, the green circle and the orange circle
require inclination changes. are non-planar, thus requiring the red ellipse to
• For launches that are not on the equator, the ve- bridge the two orbits (More fuel will be required
hicle must perform a complex adjustment burn = high costs).
in the GTO (geostationary transfer orbit) phase • This maneuver consumes propellant and thus
of the mission to bring the vehicle an inclination decreases the payload. That's another reason
of 0º. why equatorial launches (or as close as possible)
• The vehicle first reaches low earth orbit (green are preferred.
circle), then makes a burn to geostationary
61
What about polar satellites (remote sensing NavIC Navigation System
and earth observation satellites)?
Countries are working on building their nav-
• Such satellites are usually communication satel- igation systems
lites or satellites used for scientific research such
as ISS. • GPS ➔ owned by the US government and op-
• There are other satellites which are placed in po- erated by the US Air Force.
lar orbits moving across the equator in north • GLONASS ➔ Russia
south direction and used mainly for mapping or • Galileo ➔ European Union (EU)
sometimes for spying. • BeiDou ➔ China
• Such satellites are generally launched in south • Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) ➔ Ja-
ward or north ward direction and therefore can- pan (regional navigation system still under con-
not take advantage of the Earth’s rotation. struction)
• India’s navigation system is called Naviga-
Why are launch sites on the east coast? tion with Indian Constellation (NavIC) — pre-
viously known as Indian Regional Navigation
• Launching stations are generally located near Satellite System (IRNSS).
eastern coastline so that, just in case of failure of
the launch, the satellite does not fall on built-up
hinterland.
NavIC (IRNSS) • IRNSS is a regional and not a global naviga- 62

tion system.
• IRNSS is an independent regional navigation • An Extended Service Area lies between primary
satellite system being developed by India service area and area enclosed by the rectangle
(ISRO). from-
• It is designed to provide accurate position infor- 1. Latitude 30 deg South to 50 deg North,
mation service to users in India as well as the 2. Longitude 30 deg East to 130 deg East.
region extending up to 1500 km from its • IRNSS will provide two types of services,
boundary, which is its primary service area. namely-
1. Standard Positioning Service (SPS) which
is provided to all the users and Additional Reading
2. Restricted Service (RS), which is an en-
crypted service provided only to the au- How Navigation System Works?
thorised users.
• The IRNSS System is expected to provide a po- • Satellite Navigation is based on a global net-
sition accuracy of better than 20 m in the pri- work of satellites that transmit radio signals.
mary service area. • The working of the navigation system is based
• Some applications of IRNSS are: on the 'trilateration' & ‘triangulation’ prin-
✓ Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation ciple.
✓ Disaster Management • A navigation system device uses data from
✓ Vehicle tracking and fleet management satellites to locate a specific point on the
✓ Integration with mobile phones Earth in a process called trilateration.
✓ Precise Timing • To trilaterate, a GPS receiver measures the
✓ Mapping and Geodetic data capture distances to satellites using radio signals.
✓ Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and trav- • Trilateration is similar to triangulation, which
ellers measures angles, depicted in this illustration.
✓ Visual and voice navigation for drivers
• ISRO has built a total of nine satellites (earlier
7) in the IRNSS series of which eight are cur-
rently in orbit.
• Three of these satellites are in geostationary
orbit (GEO) while the remaining in geosyn-
chronous orbits (GSO) that maintain an incli-
nation of 29° to the equatorial plane.
• The IRNSS constellation was named as “NavIC”
(Navigation with Indian Constellation).
Link: Source and Credits
Triangulation
• Triangulation works with line-of-sight.

• Triangulation Measures Angles, Not Dis-
tance.
Trilateration
63
• Three signals put you at one of two points on
that circle—and that's usually enough to fig-
ure out where you are, because one of the

points might be up in the air or in the middle
of the ocean.
• With four signals, you know your position
precisely.
• Finding your location this way is called trilat-
eration.
• GPS Receivers Use Trilateration. build launch vehicles, providing launch services,
build satellites, providing space-based services,
technology transfers, etc.
• The broad areas and sectors covered by private
companies are- providing materials, mechanical
fabrication, electronic fabrication, system devel-
opment, integration, etc.
• IN-SPACe is supposed to be a facilitator, and
also a regulator.
Link: Source and Credits • It will act as an interface between ISRO and
private parties, and assess how best to utilise
India’s space resources and increase space-
based activities.
• IN-SPACe will have a Chairman, technical ex-
perts for space activities, Safety expert, experts
from Academia and Industries, members from
PMO and MEA of Government of India.
• IN-SPACe is the second space organisation cre-
ated by the government in the last two years.
• In the 2019 Budget, the government had an-
nounced the setting up of a New Space India
Limited (NSIL), a public sector company that
would serve as a marketing arm of ISRO.
• Its main purpose is to market the technologies
developed by ISRO and bring it more clients that
need space-based services.
• That role, incidentally, was already being per-
formed by Antrix Corporation, another PSU
Link: Source and Credits
working under the Department of Space, and
which still exists.
Private Sector Participation in Space Sector
About ISRO
PIB | GS3 > Space Technology
• The Indian Space Research Organisation is the
• Context: Government has created Indian Na-
space agency of the Government of India and
tional Space, Promotion & Authorization
has its headquarters in the city of Bangalore 64
Centre (INSPACe), under Department of Space
(also known as Bengaluru).
to encourage the private sector for their partici-
• Its vision is to "harness space technology for na-
pation in Space Sector.
tional development while pursuing space sci-

IN-SPACe ence research & planetary exploration".
• The Indian National Committee for Space Re-
• Private players will also be able to use ISRO search (INCOSPAR) was established by Ja-
infrastructure through INSPACe. waharlal Nehru under the Department of
• The role of New Space India Limited (NSIL) in Atomic Energy (DAE) in 1962, with the urging of
the post reformed space sector would be to
scientist Vikram Sarabhai recognising the need 2. Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm
in space research. of ISRO, Bangalore.
• INCOSPAR grew and became ISRO in 1969, also 3. Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ah-
under the DAE. medabad.
• ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, 4. National Atmospheric Research Labora-
which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 tory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra pradesh.
April 1975. 5. New Space India Limited - Commercial
wing, Bangalore.
Organisation Structure and Facilities 6. North-Eastern Space Applications Centre
(NE-SAC), Umiam.
• ISRO is managed by the Department of Space 7. Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mo-
(DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself hali.
falls under the authority of the Space Commis- 8. Indian Institute of Space Science and
sion and manages the following agencies and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram
institutes: – India's space university.
1. Indian Space Research Organisation
Indian Missile Systems
Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile • Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within
the Earth's atmosphere.
Ballistic Missiles • Longer-ranged intercontinental ballistic mis-
siles (ICBMs), are launched on a sub-orbital flight
• Follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver one or trajectory and spend most of their flight out of
more warheads on a predetermined target. the atmosphere.
• A ballistic trajectory is the path of an object that
is launched but has no active propulsion during Types of ballistic missiles based on range
its actual flight (these weapons are only guided
during relatively brief periods of flight). • Short-range (tactical) ballistic missile (SRBM):
• Consequently, the trajectory is fully determined Range between 300 km and 1,000 km.
by a given initial velocity, effects of gravity, air • Medium-range (theatre) ballistic missile (MRBM):
resistance, and motion of the earth (Coriolis 1,000 km to 3,500 km.
Force). • Intermediate-range (Long-Range) ballistic mis-
sile (IRBM or LRBM): 3,500 km and 5,500 km.
• Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): 5,500 km
+ 65
Cruise missile
• A cruise missile is a guided missile (target has to

be pre-set) used against terrestrial targets.
• It remains in the atmosphere throughout its
flight.
• It flies the major portion of its flight path at ap-
proximately constant speed.
• Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large • Hypersonic (Mach 5): these missiles would travel
warhead over long distances with high precision. at least five times the speed of sound (Mach 5).
• Modern cruise missiles are capable of travelling E.g. BrahMos-II.
at supersonic or high subsonic speeds, are self- • Supersonic (Mach 2-3): these missiles travel
navigating, and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, faster than the speed of sound. E.g. BrahMos.
extremely low-altitude trajectory. • Subsonic (Mach 0.8): these missiles travel slower
than the speed of sound. E.g. Nirbhay.
Types of cruise missiles based on speed
Differences between Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile
Cruise Missile
Ballastic Missile
• It is propelled only for a brief duration after the • Self-propelled till the end of its flight.
launch.
• Similar to rocket engine. • Similar to jet engine.
• Long range missiles leave the earth’s atmosphere • Flight path is within the earth’s atmosphere.
and reenter it.
• Low precision as it is unguided for most of its path • Hits targets with high precision as it is constantly
and its trajectory depends on gravity, air resistance propelled.
and Coriolis Force.
• Can have a very long range (300 km to 12,000 km) • The range is small (below 500 km) as it needs to
as there is no fuel requirement after its initial tra- be constantly propelled to hit the target with high
jectory. precision.
• Heavy payload carrying capacity. • Payload capacity is limited.
• Can carry multiple payloads (Multiple Inde- • Usually carries a single payload.
pendently targetable Re-entry Vehicle)
• Developed primarily to carry nuclear warheads. • Developed primarily to carry conventional war-
heads.
• E.g. Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II and Dhanush • E.g. BrahMos missiles
missiles.
Integrated Guided Missile Development academic institutions to build these sub-systems,

Programme (IGMDP) components and materials.
• IGMDP was started in 1983 and completed in 66
• IGMDP was conceived by Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam March 2012.
to enable India attain self-sufficiency in missile • Keeping in mind the requirements of various
technology. types of missiles by the defence forces, develop-
• IGMDP was conceived in response to Missile ment of five missile systems was taken up.
Technology Control Regime that decided to re- 1. Prithvi: Short-range surface-to-surface bal-
strict access to any technology that would help listic missile (Prithivi means Earth ➔ Surface
India in its missile development program. to Surface)
• To counter the MTCR, the IGMDP team formed a 2. Agni: Intermediate-range surface-to-surface
consortium of DRDO laboratories, industries and ballistic missile
3. Trishul: Short-range low-level surface-to-air 5. Nag: Third generation anti-tank missile (Nag
missile means Snake ➔ Nag slithers like a Snake to
4. Akash: Medium-range surface-to-air missile hit a tank!)
(Akash means Sky ➔ Surface to Air) • After its success, Agni missile program was sep-
arated from the IGMDP upon realizing its strate-
gic importance.
India’s Missiles
Name Type Range

Astra air-to-air 80 km
Trishul surface-to-air 9 km
Akash 30 km
Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) 2000 km
Nag surface-to-surface Anti-tank missile 4 km
Prahaar surface-to-surface SRBM 150 km
BrahMos land, naval, air Supersonic Cruise Missile 300 km
Nirbhay land, naval, air Subsonic Cruise Missile 1000 km
K-15 Sagarika underwater-to-surface SLBM 700 km
Dhanush sea-to-sea/surface SRBM 350 km
Shaurya surface-to-surface SLBM 1900
SLBM: Sub-marine launched ballistic missile.
Name Features
Astra • Astra is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile (AAM).
• In terms of size and weight, the Astra is the smallest missile developed by the DRDO.
• It was envisaged to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft at supersonic speeds.
Trishul • Used as anti-sea skimmer (to fly low to avoid radar) from ships against low-flying attacks.
Akash • It has the capability to "neutralize aerial targets like fighter jets, cruise missiles and air-to-
surface missiles" as well as ballistic missiles.
PAD • Anti-ballistic missile developed to intercept incoming ballistic missiles outside the atmos-
phere (exo-atmospheric).
Nag • 3rd generation anti-tank ‘fire and forget’ guided missile (lock-on before launch system)
where the target is identified and designated before the weapon is launched.
Prahaar • High maneuverability.
• Primarily a battlefield support system for the Army. 67
BrahMos • It is a supersonic cruise missile developed as a joint venture between Indian and Russia.
• It is the fastest supersonic cruise missile in the world.
• It is the world's fastest anti-ship cruise missile in operation.

