Conduction

Electrical Conduction
Electrical Properties of Solids: Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law current density

I - current (C/s) or (A)
(time rate of charge)
V = IR V- applied voltage (V) J = σE J - current density (A/m2)
J=I/A
Ω) or (V/A)
R- resistance (Ω
resistivity electric field intensity

ρ - resistivity (Ω⋅
(Ω⋅m)
RA V
ρ= l - distance (m) E= E - electric field intensity (V/m)
l A- cross-section area (m2)
l
electrical conductivity
1
σ= σ - conductivity (Ω⋅
(Ω⋅m)-1 or (S/m)
ρ
IWE
Materials and Devices in Institut für
Electrical Engineering Werkstoffe der Elektrotechnik
source: [Cal 99 / 606] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 1, 12.02.02
Electrical Properties of Solids: Resistivity and Conductivity
resistivity electrical
Ω⋅m)
(Ω conductivity
(S/m)
insulators
10+18 10-18
10+16 10-16 SiO2, Al2O3 organic polymers
10+14 10-14 ceramic insulators
10+12 10-12
ferromagnetic and
10+10 10-10 ferroelectric ceramics
anorganic glasses
10+8 10-8
semiconductors
10+6 10-6 GaAs

10+4 10-4
Si (intrinsic)
10+2 10-2
1 1
10-2 10+2 Si (extrinsic)
10-4 10+4 graphite
conductors
NiCr
10-6 10+6 metalls and alloys Al
10-8 10+8 Ag, Cu
↓ superconductors
IWE
source: [Schau 90 / 219] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 2, 12.02.02
Electrical Properties of Solids: Electrical Conductivity vs. Temperature
electrical conductivity / (S/m)
temperature / (K)
IWE
source: [Chi 97 / 190] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 3, 12.02.02
Energy Band Structure in Solids
electron
electronenergy
energyvs.
vs.interatomic
interatomicseparation
separation(N=12)
(N=12)
IWE
Energy Band Structure in Solids
electron
electronenergy
energyvs.
vs.interatomic
interatomic
separation
separation for an aggregateof
for an aggregate ofatoms
atoms
electron
electronenergy
energyband
bandstructure
structure
at
at equilibrium interatomicseparation
equilibrium interatomic separation
IWE
Energy Band Structures in Solids at 0 K
empty
empty conduction
empty conduction
empty band
band band
band
band gap EF band gap band gap
empty states filled valence

EF filled states filled valence
filled states band
band
metals:
metals: metals:
metals: semiconductors:
semiconductors: insulators:
insulators:
available
availableand
and overlap
overlapbetween
between filled
filledvalence
valence filled
filledvalence
valence
filled
filled statesin
states inthe
the filled valence
filled valence band separated
band separated band separated
band separated
same
sameband
band band
bandandandempty
empty from
fromempty
empty from
fromempty
empty
(Cu,
(Cu,Au,
Au,Ag)
Ag) conduction
conductionband
band conduction
conductionband band conduction
conductionband band
(Al, Mg)
(Al, Mg) by a narrow band
by a narrow band by a large band
by a large band
gap
gap(< (<22eV)
eV) gap
gap(> (>22eV)
eV)
The electric properties of a solid material are a consequence of it’s electron band structure:
the arrangement of the outermost electron bands and the way in which they are filled with electrons.
IWE
Energy Band Structures in Solids: Energy States in Copper
0
4p
4p
energy E / eV
-5
4s
3d
3d
-10
3p
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 3s
lattice parameter a / nm 2p
lattice parameter Cu: a0 2s
(equilibrium interatomic Cu, Ag, Au: high electrical conductivity
Cu, Ag, Au: high electrical conductivity 1s
spacing)
IWE
source: [Wij 67 / 43] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 7, 12.02.02
Fermi-Distribution f(E) at different Temperatures
Fermi energy Ef : the energy corresponding to the highest filled state at 0K
Fermi-Distribution of
electron energy states
f(E) (Fermi-Dirac-Statistic)
1 eV 1
1
f (E, T ) = E − EF
1200 K 1+ e kT
300 K
Boltzmann’s constant
0,5
k = 1,38 × 10-23 J/atom⋅⋅K
6000 K For E ≥ (Ef + 3kT),