Nirbhay • Subsonic missile which is ancillary (providing necessary support) to the BrahMos range.
K-15 Sagarika • It forms the crucial third leg of India’s nuclear deterrent vis-à-vis its submarine-launched
ballistic missile (SLBM) capability.
• It was subsequently integrated with India’s nuclear-powered Arihant class submarine.
Dhanush • It is capable of carrying nuclear warheads.
• It carries forward the legacy of the K-15 Sagarika.
Shaurya • Surface-to-surface ballistic missile (SSM) variant of the K-15 Sagarika.
• The nuclear capability of the missile enhances India’s second strike capability.
• It reduces the dependence on the K-15 which was built with Russian assistance.
Prithvi Missiles
All the Prithvi variants are surface-to-surface SRBMs.

Name Version Range Payload in kg
Prithvi I Army version 150 km 1000
Prithvi II Air force version 350 km 500
Prithvi III Naval version 600 km 1000
Agni Missiles
Type Range Payload in kg

Name
Agni-I MRBM 700 – 900 km 1,000
Agni-II MRBM 2,000 – 3,000 km 750 – 1,000
Agni-III IRBM 3,500 – 5,000 km 2,000 – 2,500
Agni-IV IRBM 3,000 – 4,000 km 800 – 1,000
Agni-V ICBM 5,000 – 8,000 km (Testing) 1,500 (3 – 10 MIRV)
Agni-VI ICBM 8,000 – 10,000 km (Under development) 1,000 (10 MIRV)
• In March 2019, India successfully tested its ASAT

missile.
• The ASAT missile destroyed a live satellite in Low
Earth orbit (283-kilometre).
• As per DRDO, missile was capable of shooting
down targets moving at a speed of 10 km per
second at an altitude as high as 1200 km.
Brahmos Missiles
• Brahmos is a multiplatform i.e. it can

be launched from land, air, & sea & multi
capability missile with pinpoint accuracy that
68
works in both day & night irrespective of the
weather conditions.
• It has an indigenous booster & air frame sector,
along with other sub-systems made within the

country.
• The supersonic missile is one of the prime pre-
cision-strike missiles used by all three forces, the
Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) Army, Navy & the Air Force.
• BRAHMOS is a joint venture between the De- The K Family of Missiles
fence Research & Development Organisation
of India (DRDO) & the NPOM of Russia. • The K family of missiles are primarily Submarine
• Brahmos is named on the rivers Brahmaputra Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), which
& Moskva. have been developed by DRDO & are named
• It operates on the "Fire & Forgets" principle after Dr Kalam.
i.e it does not require further guidance after • The development of these naval platform
launch. launched missiles began as a step towards com-
• It is supersonic cruise missile. pleting India’s nuclear triad — the capability of
• Brahmos is one of the fastest cruise mis- launching nuclear weapons from land, sea & air-
sile currently operationally deployed with based assets.
speed of Mach 2.8, which is 3 times more • Because these missiles are to be launched from
than the speed of sound. submarines, they are lighter than their land-
• Brahmos is the heaviest weapon to be de- based counterparts, the Agni missiles which
ployed on Su-30 MKI fighter aircraft, with a are medium & intercontinental range nuclear
weight of 2.5 tonnes. capable ballistic missiles.
• While K family are primarily submarine-fired
missiles to be fired from India’s Arihant class
nuclear powered platforms, the land & air var-
iants of some of its members have also been de-
veloped by the DRDO.
• Shaurya, whose user trial was conducted, is a
land variant of short range SLBM K-15
Sagarika, which has a range of at least 750 kil-
ometers.
• India has also developed & successfully tested
multiple times the K-4 missiles from the family
which has a range of 3500 km.
• It is reported that more members of K-family —
reportedly to have been codenamed K-5 & K-6
— with ranges of 5000 & 6000 km are also un-
der development.
The strategic importance of SLBMs
• The capability of being able to launch nuclear 69

weapons submarine platforms has great strate-
Suggested reading: Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Mis- gic importance in context of achieving a nuclear
sile, India’s Missile Systems, IGMDP triad, especially in the light of ‘no first use’ policy
of India.
Shaurya Missile • The sea-based underwater nuclear capable as-
sets significantly increase the second-strike ca-
• These ballistic weapons belong to the K Missile pability of a country & thus boosts its nuclear
Family. deterrence.
• These submarines can not only survive a first strike in retaliation thus achieving Credible Nu-
strike by the adversary but also can launch a clear Deterrence.
Space and Astronomy Related Concepts
Asteroids
70
• Ryugu is also classified as a PHA and was dis-
covered in 1999 and was given the name by the
Minor Planet Center in 2015.
• It is 300 million kilometres from Earth and it took
Hayabusa2 over 42 months to reach it.
Hayabusa Mission 2
• The Hayabasu2 mission was launched in De-

cember 2014.
• The spacecraft was sent on a six-year-long
voyage to study the asteroid Ryugu and col-
lect samples to bring back to the Earth.
• The spacecraft arrived at the asteroid in mid-
2018.
Closest stars to the Sun
• Alpha Centauri is the third brightest star in the

sky (4.37 light-years away).
• Alpha Centauri is not one star, it is a system of
three stars ― Alpha Centauri A & B and Proxima
• Asteroids are rocky objects that orbit the Sun, Centauri.
much smaller than planets. • Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B are a bi-
• They are also called minor planets. nary pair, orbiting a common centre of gravity.
• Asteroids are divided into three classes. • Alpha Centauri A is a little more massive than the
1. First group, those found in the main aster- Sun, & Alpha Centauri B is slightly less massive.
oid belt between Mars and Jupiter. • Proxima Centauri is the faint red dwarf
2. The second group is that of trojans, which star, and it is the closest star to our Sun (4.24
are asteroids that share an orbit with a larger light-years away).
planet. • Proxima Centauri has been the nearest star for
✓ Presence of Jupiter, Neptune, and Mars about 32,000 years.
trojans. • After 33,000 years from now, the nearest star will
✓ In 2011, they reported an Earth trojan as be Ross 248.
well. • Alpha Centauri is only visible in the Southern
3. The third classification is Near-Earth Aster- Hemisphere. 71
oids (NEA), which have orbits that pass close • In the Northern Hemisphere, the closest visible
by the Earth. star is Barnard’s Star, another red dwarf which
✓ Those that cross the Earth’s orbit are is too dim just like Proxima Centauri to see with
called Earth-crossers. the unaided eye.
✓ More than 10,000 such asteroids are • The closest star that you can see with the naked
known, out of which over 1,400 are classi- eye in the Northern Hemisphere is Sirius (Dog
fied as potentially hazardous asteroids Star).
(PHAs). • Sirius is the second brightest star when viewed
from the earth, the brightest being the sun.
Closest Stars
1. Proxima Centauri (Alpha Centauri system

– 4.2 light years)
2. Barnard’s Star – 5.9 light years
3. Luhman 16 – 6.5 light years
Brightest Stars from Earth
1. Sun
2. Sirius
3. Alpha Centauri
Gravitational waves
• Gravitational waves are 'ripples' in the fabric

of space-time caused by some of the most vio-
lent and energetic processes in the Universe.
(Spacetime:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sryrZwYguR
Q)
• Travelling at the speed of light, gravitational
waves squeeze and stretch anything in their
path.
• These ripples travel at the speed of light, carry-
ing with them information about their origins. Source and Credits
• Gravitational waves were proposed by Albert • While the processes that generate gravitational
Einstein in his General Theory of Relativity. waves can be extremely violent and destructive,
• It was only in 2015, however, that the first grav- by the time the waves reach Earth, they are bil-
itational wave was actually detected by LIGO. lions of times smaller.
• Since then, there have been a number of subse-
quent detections of gravitational waves.
Einstein’s theory of general relativity
• In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the

laws of physics are the same for all non-ac- 72
celerating observers and that the speed of
light in a vacuum was independent of the
motion of all observers.
• As a result, he found that space and time

were interwoven into a single continuum
known as space-time.
• Events that occur at the same time for one
Gravitational waves (NASA)
observer could occur at different times for
another. This was the theory of special rela-
tivity.
• In 1915, Einstein published his theory of gen-
eral relativity. In it, he determined that mas-
sive objects distort space-time, which is felt
as gravity.
• Gravitational lensing and gravitational
waves are strong evidence for Einstein’s the-
ory of general relativity.
Gravitational lensing
• Light around a massive object, such as a

black hole, is bent, causing it to act as a
lens for the things that lie behind it.
Source: space.com
Importance of gravitational waves
• The gravitational waves can work as sirens to

measure the expansion rate of the universe
and to understand the origin and the future of
the universe.
LIGO Source and Credits
• The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Northern Lights

Observatory (LIGO) was designed to open the
field of gravitational-wave astrophysics through • Aurora is the name given to the luminous glow
the direct detection of gravitational waves pre- in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is
dicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. produced by charged particles (solar wind)
descending from the planet’s magneto-
LIGO-INDIA sphere.
• Northern Lights, also known as aurora borealis,
• It is the first LIGO LAB outside US.
are usually witnessed far up in the polar regions
• It aims to create a gravitational-wave de-
or the high latitude regions of Europe, like in 73
tector in India.
Norway.
• It is a collaboration between LIGO Laboratory
• While flowing toward Earth, the fast-moving
and the LIGO-India consortium: Institute of
solar wind carries with it the Sun’s magnetic

Plasma Research, Gandhinagar; IUCAA (Inter-
field, which disrupts the magnetosphere.
University Centre for Astronomy and Astro-
• Magnetosphere is the region of space around
physics), Pune and Raja Ramanna Centre for
Earth in which the magnetic field of our
Advanced Technology, Indore.
planet is dominant.
• A site near Aundha Nagnath in the Hingoli
• When the Sun’s magnetic field approaches
district of Maharashtra has been selected.
Earth, the protective magnetic field radiating
from our planet’s poles deflects the former, thus • It extends several tens of thousands of kilome-
shielding life on Earth. tres into space, protecting the Earth from the
• However, as this happens, the protective fields charged particles of the solar wind & cosmic
couple together to form funnels, through which rays.
charged solar wind particles are able to • It would otherwise strip away the upper atmos-
stream down to the poles. phere, including the ozone layer that protects
• At the north & south poles, the charged parti- the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
cles interact with different gases in the at- • Many cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar sys-
mosphere, causing a display of light in the sky. tem by the Sun’s magnetosphere called heli-
• This display, known as an aurora, is seen from osphere.
the Earth’s high latitude regions (called the
auroral oval), & is active all year round.
Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA)
Near-Earth Objects (NEOs)
Visual Explanation > Aurora (Must see) • NEOs are comets and asteroids whose orbits
are brought close to the earth’s neighbourhood
• In the northern part of our globe, the polar
by the gravitational influence of the nearby plan-
lights are called aurora borealis or Northern
ets.
Lights, & are seen from the US (Alaska), Canada,
Iceland, Greenland, Norway, Sweden & Finland. Asteroids
• In the south, they are called aurora australis or
southern lights, & are visible from high lati- • Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation
tudes in Antarctica, Chile, Argentina, New Zea- that circle the Sun in a zone lying between Mars
land & Australia. & Jupiter.
• Generally, the auroral oval is confined to the • The circular chain of asteroids between Mars and
polar regions. Jupiter is called the asteroid belt.
• But occasionally, the oval expands, & the 74
lights become visible at lower latitudes.
• This happens during periods of high solar ac-
tivity, such as the arrival of solar storms.
Magnetosphere
• The magnetosphere is the region above the

ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the
Earth’s magnetic field in space.
• Asteroids (planetoids) are composed mainly of Kuiper belt
refractory rocky and metallic minerals, with some
ice. • The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to
• Asteroids range in size from hundreds of kilome- the asteroid belt but consisting mainly of objects
tres across to microscopic. composed primarily of ice.
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid (946 km • It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.
in diameter), a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet.
Oort Cloud
Comets
• Oort cloud is a giant shell of icy bodies that en-
circle the solar system occupying space at a dis-
• A comet is an icy small Solar System body that,
tance between 5,000 and 100,000 AU.
when passing close to the Sun, heats up due to
the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind
upon the nucleus and begins to outgas, display-
ing a visible atmosphere or coma, and some-
times also a tail.
• Comets have highly elliptical orbits, unlike the
planets which have near-circular orbits.
• They are made of frozen gases (water, NH3, CH4,
CO2) which hold together rocky and metallic
minerals.
• Short-period comets (orbital period of a few
Distance from Sun (NASA / JPL-Caltech, via Wiki-
hundred years) originate in the Kuiper belt or its
media Commons)
associated scattered disc, which lie beyond the
orbit of Neptune. Potentially Hazardous Objects (PHO)
• Longer period comets, with orbits of thousands
of years, come from the more distant Oort • They are NEOs (asteroids or comets) that come
Cloud. threateningly close to Earth and large enough to
cause significant regional damage in the event of
Halley’s Comet
impact.
• All asteroids with a Minimum Orbit Intersection
• One of the larger comets is the Halley’s Comet.
Distance (MOID) of 0.05 AU (7,480,000 km) or
• The orbit of Halley’s Comet brings it close to the
less are considered Potentially Hazardous Aster-
Earth every 76 years ― short-period comet.
oids (PHAs).
• It last visited in 1986 and is projected to return in
• MOID is the minimum distance between two al-
2061. 75
most overlapping elliptical orbits.
• NASA tracks and characterizes NEOs that are 140
meter or larger in size.
• However, no asteroid larger than 140 m has a

“significant” chance of hitting the Earth for the
next 100 years.
Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite

• A meteoroid is any solid debris originating from • An asteroid roughly 10 km across and travelling
asteroids, comets or other celestial object and at a speed of 20 km/s hit Earth about 65 million
floats through interplanetary space. years ago.
• A meteor is the streak of light that appears in the • This impact made a huge explosion and a crater
sky when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere about 180 km across (E = mc2 ➔ more speed =
(mesosphere) at about 200 km at high speed more energy).
and burns up because of the friction. • Debris layer in the atmosphere blocked sunlight
for months and led to impact winters that lasted
for years, leading to the extinction of roughly 3/4
of species that existed at that time, including the
dinosaurs.
• Tiny mammals that lived in burrows survived.
Hence mammals replaced giant reptiles after the
impact.
• Many asteroids of this type cross Earth's orbit
• In some cases, the meteoroid does not burn up
every now and then.
completely and makes its way to the Earth’s
• Some of these could potentially hit Earth in the
surface.
future.
• The surviving chunk is called a meteorite.
• The depression created on the earth’s surface af‐ Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment
ter the meteorite’s impact is called as a meteor- (AIDA)
ite crater.
• There are around 25,000 near-Earth objects
Chicxulub crater
(NEOs – asteroids, comets, space debris) that or-
• Chicxulub crater (Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula) bit the Sun on a trajectory that brings them close
was caused by a meteorite impact that is be- to our planet’s orbit.
lieved to have wiped out the dinosaurs (5th • According to NASA, as of now, there are about
mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous 65 900 near-Earth objects measuring more than 1
million years ago). km.
• An impact from one of these NEOs can bring
devastating effects to Earth.
• The latest of the five mass extinctions, Creta-
ceous–Paleogene extinction (66 million years
ago, the end of dinosaurs), is said to have caused
by an asteroid or a comet impact.
• Over the years, scientists have suggested differ- 76
ent ways to ward off asteroid impact threats,
such as blowing up the asteroid before it reaches
Earth or deflecting it off its Earth-bound course

by hitting it with a spacecraft.
• Now, scientists have embarked on a plan to test
their expertise with the second of these two
The devastation potential of a 10 km aster- methods.
oid (meteorite)
Asteroid Impact Deflection Assessment
• The AIDA is a double-spacecraft kinetic impact • Based on the observations, the capabilities of ki-
mission being developed by NASA ad ESA. netic impact as an asteroid mitigation strategy
• The project aims to study the effectiveness of an will be determined.
impact to ward off an impending asteroid threat.
• Th aim of the mission is to test if the technique Superhabitable Planets
of deflecting asteroids off their earth-bound
course is effective in warding off future asteroid What are Exoplanets?
impact threats.
• AIDA includes NASA’s Double Asteroid Redi- • The word planet is a general term that describes
rection Test (DART) and the ESA’s Hera. any celestial body that moves around a star.
• There are also “rogue” planets that do not orbit
Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) stars.
• An exoplanet is a planet outside our solar
• NASA aims to launch DART spacecrafts in 2021. system.
• DART will be put to test on the Didymos binary • It is an extrasolar planet.
near-Earth asteroid system.
• Didymos binary system consists of Didymos A What is Dark Energy?
(about 780 metres in size), and Didymos B
(about 160 metres). • In 1998, it was discovered that the universe is
• The Didymos B will have a distant approach to expanding & that this expansion was gaining
Earth in 2022, and then again in 2024. speed or accelerating.
• DART adopts kinetic impactor technique to de- • There had to be an “invisible” energy that was
flect the orbit of the smaller body through an im- driving this.
pact by one of the spacecrafts with the target at • Calculations showed that this dark energy – so
6.6 km/s. called because it did not interact with the ob-
served mass – makes up about 70% of the uni-
verse.
• It is distributed evenly throughout the uni-
verse, not only in space but also in time – in
other words, its effect is not diluted as the uni-
verse expands.
• The even distribution means that dark energy
does not have any local gravitational effects,
but rather a global effect on the universe as a
whole.
• This leads to a repulsive force, which tends to 77
accelerate the expansion of the universe.
• Mission Hera will launch in 2024 and will arrive • The rate of expansion & its acceleration can
at the Didymos system in 2027 to measure the be measured by observations based on the
impact crater produced by the DART collision Hubble law.
and study the change in the asteroid’s orbital tra‐ • These measurements, together with other scien-
jectory. tific data, have confirmed the existence of dark
• The effect of the collision is also monitored by energy & provide an estimate of just how much
earth based observatories. of this mysterious substance exists.
Dark Matter • They define a superhabitable world as a terres-
trial planet or moon that could support more di-
• The velocity of rotation for spiral galaxies de- verse flora & fauna than there are on Earth, as it
pends on the amount of mass contained in would empirically show that its environment is
them. more hospitable to life.
• But the outer arms of the Milky Way are rotating • Related term – Goldilocks zone
much too fast to be consistent with the amount ✓ The Goldilocks Zone refers to the habita-
of matter that we know exists in them. ble zone around a star where the temper-
• Such fast rotation is possible only when there is ature is just right - not too hot & not too
more mass, & that extra mass is believed to cold - for liquid water to exist on a planet.
come from the dark matter. ✓ Liquid water is essential for life as we know it.
• Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that ✓ Where we find liquid water on Earth, we also
is thought to account for approximately 85% of find life.
the matter in the universe. ✓ The location of a Goldilocks Zone around an-
• Dark energy plus dark matter constitutes other star depends on the type of star.
95.1% of the total content of the uni- ✓ Bigger hotter stars have their Goldilocks
verse (the rest in the normal matter). In short, Zones further out, while smaller cooler stars
we are unsure about what’s there in 95% of the such as M-type red dwarf stars have habita-
universe! ble zones much closer in.
• The majority of dark matter is thought to be
composed of some as-yet-undiscovered suba-
tomic particles.
• The name dark matter refers to the fact that it
does not appear to interact with observable
electromagnetic radiation, such as light.
• It is thus invisible (or ‘dark’) to the entire elec-
tromagnetic spectrum, making it extremely
difficult to detect.
• Dark matter interacts with the rest of the uni-
verse only through its gravity (that’s how we
know it exists). Source & Credits
Superhabitable Planet
Biotechnology Related Concepts
• A superhabitable planet is a hypothetical type
78
of exoplanet or exomoon that may be better Bioweapons
suited than Earth for the emergence & evo-
lution of life. • Biological weapons are microorganisms like
• The concept was introduced in 2014 by René virus, bacteria, fungi, or other toxins that are
Heller & John Armstrong, who have criticized produced and released deliberately to cause
the language used in the search for habitable disease and death in humans, animals or plants.
planets, so they propose clarifications because • Biological agents, like anthrax, botulinum
a circumstellar habitable zone (HZ) is not toxin and plague can pose a difficult public
enough to define a planet's habitability health challenge.
79
• Bioterrorism attacks could result in an epi- • Biological weapons are a subset of a larger class
demic, for example if Ebola virus was used as bi- of weapons referred to as weapons of mass de-
ological agents. struction, which also includes chemical, nu-
clear and radiological weapons.
Bacillus Anthracis (Anthrax) (It has 48 participating governments, India is
not a member of the NSG).
• Bacillus anthracis bacteria, which causes an- 3. The Australia Group (AG) for the control
thrax, is one of the deadliest agents to be used of chemical and biological technol-
as a biological weapon. ogy that could be weaponized.
• Anthrax has been used as a bioweapon for 4. The Missile Technology Control Regime
about a century mixed with powders, sprays, (MTCR) for the control of rockets and
food and water. other aerial vehicles capable of deliver-
• The invisible, infectious, odourless and tasteless ing weapons of mass destruction.
spores make Anthrax a flexible bioweapon.
IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project
Australia Group
• The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
• The Australia Group (AG) is an informal fo-
(CSIR) concluded the six-month long exercise of
rum/voluntary group of countries.
conducting a “whole-genome sequence” of a
• The Australia Group is a multilateral export
1,008 Indians that beloged to diverse ethnicities.
control regime (MECR).
• The project is part of a programme called “Indi-
• Members, through the harmonisation of export
Gen” and is a precursor to a much larger exercise
controls, seeks to ensure that exports do not
funded by the Department of Biotechnology to
contribute to the development of chemical
sequence at least 10,000 Indian genomes.
or biological weapons (CBW) by states or ter-
• The project involved the Hyderabad-based
rorist groups.
Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
• The AG at present consists of 42 countries and
(CCMB) and the CSIR-Institute of Genomics
the European Union.
and Integrative Biology (IGIB).
• India formally became the 43rd member.
• Globally, many countries have undertaken ge-
• Australia manages the secretariat.
nome sequencing of a sample of their citizens to
determine unique genetic traits, susceptibility
Multilateral Export Control Regime (MECR)
(and resilience) to disease.
• It is an informal group of like-minded supplier
Key Terms
countries that seek to contribute to the:
✓ Non-proliferation of weapons of mass de-
• DNA: hereditary material of most of the living
struction,
beings.
✓ Delivery systems, and
• RNA: hereditary material of some microorgan-
✓ Advanced conventional weapons through
isms (virus).
national implementation of guidelines
• Genes: specific section of DNA which encodes 80
and control lists for exports.
the synthesis of gene product either RNA or for
• There are currently four such regimes:
proteins i.e., it is involved in making RNA (tran-
1. The Wassenaar Arrangement (WA) on Ex-
scription) or proteins (translation).

port Controls for Conventional Arms and
• Chromosome: are thread-like structures lo-
Dual-Use Goods and Technologies (It has 42
cated inside the nucleus of animal & plant cells.
member).
✓ The DNA is coiled to make thread like
2. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), for
structure called chromosomes.
the control of nuclear related technology
✓ Human beings have 46 chromosomes
(23 from each parent).
✓ Each chromosome is made of protein &
a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA).
• Genome sequencing: Deciphering the exact or-
der of bases pairs (complete DNA sequence) in
an organism's genome.
✓ This entails sequencing all of an organ-
ism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA
contained in the mitochondria and, for Source & Credits
plants, in the chloroplast.
Difference between DNA vs RNA
DNA RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
Double Stranded Single Stranded
Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Sugar
Can’t Self-Replicate
Self-Replicate
It is synthesized from DNA when required
Occurs inside the nucleus & of cell & some cell or-
It is found in cytoplasm of the cell but very little is
ganelles (mitochondria) but in plants it is pre-
found inside the nucleus.
sent in mitochondria & plant cell
DNA is the genetic material in all living organ-
RNA is genetic material in some viruses
isms
Long Polymer Chain Shorter Polymer Chain
Life of DNA is longer Its life is short
3 types of RNA are present in an organism: - mRNA,
DNA occurs only in one form in any organism
rRNA, tRNA
DNA is functional in the transmission of genetic in- RNA is functional is the transmission of the genetic
formation code that is necessary for the protein creation
It forms as a media for long-term storage from the nucleus to the ribosome
Bases present are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, & Bases present are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine &
Thymine Uracil
81
Genome • Most of the DNA is in the nucleus and intricately

coiled into a structure called the chromosome.
• A genome is the DNA, or sequence of genes, in • The rest is in the mitochondria, the cell’s pow‐
a cell. erhouse, and some is chloroplast DNA.
• Every human cell contains a pair of chromo- Genome Sequencing
somes, each of which has three billion base pairs
or one of four molecules – adenine (A), thymine • Sequencing a genome means deciphering the
(T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) – that pair in exact order of base pairs in an individual.
precise ways. • This “deciphering” or reading of the genome is
what sequencing is all about.
• In this particular piece of DNA, an adenine (A) is

followed by a guanine (G), which is followed by a
thymine (T), which in turn is followed by a cyto-
sine (C), another cytosine (C), and so on.
Whole genome sequencing
• Exome, the portion of the genes responsible for

making proteins occupies just about 1% of the
actual gene.
• The order of base pairs & varying lengths of • Rather than sequence the whole gene, many ge-
these sequences constitute the “genes”, which neticists rely on “exome maps”.
are responsible for making amino acids, pro- • However, the non-exome portions also affect the
teins and, thereby, everything that is necessary functioning of the genes.
for the body to function. • Hence to know which genes of a person’s DNA
are “mutated” the whole genome sequencing is
required.
• Whole genome sequencing is the process of de-
termining the complete DNA sequence of an
organism's genome at a single time.
• This entails sequencing all of an organism's chro-
mosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the
mitochondria and, for plants, in the chloro-
plast.
• In practice, genome sequences that are nearly
complete are also called whole genome se-
quences. 82
• The whole genome sequencing relies on new
technologies that allow rapid sequencing of the
entire genome in a matter of a few days.
Benefits of Genome Sequencing
• Whole genome sequencing data of a person can

• When these genes are altered (mutated), pro-
be analysed to determine if they carry genes for
teins sometimes do not function as intended,
particular single genetic disorders (caused due to
leading to disease.
mutation). This will help usher in a new era of • Stem cells taken from umbilical cord blood
personalized medicine. are like those taken from bone marrow, capa-
ble of producing all blood cells: red cells,
Stem Cell or Cord Blood Banking platelets, and immune system cells.
• That is, they are capable of renewing themselves
Stem Cells through cell division to give rise to new stem
cells or specialized cell types (bone cells, mus-
• The blood collected from the umbilical cord cle cells, etc.).
of the new-born is a rich source of stem cells.
• The stem cells are unspecialised cells (they do What are the uses of stem cells?
not have a specific predefined function).
• In a patient, they can be induced to become tis-
Stem cell banking or Cord blood (umbilical sue- or organ-specific cells with special func-
cord blood) Banking tions.
• Hence, they offer the possibility of a renewable
• Cord blood is the blood that remains in the um- source of replacement cells and tissues to
bilical cord and placenta post-delivery. treat diseases including macular degeneration,
• Cord blood at the time of delivery a rich source spinal cord injury, stroke, burns, heart disease, di-
of stem cells and other cells of the immune sys- abetes, etc.
tem. • The stem cells in theory can treat around 70
• Cord blood banking is the process of collecting blood related disorders and genetic disorders in-
the cord blood and extracting and cryogenically cluding thalassemia, sickle cell anaemia, leukae-
freezing its stem cells and other cells of the im- mia, and immune related disorders.
mune system for potential future medical use. • But given the present state of medicine, they are
• In some parts of the world, cord blood banking effective only for around a dozen of them.
is more often referred to as stem cell banking.
• Cord blood banking is designed to collect the Are stem cells useful for family members?
stem cells and not the actual blood cells them-
selves. • Body’s immune system does not accept outside
stem cells and other cells of the immune system.
How long can the stem cells be preserved? • Cord blood taken from a baby's umbilical cord is
always a perfect match for the baby.
• The stem cells are preserved in liquid nitrogen in • In addition, immediate family members are more
cord blood banks. likely to also be a match for the banked stem
• Technically, there is no expiry date and these cells.
stem cells can be preserved for a lifetime. • Hence, it may sometimes be possible to use the 83
• Scientifically, evidence exists that they can be stem cells of the immediate family member to
stored for about 20 years. treat certain diseases.
Why are stem cells special? What does Indian Council of Medical Re-
search (ICMR) say about cord blood bank-
• In some organs, such as the bone marrow, stem
ing?
cells regularly divide to repair and replace dam-
aged tissues.
• Companies convince parents (emotional market- What do experts say?
ing) to bank the cells promising future therapeu-
tic use. • Globally, cord blood banking is recommended as
• However, the ICMR does not recommend com- a source of hematopoietic stem cell (derived
mercial stem cell banking. from bone marrow, umbilical cord) transplan-
• According to ICMR, there is no scientific basis for tation for haematological (diseases related to
preservation of cord blood for future self use. blood) cancers.
• According to ICMR, cord blood banking is advis- • For all other conditions, the use of cord blood as
able when there is an elder child in the family a source of stem cells is not yet established.
with a condition treatable with stem cells and the
mother is expecting the next baby.
Digital India Project
• PM announced 3 Digital India projects, National • This phase incorporates a mix of both under-
Digital Health Mission, a new Cyber Security ground & aerial fibre as well as radio & satellite
Policy & promised optical fibre connectivity connectivity to reach more inaccessible loca-
on Independence Day. tions such as Jammu & Kashmir, Northeast, Hi-
machal Pradesh & Uttarakhand.
Optical-Fibre Connectivity • In the third phase from 2019 to 2023, state-of-
the-art, future-proof network, including fiber
• BharatNet envisages laying of about 8 lakh kil- between districts & blocks, with ring topology
ometre of optical fibre cable (OFC) to all the to provide redundancy would be created.
2,50,000-plus Gram Panchayats (GP) in the • The project is a Centre-State collaborative pro-
country at an estimated cost of Rs 42,068 crore ject, with the States contributing free Rights of
($6.2 billion). Way for establishing the Optical Fibre Network
• It aims to provide speeds of upto 100 Mbps to
all gram panchayats (GPs). National Digital Health Mission
• Initiated in October 2011, BharatNet was origi-
nally named National Optical Fibre Network • The genesis of the new digital health infrastruc-
or NOFN. ture in India came about in the 2017 National
• It’s being financed by the Universal Service Ob- Health Policy, which proposed a new National
ligation Fund of the Department of Telecom- Digital Health Authority.
munications, through a 5 per cent levy on the • In August 2020, National Digital Health Mission
revenues of private telecom service provid- (NDHM) released its latest strategic document, 84
ers. outlining the envisioned digital registries of
• The project’s primary objective is to extend fibre doctors, hospitals, insurance companies, digital
connectivity to every panchayat, thereby provid- personal health records, etc.

ing access to broadband internet services to 69 • The NDHM is a complete digital health ecosys-
per cent of India’s rural population. tem.
• Phase I of BharatNet, which commenced in June • It will also include e-pharmacy & telemedicine
2014, was completed in December 2017. services, regulatory guidelines for which are be-
• In the Phase II, the remaining 1,29,827-gram ing framed.
panchayats are to be covered.
• The digital platform will be launched with four care services in all public hospitals in a bid to
key features — health ID, personal health rec- provide access & financial protection.
ords, Digi Doctor & health facility registry. • The policy proposes raising public health ex-
• Patients can create a Health ID, allowing them penditure to 2.5 per cent of the GDP in a time-
to share their data between hospitals & doctors bound manner, the 2.5 per cent of GDP spend
digitally. target for this sector would be met by 2025.
• If individuals are looking to benefit from gov- • Among key targets, the policy intends to in-
ernment schemes, then they will be required to crease life expectancy at birth from 67.5 to 70
connect their ID to their Aadhaar. by 2025 & reduce infant mortality rate to 28
• One copy of a patient’s records is stored in their by 2019.
doctor’s files & one is stored in their own indi- • It also aims to reduce under five mortality to
vidual locker (which can be owned by a com- 23 by the year 2025.
pany or by the government). • Besides, it intends to achieve the global 2020
• Other than the registry of doctors, professionals, HIV target.
& institutions, this allows for decentralised
storing. Cybersecurity Policy 2020
• The NDHM is implemented by the National
Health Authority (NHA) under the Health • The new cybersecurity policy to be rolled in
Ministry. 2020 would replace the present one.
• The platform will be available in the form of an • The existing policy, India’s first, was released in
app & website. 2013.
• The vision is often compared to the Unified Pay- • Cyber intrusions & attacks have increased in
ments Interface (UPI), a government-owned scope & sophistication targeting sensitive per-
highway that private players can hook into to sonal & business data, & critical information in-
provide their applications to consumers. frastructure, with impact on national economy
• NDHM is overseen by a Mission Steering Group & security.
with Ministers from IT, AYUSH, Women’s & • The present cyber threat landscape poses signif-
Child Development, as well as Niti Aayog icant challenges due to rapid technological de-
Member, NHA CEO, & others. velopments such as Cloud Computing, Artificial
Intelligence, lnternet of Things (IoT), 5G, etc.
National Health Policy 2017 • New challenges include data protection/privacy,
law enforcement in evolving cyberspace, access
• It envisages providing larger package of assured to data stored overseas, misuse of social media,
comprehensive primary health care through the cooperation on cybercrime & cyber terrorism, &
‘Health & Wellness Centres’. so on.
• It aims to allocate major proportion of resources • Threats from organised cybercriminal groups,
85
to primary care & intends to ensure availability technological cold wars, & increasing state
of two beds per 1,000 population distributed in sponsored cyber-attacks have also emerged.
a manner to enable access within golden hour. • Thus, a need exists for the formulation of a Na-
• Golden hour-the first hour after traumatic in- tional Cyber Security Strategy 2020.
jury, when the victim is most likely to benefit
from emergency treatment. National Cyber Security Strategy 2020
• In addition, the policy proposes free drugs, free (NCSS 2020)
diagnostics & free emergency & essential health
• GOI under the aegis of National Security Coun- operating a 24x7 National Critical Information
cil Secretariat is in the process of formulating the Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC).
National Cyber Security Strategy 2020 to cater 6. To develop suitable indigenous security tech-
for a time horizon of five years (2020-25). nologies.
• Proposed vision is to ensure a safe, secure, resil- 7. To improve visibility of the integrity of ICT prod-
ient & vibrant cyber space for our Nation’s pros- ucts & services.
perity. 8. To create a workforce of 500,000 profession-
als skilled in cyber security in the next 5 years
Pillars of Strategy through capacity building, skill development &
training.
• Examining various facets of cyber security under 9. To provide fiscal benefits to businesses for
the following pillars: - adoption of standard security practices & pro-
a) Secure (The National Cyberspace) cesses.
b) Strengthen (Structures, People, Processes, 10. To enable protection of information while in
Capabilities) process, handling, storage & transit so as to
c) Synergise (Resources including Cooperation safeguard privacy of citizen's data & for reduc-
& Collaboration) ing economic losses due to cyber-crime or data
theft.
Objectives of National Cyber Security Policy
11. To enable effective prevention, investigation &
prosecution of cyber-crime & enhancement of
1. To create a secure cyber ecosystem in the coun-
law.
try.
12. To develop effective public private partner-
2. To generate adequate trust & confidence in IT
ships & collaborative engagements through
systems & transactions in cyberspace.
technical & operational cooperation & contri-
3. To create an assurance framework for design of
security policies. bution for enhancing the security of cyberspace.
4. To strengthen the Regulatory framework for en- 13. To enhance global cooperation by promoting
shared understanding & leveraging relation-
suring a Secure Cyberspace ecosystem.
5. To enhance the protection & resilience of Na- ships for furthering the cause of security of cy-
berspace.
tion’s critical information infrastructure by
Diseases and Related Topics that are Frequently in News
Antimicrobial resistance (AR) • Micro-organisms can develop resistance mainly

in two ways: intrinsic resistance and acquired re-
• The WHO defines antimicrobial resistance (anti- sistance. 86
biotic, antiviral or anti-malarial resistance) as a • Intrinsic resistance refers to the innate ability of
microorganism's resistance to an antimicrobial an organism to resist a class of antimicrobial
drug that was once able to treat an infection by agents.

that microorganism. • Acquired resistance refers to micro-organisms
• E.g. In Multi Drug Resistant TB (MDR-TB – re- acquiring the gene coding (genetic mutation) for
sistant to multiple antimicrobials), the TB bacte- resistance.
ria are resistant to two of the most important TB • Acquired resistance is more common than intrin-
drugs, isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RMP). sic resistance.
Issues • Discovered in the 1920s, antibiotics are used to
treat pneumonia, tuberculosis, meningitis and a
• Treating resistant microbes require alternative or host of deadly bacteria.
higher doses of medication (expensive + toxic). • Overuse and misuse of the drugs are thought to
• In 2016, upto 4,90,000 people developed multi- be the main causes of antimicrobial resistance.
drug-resistant TB globally.
• Drug resistance is starting to complicate the fight 2019-07: Colistin banned in animal food in-
against HIV and malaria as well. dustry
• Organ transplantation, chemotherapy and sur-
geries would be compromised without effective • The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has
antimicrobials. prohibited the manufacture, sale and distribu-
tion of colistin and its formulations for food-
Causative measures producing animals, poultry, aqua farming and
animal feed supplements.
• Overuse, misuse and improper use (e.g. taking • The move is a “massive victory” for the move‐
antibiotics to treat viral diseases!) of antimicrobi- ment against anti-microbial resistance.
als. • Colistin is a valuable, last-resort antibiotic that
• Greater access to over the counter antibiotic saves lives in critical care units.
drugs in developing countries. • In recent years, may patients have exhibited re-
• Using broad-spectrum antibiotics over narrow- sistance to the drug.
spectrum antibiotics (targeting specific microbes • Therefore, preventing arbitrary use of colistin in
only). the food industry, particularly as growth supple-
• Dumping of inadequately treated effluents from ments (growth factor) used in animals, poultry
the pharmaceutical industry. would likely reduce the antimicrobial resistance
• Antibiotic use in livestock feed at low doses for within the country.
growth promotion is industrialized countries.
• Poor sanitation and hygiene that forces the ex- Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP)
tended use of antimicrobials.
• Universal Immunization Programme (UIP) in its
Measures required current form has been introduced in India in
1985.
• Global collective action through international • Ministry of Health provides several vaccines to
treaties on antimicrobial resistance. infants, children and pregnant women
• Preventing over the counter sale of antibiotics. through UIP.
• Swatch Baharat, awareness, etc.
Immunization 87
2019-05: World’s rivers loaded with antibi-
otics waste • Immunization is the process through which a
person is made immune to an infectious disease.
• The concentrations of major antibiotics like • Immunization typically involves administration of

Ciprofloxacin (treatment for intestinal and uri- a vaccine.
nary tract infections) and metronidazole in wa- • Vaccines stimulate the body’s own immune sys‐
ter bodies were several times above the limit in tem to protect against subsequent infection or
many parts of the world. disease.
Vaccines provided under UIP • It is given in select states.
• Three doses of vaccine are given at 6, 10, 14
• OPV is given orally in the form of two drops. weeks of age.
• Rotavirus vaccine is given orally in the form of 5
drops. Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV)
• Rest of the vaccines under UIP are administered
through injections. • PCV stands for.
• It protects infants and young children against
Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine (BCG) disease caused by the bacterium Streptococcus
pneumoniae.
• It is given to infants to protect them from tuber- • It is given in select states.
cular meningitis and disseminated TB. • The vaccine is given as two primary doses at 6 &
• BCG vaccine is given at birth or as early as possi- 14 weeks followed by a booster dose at 9
ble before one year. months.
Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) Fractional Inactivated Poliomyelitis Vaccine

(fIPV)
• OPV stands for Oral Polio Vaccine.
• It protects children from poliomyelitis. • It is used to boost the protection against polio-
• OPV is given at birth called zero dose and three myelitis (polio).
doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks. • Two fractional doses of IVP are given intrader-
• A booster dose is given at 16-24 months of age. mally at 6 and 14 weeks of age.
Hepatitis B vaccine Measles, Rubella (MR) vaccine
• Hepatitis B vaccine protects from Hepatitis B vi- • In few states, a combined vaccine is given to pro-
rus infection. tect from Measles and Rubella infection.
• Hepatitis B vaccine is given at birth or as early as • First dose is given at 9 completed months and
possible within 24 hours. second dose is given at 16-24 months.
• Subsequently 3 doses are given at 6, 10 and 14
weeks in combination with DPT and Hib in the Japanese encephalitis vaccine (JE)
form of pentavalent vaccine.
• It gives protection against Japanese Encephali-
Pentavalent Vaccine tis.
• JE vaccine is given in select districts endemic for
• Pentavalent vaccine is a combined vaccine to JE.
protect children from five diseases Diphtheria, • First dose is given at 9 completed months and
88
Tetanus, Pertussis, Haemophilic influenza second dose at 16-24 months of age.
type b infection and Hepatitis B.
• Three doses are given at 6, 10 and 14 weeks of DPT booster

age (can be given till one year of age).
• DPT is a combined vaccine; it protects children
Rotavirus Vaccine (RV) from Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis.
• DPT first booster is given at 16-24 months of age
• It gives protection to infants and children against and DPT 2nd booster is given at 5-6 years of age.
rotavirus diarrhoea.
Tetanus toxoid vaccine (TT) • In malnourished children, when the reserves of
glucose from the digestive tract and the liver are
• TT is used to provide protection against tetanus. exhausted, fatty acids are oxidized to supply
• Tetanus toxoid vaccine is given at 10 years and blood sugar to the brain. MCPG toxin thwarts
15 years of age. this mechanism.
• Pregnant women-TT-1 is given early in preg- • This can send the brain into hypoglycaemic
nancy; and TT-2 is given 4 weeks after TT-1. shock triggering convulsions and, if un-
addressed, even death.
Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES)
Treatment
• Bihar loses hundreds of children aged between 2
to 10 years to AES every year. • Complete recovery can be achieved if affected
• AES is a collective term used for referring to neu- children are infused with 10% dextrose within
rological manifestations which include mental four hours after the onset of symptoms.
confusion, disorientation, convulsion (sudden • Infusing 10% dextrose restores blood sugar to
movement caused by involuntary contraction of a safe level and also stops the production of
muscles), coma, etc. amino acid that is toxic to brain cells by shut-
• Meningitis caused by virus or bacteria, encepha- ting down the body’s attempt to convert fatty
litis (mostly Japanese encephalitis) caused by vi- acid into glucose.
rus, encephalopathy, cerebral malaria, etc. are
collectively called acute encephalitis syndrome. Measures to be taken to prevent similar
• While microbes cause encephalitis, encepha- health crisis in future
lopathy is biochemical in origin.
• Overhauling the healthcare apparatus to deal
• Encephalitis: An inflammation of brain cells due
with a crisis of this magnitude.
to a viral or bacterial infection.
• Encephalopathy: brain damage caused due to • Local public healthcare centres must stock up
anti-convulsion drugs as well as dextrose.
an environmental toxin.
• The state must effectively implement schemes
• There are different types of encephalopathy. In
the present case, it is associated with hypogly- that provide nutritious food to children.
caemia (low blood sugar level) and hence • The public must be sensitised about the causes
called hypoglycaemic encephalopathy. of AES and the necessary preventive measures to
• Unlike hypoglycaemic encephalopathy, enceph- be taken.
alitis does not cause low blood sugar level.
Diabetes
The link between hypoglycaemic encephalo-
pathy (HE) and litchi • Diabetes is a chronic disease that occurs either 89
when
• The spike in AES cases is a result of malnour- ✓ the pancreas does not produce enough in-
ished children suffering brain damage after eat- sulin or

ing litchis. ✓ when the body cannot effectively use the
• Litchis contain a chemical called methylene cy- insulin it produces.
clopropyl glycine (MCPG). • Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood
• These are naturally occurring toxins that cause sugar.
hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar level) in chil- • Hyperglycaemia, or raised blood sugar, is a
dren. common effect of uncontrolled diabetes and
over time leads to serious damage to many of • This type of diabetes is largely the result of ex-
the body's systems, especially the nerves and cess body weight and physical inactivity.
blood vessels. • Until recently, this type of diabetes was seen
only in adults, but it is now increasingly occur-
ring in children.
Gestational diabetes
• Gestational diabetes is hyperglycaemia where

blood sugar levels are below those diagnosed of
diabetes.
• Gestational diabetes occurs during preg-
nancy.
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD)
• Ebola virus was first discovered in 1970s near the

Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
• Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) is a disease in people
and nonhuman primates (monkeys, gorillas,
chimpanzees).
• The viruses that cause EVD are located mainly in
sub-Saharan Africa.
• Ebola virus spreads through direct contact with
an infected person or through direct contact
with an infected animal (bat or nonhuman pri-
mate).
• There is no approved vaccine or treatment for
Source and Credits EVD.
• A vaccine was found to be effective (97.5% effi-
Type 1 diabetes cacy) in a trials conducted by WHO. But it is not
yet approved.
• Type 1 diabetes is characterized by deficient in- • Symptoms of EVD include fever, headache, mus-
sulin production and requires daily administra- cle pain, weakness, fatigue, diarrhoea, etc.
tion of insulin. • Diagnosing can be difficult as early symptoms
• Neither the cause of Type 1 diabetes nor the are not specific to Ebola virus infection. 90
means to prevent it are known. • Recovery from EVD depends on good supportive
care and the patient’s immune response.
Type 2 diabetes
• Ebola survivors may experience difficult side ef-

• Type 2 diabetes results from the body’s inef- fects after their recovery, such as tiredness, mus-
fective use of insulin. cle aches, etc.
• The majority of people with diabetes have
type 2 diabetes. Hepatitis
• Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver.

• It is caused by Virus. hepatitis B, the leading cause of liver cancer
• Hepatitis viruses are the most common cause of worldwide.
hepatitis in the world but other infections, toxic
Answer: b)
substances (e.g., alcohol, certain drugs), and au-
toimmune diseases can also cause hepatitis.
• There are 5 main hepatitis viruses, referred to as
Influenza (Flu)
types A, B, C, D and E.
• Flu is a contagious respiratory illness caused
• In particular, types B and C lead to chronic dis-
by influenza viruses that infect the nose, throat,
ease in hundreds of millions of people and, to-
and sometimes the lungs.
gether, are the most common cause of liver
• It can cause mild to severe illness, and at times
cirrhosis and cancer.
can lead to death.
• Hepatitis A and E are typically caused by inges-
• There are four types of influenza viruses namely
tion of contaminated food or water.
A, B, C and D.
• Hepatitis B, C and D usually occur as a result of
1. Influenza A viruses: These are the only in-
parenteral contact with infected body fluids.
fluenza viruses that cause flu pandemics
• Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is mostly transmitted
that is global epidemics of flu disease.
through exposure to infective blood.
2. Influenza B viruses: They are not classified
• This may happen through transfusions of HCV-
into subtypes and can be broken down into
contaminated blood and blood products, con-
lineages.
taminated injections during medical proce-
3. Influenza C viruses: This type of virus is de-
dures, and through injection drug use.
tected less frequently and usually causes
• Sexual transmission is also possible, but is much
mild infections and does not present public
less common.
health risk. Or we can say that they do not
• There is no vaccine for HCV.
cause human flu epidemic.
4. Influenza D viruses: They primarily affect
Q: Which one of the following statements is not
correct? (UPSC-2019 Prelims) cattle and does not infect or cause illness in
people.
a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV. • Influenza A and B viruses causes acute respira-
b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a tory infection and the seasonal epidemic of
vaccine. disease.
c) Globally, the number of people infected with
Hepatitis B and C viruses are several times more
than those infected with HIV.
d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis Band C vi-
ruses do not show the symptoms for many 91
years.
Explanation:
• The hepatitis B vaccine is a safe and effective vac-

cine that is recommended for all infants at birth
and for children up to 18 years.
• The hepatitis B vaccine is also known as the first
Source and Credits
“anti-cancer” vaccine because it prevents
Nipah virus • Sometimes a person can have an asymptomatic
infection (acts as a carrier without showing any
• The Nipah virus was first recognised in 1999 dur- symptoms).
ing an outbreak among pig farmers in Malaysia.
• The disease has also been identified periodically Treatment
in Kerala.
• There are currently no drugs or vaccines specific
Nipah virus infection for the infection.
• The virus belongs to a new genus termed Plasmodium Vivax Malaria

Henipavirus.
• Nipah is an RNA or Ribonucleic Acid virus. TH | GS3 > Health
• RNA viruses (most common cause diseases in
• Context: Recently, an international team has
humans) have high mutation rate compared to
developed a system to breed the parasite Plas-
DNA viruses.
modium vivax in the lab & then infect cultured
human liver cells with it.
Transmission
• Plasmodium vivax is a protozoal, parasite & a
• Nipah virus infection is a zoonosis (disease human pathogen.
transmitted from animals to humans). • This parasite is the most frequent & widely dis-
• A zoonosis could be caused by a virus, bacteria, tributed cause of recurring malaria.
fungi or parasite; some examples include an- • P. vivax is carried by the female Anopheles
thrax, bird flu, ebola, dengue, rabies, malaria, mosquito; the males do not bite.
swine flu, etc. • Mosquitoes inject the sporozoite of the para-
• Fruit bats (flying fox) (eat fruits and live in trees) site into the skin & the sporozoites travel to the
are the natural hosts for Nipah virus. liver.
• Nipah transmission takes place when one con- • The parasite can remain in the liver in a dormant
sumes infected fruits and fresh date palm. stage & relapse later.
• Loss of the natural habitat of the bats is exacer- • Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, & Pakistan ac-
bating the rate of bat-to-human transmission. count for more than 80% of estimated cases
• As the flying fox habitat is destroyed, their im- of P. vivax.
mune system gets weaker, their virus load goes • Although it is less virulent than Plasmodium
up. falciparum, the deadliest of the five human ma-
• Human-to-human transmission occurs due to laria parasites, P. vivax malaria infections can
direct contact. lead to severe disease & death.
• Certain malaria-endemic countries have even 92
Symptoms abandoned chloroquine for P. vivax treatment
but fortunately chloroquine is still effective in In-
The incubation period (interval from infection to
• dia.
the onset of symptoms) ranges from four to 14
Mosquito-Borne Diseases
days.
• Symptoms are similar to that of influenza: fever,
• Mosquito-borne diseases are those spread by
muscle pain, and respiratory problems.
the bite of an infected mosquito.
• Headaches, dizziness, encephalitis (brain inflam-
mation), etc.
• Diseases that are spread to people by mosqui- • If not treated adequately, it may result in dehy-
toes include Zika virus, West Nile virus, dration, electrolyte imbalance, shock and death.
Chikungunya virus, dengue, & malaria.
Sickle Cell Anemia
What is Thalassemia?
• Thalassemia is an inherited (i.e., passed from

parents to children through genes) blood dis-
order caused when the body doesn’t make
enough of a protein called hemoglobin, an
important part of red blood cells.
• When there isn’t enough hemoglobin, the
body’s red blood cells don’t function properly &
Link: Source & Credits they last shorter periods of time, so there are
fewer healthy red blood cells traveling in the
Pneumonia bloodstream.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen to all the cells
• Pneumonia is a form of acute respiratory in- of the body.
fection that affects the lungs • Oxygen is a sort of food that cells use to func-
• It is most commonly caused by viruses, bac- tion.
teria and fungi. • When there are not enough healthy red blood
• The lungs are made up of small sacs called al- cells, there is also not enough oxygen delivered
veoli, which fill with air when a healthy person to all the other cells of the body, which may
breathes. cause a person to feel tired, weak or short of
• When an individual has pneumonia, the alveoli breath. This is a condition called anemia.
are filled with pus and fluid, which makes • People with thalassemia may have mild or se-
breathing painful and limits oxygen intake. vere anemia.
• These infections are generally spread by direct • Severe anemia can damage organs & lead to
contact with infected people. death.
Rotavirus
• Rotavirus causes severe diarrhoea and death

among children under the age of five.
• Rotavirus is a highly contagious virus. 93
• Rotavirus transmission occurs primarily by the
faecal-oral route, or indirectly via contaminated
fomites.
• In India, around 78,000 children die from Rota- Source & Credits
virus diarrhoea annually.
• It is estimated that Rotavirus accounts for 40% of What is Sickle Cell Disease?
the hospitalisation among children in India.
• Diarrhoea causes 9.2% of the total deaths among • SCD is a group of inherited red blood cell dis-
children under five years. orders.
• Healthy red blood cells are round, & they move TB Treatment
through small blood vessels to carry oxygen to
all parts of the body. • For new TB cases, the treatment in intensive
• In someone who has SCD, the red blood cells phase (IP) consists of four drugs: Isoniazid
become hard & sticky & look like a C-shaped (INH), Rifampicin, Pyrazinamide and Etham-
farm tool called a “sickle”. butol.
• The sickle cells die early, which causes a con- • For previously treated cases of TB, the intensive
stant shortage of red blood cells. phase is of 12 weeks, where injection strepto-
• Also, when they travel through small blood ves- mycin is given for eight weeks along with four
sels, they get stuck & clog the blood flow. This drugs.
can cause pain & other serious problems such • Most people with TB are cured by a strictly fol-
infection, acute chest syndrome & stroke. lowed 6-month drug regimen.
Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB)
• CBNAAT (Cartridges Based Nucleic Acid Am-

plification Test) is used for early diagnosis of
MDR-TB.
• In MDR-TB, the bacteria that cause TB develop
resistance to antimicrobial drugs used to cure
the disease.
• MDR-TB does not respond to at least isoniazid
and rifampicin, the 2 most powerful anti-TB
drugs.
• Treatment options for MDR-TB are limited, and
Source & Credits expensive.
• In some cases, even more severe drug-resistant
TB may develop.
Tuberculosis (TB)
Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB)
• Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused
by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• XDR-TB is a form of multidrug-resistant TB with
• TB commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary TB)
additional resistance to more anti-TB drugs.
but can also affect other parts (extra pulmo-
• People who are resistant to isoniazid and rifam-
nary TB).
pin, plus any fluoroquinolone and at least one of
• It spreads from person to person through the air,
three injectable second-line drugs (amikacin, 94
when people who are infected with TB infection
kanamycin, or capreomycin) are said to have
cough, sneeze or otherwise transmit respiratory
XDR-TB.
fluids through the air.
• The most common risk factor associated with TB Causes of multidrug resistant-TB
is HIV and other conditions that impair the im-
mune system. • Multidrug resistance is caused due to misman-
• Symptomatic Diagnosis: Coughing for more than agement of treatment and person-to-person
2 weeks, loss of weight, loss of appetite, fever transmission.
and night sweats, fatigue are common symp- • Mismanagement of TB treatment involves inap-
toms of tuberculosis. propriate or incorrect use of antimicrobial drugs
or use of ineffective formulations of drugs and • 1993: WHO declared TB as a global emergency
premature treatment interruption. and devised the directly observed treatment
(DOTS).
Treatment for drug-resistant TB • 1993: GOI revitalized NTP as Revised National TB
Control Programme (RNTCP).
• The treatment success in MDR-TB patients is
• 1997: DOTS was launched as the RNTCP strategy.
about 54%, while it is just 30% in the case of
By 2006 the entire country was covered under
XDR-TB patients.
RNTCP.
• A combination of eight drugs for more than a
• In its second phase (2006–11), RNTCP improved
year is need for XDR-TB treatment.
the quality and reach of services.
• Treatment success in XDR-TB patients depends
• Despite the measures, undiagnosed and mis-
on the extent of the drug resistance, the severity
treated cases continued to drive the TB epidemic.
of the disease, whether the patient’s immune
• A large number of MDR-TB cases were reported
system is weakened, and adherence to treat-
every year.
ment.
• To address this, National Strategic Plan for Tu-
• Drugs used for treating MDR-TB and XDR-TB can
berculosis Control 2012-2017 was documented
cause serious adverse effects such as deafness.
with the goal of ‘universal access to quality TB
diagnosis and treatment’.
The goal to end TB by 2025
• Significant interventions were taken during NSP
• Revised National TB Control Programme was re- 2012-2017 in terms of mandatory notification
named as the National TB Elimination Pro- of all TB cases, integration of the programme
gramme (NTEP). with the National Health Mission, etc.
• The change in name is in line with the larger goal • To eliminate TB in India by 2025, National
of eliminating the disease by 2025, five years Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination
ahead of the Sustainable Development Goals tar- 2017-2025 involving all the stakeholders was
get. formulated by RNTCP.
• NTEP got a much needed boost with the WHO • On 01-01-2020, RNTCP was renamed as Na-
stating that TrueNat MTB has high diagnostic ac- tional TB Elimination Programme (NTEP).
curacy.
National strategic plan for tuberculosis
• As a first step, TrueNat MTB will be available at
elimination (NSP) 2017-2025 (NSP)
community health centres and would slowly be
extended to primary health centres across the
• TB elimination has been integrated into the four
country.
strategic pillars of “Detect – Treat – Prevent –
• There are 5,500-6,000 community health centres
Build” (DTPB).
and about 25,000 PHCs. 95
• The states will be procuring the diagnostic ma- Detect
chine directly from the Goa-based manufacturer.
• Early diagnosis and treatment of TB is an im-

National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP) portant step in TB elimination.
• The objective of NSP was to find all drug sensi-
• 1962: The National TB Programme (NTP) was tive TB cases (DS-TB) and drug resistant TB cases
launched by GOI with BCG vaccination at the
(DRTB).
district level. • To facilitate TB notification, RNTCP has devel-
oped a TB surveillance system called “NIKSHAY”
(https://nikshay.gov.in) for both government and • BCG vaccine has a protective effect against men-
private health care facilities. ingitis and disseminated TB in children.
• For TB diagnosis more than 14,000 designated
Build
microscopy centres spread across the country.
• Cartridge Based Nucleic Acid Amplification
• Health system strengthening for TB control un-
Tests (CBNAAT) / Line Probe Assay (LPA) have
der the NSP 2017-2025 is recommended in the
been established at district levels for decentral-
form of building and strengthening enabling
ised molecular testing for drug resistant TB.
policies, empowering institutions, and human re-
• From 2020, GOI will be using Truenat test as a
sources.
part of early stage diagnosis.
Treat Typhoid fever
• Screening of all patients for rifampicin re- • Typhoid fever is caused by the highly contagious
sistance (and for additional drugs wherever in- Salmonella Typhi bacteria.
dicated) is done. • The bacteria spreads through contaminated
• For drug sensitive TB, daily fixed dose combina- food or water.
tions (FDCs) of first-line anti-tuberculosis drugs • While typhoid bacteria can be treated with anti-
are given. biotics, the microbes have developed resistance
• First line treatment of drug-sensitive TB consists against multiple antibiotics.
of a • Multi-drug resistant typhoid bacteria are seen in
1. two-months intensive phase with four drug south Asia including India.
FDCs (Isoniazid (INH), Rifampicin, Pyra- • Extensively drug-resistant (XDR) typhoid has
zinamide and Ethambutol (HRZE)) fol- been found in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.
lowed by a
2. continuation phase of four months with three Miscellaneous Topics
drug FDCs (Rifampicin, Isoniazid, and Eth-
ambutol (HRE)).
• For previously treated cases of TB, the intensive
Criticality
Phase is of three months, where
• Criticality is a nuclear term that refers to
1. injection streptomycin is given for two
the balance of neutrons in the system.
months along with four drugs (HRZE) and
• Balance of neutrons can be achieved using mod-
2. then four drugs (HRZE) are continued for an-
erators & control rods.
other month.
• “Subcritical” refers to a system where the loss
3. In continuation phase Rifampicin, INH, and
rate of neutrons is greater than the production
Ethambutol are continued for another five 96
rate of neutrons & therefore the neutron popu-
months.
lation decreases as time goes on.
Prevent • “Supercritical” refers to a system where the
production rate of neutrons is greater than the

• Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT) is given to loss rate of neutrons & therefore the neutron
Children who are close contacts of a TB patient. population increases.
• BCG vaccination is provided at birth or as early • When the neutron population remains constant,
as possible till one year of age. this means there is a perfect balance between
production rate & loss rate, & the nuclear sys- • It is impermeable to gases.
tem is said to be “critical.” • Graphene is known for anti-bacterial proper-
• When a reactor is starting up, the neutron pop- ties.
ulation is increased slowly in a controlled man- • Graphene has emerged as one of the most
ner, so that more neutrons are produced than promising nanomaterials because of its unique
are lost, & the nuclear reactor becomes super- combination of superb properties.
critical.
• When the desired power level is achieved, the
nuclear reactor is placed into a critical config-
uration to keep the neutron population & power
constant.
• Finally, during shutdown, the reactor is placed
in a subcritical configuration so that the neu-
tron population & power decreases.
• Therefore, when a reactor is said to have “gone
Properties of Graphene
critical,” it actually means it is in a stable con-
figuration producing a constant power! Electronic properties
✓ Supercritical == Car [nuclear reactor] is
accelerating. • The atomic arrangement of the carbon atoms in
✓ Critical == Car is going at a constant graphene allows electrons to easily travel at ex-
speed. tremely high velocity without the significant
✓ Sub critical == Car is slowing down. chance of scattering, saving precious energy
typically.
Graphene
Mechanical properties
• Graphene is a two-dimensional single layer
(monolayer) of carbon atoms linked in a hex- • The impressive intrinsic mechanical properties
are caused by the stability of the sp2 bonds that
agonal lattice.
• It is an allotrope of carbon. form the hexagonal lattice and oppose a variety
• It is also known as “The Wonder Material”/mir‐ of in-plane deformations.
acle material
Uses of Graphene
• It is harder than diamond yet more elastic than
rubber; tougher than steel yet lighter than alu-
1. Energy storage and solar cells
minium.
2. Lubrication
• Graphene is the thinnest compound known to
3. Graphene ink 97
man at one atom thick.
4. Transistors and memory
• It is the lightest material known (with 1 square
5. Flexible, stretchable and foldable electronics
meter weighing around 0.77 milligrams).
6. Photodetectors
• It is the strongest compound discovered (be-
7. Face Mask, etc.
tween 100-300 times stronger than steel).
• It is the best conductor of heat at room temper-
Malware (malicious software)
ature, and also the best conductor of electricity
known. • Malware is any program or file that is harmful to
• It is nearly transparent. an electronic device user.
• Malware can perform a variety of functions such • Adware: malware used to track a user’s browser
as stealing, encrypting, deleting sensitive data, and download history with the intent to display
altering or hijacking core computing functions pop-up or banner advertisements that lure the
and monitoring users' computer activity without user into making a purchase.
their permission. • Keyloggers: also called system monitors, are
• Mobile malware can provide access to the de- used to see nearly everything a user does on
vice's components such as the camera, micro- their computer. This includes emails, opened
phone, GPS, etc. web-pages, programs and keystrokes.
• Malware can be delivered to a device with a USB
drive or can spread over the internet through Super Apps
downloads without the user's approval or
knowledge. • A super app is a platform developed by a com-
• Phishing attacks are another common type of pany offering various services under one um-
malware delivery where emails disguised as le- brella app.
gitimate messages contain malicious links or at- • For example, China’s WeChat, which started
tachments that can deliver the malware executa- out as a messaging app, expanded into pay-
ble to unsuspecting users. ments, cabs, shopping, food ordering, cab ser-
vices to become a super app.
Different types of malware
Which companies in India are building super
• Virus: malware which can execute itself and apps?
spread by infecting other programs or files.
• Worm: self-replicating malware that typically • The Tata Group will be an entrant in an already
spreads without any human interaction or direc- crowded super app ecosystem of India.
tives. • Reliance Industries, under its Jio umbrella.
• Trojan horse: designed to appear as a legiti- • Alibaba Group investee Paytm.
mate program in order to gain access to a sys- • Flipkart Group-owned payments app PhonePe.
tem. Once activated, Trojans can execute their What are the concerns about Super Apps?
malicious functions.
• Spyware: malware that collects data on the de- • Increase in one company’s monopoly.
vice and observe user activity without their • Concerns of privacy.
knowledge. • Data collected by the master app could then be
• Ransomware: malware that infects a user's sys- used to train machines in artificial intelligence.
tem and encrypts the data. Cybercriminals then
demand a ransom payment from the victim in Trans-Fat
exchange for decrypting the system's data. 98
• The 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack tar- • As per WHO industrially produced trans-fats
geted computers running the Microsoft Win- are found in hardened vegetable fats such as
dows operating system by encrypting data and margarine and ghee (clarified butter) and are
demanding ransom payments in the Bitcoin often present in snack foods, baked goods
cryptocurrency. and fried foods.
• Rootkit: malware created to obtain administra- • The substance is responsible for around 500,000
tor-level access to the victim's system. Once in- deaths due to coronary heart disease every year
stalled, the program gives threat actors root or across the world.
privileged access to the system.
• It is, however, often used by manufacturers be- • A saturated fat has the maximum number of hy-
cause it has a longer shelf life and is cheaper drogens bonded to the carbons, and therefore
than other, healthier choices that do not affect is ‘saturated’ with hydrogen atoms.
taste or cost. • Most animal fats are saturated whereas
• So far, 58 countries introduced laws to protect the fats of plants and fish are generally un-
3.2 billion people from the substance by the end saturated.
of 2021. • Many experts recommend a diet low in satu-
• They did this by establishing mandatory limits rated fat.
for trans-fats to two per cent of oils and fats • Saturated fats are popular with manufacturers
in all foods or by banning partially hydrogen- of processed foods because they are less vul-
ated oils. nerable to rancidity and are, in general, more
• India has implemented less restrictive measures. solid at room temperature than unsaturated
fats.
Fats
Unsaturated fat
• Fat is one of the three main macronutrients: fat,
carbohydrate, and protein. • An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which
• Fat is a major source of energy and helps your there is at least one double bond within the
body absorb vitamins. fatty acid chain.
• Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen at-
✓ Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides | Polysac- oms are eliminated.
charides • In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat mole-
✓ Proteins | Amino Acids | Enzymes cules contain somewhat less energy (i.e., fewer
✓ Vitamins and Minerals – Deficiency Diseases calories) than an equivalent amount of satu-
rated fat.
• Fat has the most calories compared to any
• The greater the degree of unsaturation in a fatty
other nutrient. Controlling fat intake is one of
acid (i.e., the more double bonds in the fatty
the most important steps in losing or maintain-
acid) the more vulnerable it is to rancidity [lipid
ing weight and preventing or delaying type 2
oxidation] [rusting of fats].
diabetes.
• Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from
• Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of
lipid oxidation.
three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glyc-
erol.
Unhealthy Fats – Saturated Fat and Trans Fat
• Fats are solids at room temperature. Oil refers
to a fat with unsaturated fatty acid chains that
is liquid at room temperature. 99
• Fats, like other lipids, are generally insoluble in
water.
Saturated fat
• A saturated fat is a fat in which the fatty acids all

have single bonds.
• The main types of “unhealthy” fats are satu-
rated and trans-fat.
• Saturated fats are primarily found in foods that
come from animals, such as meat and dairy.
• Saturated fats are unhealthy because they in-
crease LDL (“bad” cholesterol) levels in your
body.
• Many saturated fats are “solid” fats that you can
see, such as the fat in meat.
• Other sources of saturated fats include high-fat
cheese, butter, Ice cream, palm and coconut oils,
etc.
• Trans fats or trans-unsaturated fatty acids are a
type of unsaturated fats that are uncommon
in nature.
• Trans fats are worse than saturated fats.
• Trans fat is simply liquid oils turned into solid
fats during food processing.
• Natural trans-fats, present in very small amounts
in certain animal products, are not considered
harmful.
• But industrially-produced artificial trans-fats
(manufactured by adding hydrogen to vege-
table oil) lead to an increase in bad choles-
terol (LDL) and lowering of good cholesterol
(HDL).
• Foods containing trans-fat are usually labelled
as “partially hydrogenated”.
• Partially hydrogenated oil is less likely to spoil,
so foods made with it have a longer shelf life.
• Trans fats are easy to use, inexpensive to pro-
duce and last a long time.
• Trans fats give foods a desirable taste and tex-
ture.
• These trans-fats are largely found in vanaspati
100
oil, margarine, bakery shortenings, and in baked
and fried foods.

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Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ........................................................................................................................................ 7

Types of Intellectual Property .......................................................................................................................................... 7

National IPR Policy, 2016................................................................................................................................................ 13

Related Topics .................................................................................................................................................................. 15

Contemporary Technologies and Their Applications ....................................................................................................... 15

Artificial Intelligence ....................................................................................................................................................... 17

Fuel Cell ............................................................................................................................................................................ 22

Nuclear Fusion – International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) ............................................................ 23

Lithium-ion battery, Lithium, Cobalt, EVs vs. ICEVs ..................................................................................................... 26

Param Siddhi Supercomputer ........................................................................................................................................ 32

Reverse osmosis (RO) ...................................................................................................................................................... 33

Information and Communication Technologies ............................................................................................................... 36

Challenges in commercialization of 5G ........................................................................................................................................... 37

Fibre Optics ...................................................................................................................................................................... 38

Internet of Things (IoT) ................................................................................................................................................... 41

Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWiFi) ............................................................................................................................................... 43

Privacy and Data Protection Related Topics ..................................................................................................................... 44

Data Localization and Data Protection .......................................................................................................................... 44

Virtual Private Network (VPN) ....................................................................................................................................... 47

India Space Programmes and Related Concepts .............................................................................................................. 48

Hofmann transfer orbit ................................................................................................................................................................... 54

GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) ....................................................................................................... 58

India’s Communication Satellites ................................................................................................................................... 59

NavIC Navigation System ............................................................................................................................................... 62

Private Sector Participation in Space Sector ................................................................................................................. 64

Indian Missile Systems ........................................................................................................................................................ 65

Ballistic Missile vs. Cruise Missile ................................................................................................................................... 65

Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) .................................................................................. 66

Space and Astronomy Related Concepts ........................................................................................................................... 70

Closest stars to the Sun ................................................................................................................................................... 71

Northern Lights ............................................................................................................................................................... 73

Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA) .......................................................................................................................... 74

Superhabitable Planets ................................................................................................................................................... 77

Biotechnology Related Concepts ....................................................................................................................................... 78

IndiGen: India’s Genome Sequencing Project ............................................................................................................... 80

Stem Cell or Cord Blood Banking ................................................................................................................................... 83

Digital India Project............................................................................................................................................................. 84

Optical-Fibre Connectivity .............................................................................................................................................. 84

National Digital Health Mission ..................................................................................................................................... 84 5

Cybersecurity Policy 2020 ............................................................................................................................................... 85

Diseases and Related Topics that are Frequently in News ............................................................................................... 86

Antimicrobial resistance (AR) ......................................................................................................................................... 86

Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) ................................................................................................................... 87

Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) ............................................................................................................................... 89

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) ............................................................................................................................................... 90

Influenza (Flu) .................................................................................................................................................................. 91

Nipah virus ....................................................................................................................................................................... 92

Plasmodium Vivax Malaria ............................................................................................................................................. 92

Sickle Cell Anemia ........................................................................................................................................................... 93

Tuberculosis (TB) ............................................................................................................................................................. 94

Typhoid fever ................................................................................................................................................................... 96

Super Apps ....................................................................................................................................................................... 98

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

• Intellectual property is a category of prop- Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual

Copyright What is the difference between a Geograph-

• The unauthorized acquisition use or disclosure

dia's Patents Act).

Subsidies & IPR Issues

• A major form of subsidies includes food subsidy,

The Product Patents Process

• A product patent protects a product.