Fermi-Distribution f(E,T) →
Boltzmann-Distribution fB(E,T)
EF E
tangent of f(E) E − EF
−
at E = Ef
f (E,T ) ≈ f B (E, T ) = e kT
IWE
source: [Heime / 3.32] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 8, 12.02.02
Energy Band Structures in Solids
metals f(E)
metals insulator
insulator
f(E)
z(E) z(E)
mono-
mono-
valent
valent
EF E EF E
semi- f(E)
f(E) semi-
conductor
conductor z(E)
TT==00KK
divalent
divalent z(E)
EF E EF E
f(E)
f(E) semi-
semi- z(E)
z(E) conductor
22over-
over- conductor
lapping TT>>
>>00KK
lapping
bands
bands
EF E EF E
IWE
source: [Heime 3-34ff] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 9, 12.02.02
Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models
metal
metal
empty
states
energy
Ef Ef
electron
exitation
filled
states
occupancy
occupancyofofelectron
electronstates
states occupancy
occupancyof ofelectron
electronstates
states
before
beforean
anelectron
electronexcitation
excitation after
afteran
anelectron
electronexcitation
excitation
IWE
Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models
insulator
insulatoror
orsemiconductor
semiconductor
conduction
band
energy
free electron
band electron
gap Eg exitation
hole in valence band
valence
band
occupancy
occupancyofofelectron
electronstates
states occupancy
occupancyof ofelectron
electronstates
states
before
beforean
anelectron
electronexcitation
excitation after
afteran
anelectron
electronexcitation
excitation
IWE
Electron Drift Velocity and Electron Mobility
A current reaches a constant value while an electric field is applied
→ “frictional forces” counter the acceleration from the external field
→ scattering of electrons by imperfections in the crystal lattice
and the thermal vibrations of atoms
→ cause an electron to lose kinetic energy and to change its motion direction
To describe the extent of scattering:
1. The drift velocity of an electron vd : vd = µ e E
the average electron velocity in the direction of the force imposed by the applied field.
2. Electron mobility µe (m2/ V·s):
an indication of the frequency of scattering events.
conductivity σ = n e µe n - the number of free or conducting electrons per unit volume

×10-19 C
|e|= 1,6×
IWE
Electron Drift Velocity and Electron Mobility
electron drift velocity at E > 0 (t1 to t4) • acceleration of an electron
with an effective mass m*
dv
m*⋅ = e0 ⋅ E
E dt
τf
e0 e
∆v = ò ⋅ E ⋅ dt = 0 ⋅ E ⋅ τ f
0
m* m*
• mean drift velocity v of an electron

t
τ e
v= ⋅ ∆v = τ ⋅ 0 ⋅ E
v τf m*
j, v ∆v τf :time
: between electron
scattering events • mobility µ of an electron
v e
µ = = τ⋅ 0
E m*
• current density j
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 e0
τ
j = σ⋅E = ⋅ τ ⋅ e0 ⋅ n ⋅ E
τ m*
IWE
source: IWE M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 13, 12.02.02
Electron Concentration and Mobility as f(T)
material concentration of mobility of

charge carriers charge carriers
metalls n = const µn ~ T-a

−Eg *
semiconductors n ~ e 2 kT µn ~ T-a
−Eg A
−
n~ e 2 kT µn ~ T-a or µn ~ e T
Insulators B
−
Nion = const µion ~ e T
* band gap Eg ≤ 100 kT at 25 °C (kT = 0,025 eV at 25 °C)
IWE
source: [Mü 93 / 158] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 14, 12.02.02
Electrical properties of Metals
resistivity charge carrier scattering Lorenz-
mobility time number
ρ µ* τ* L values at
metal
10-6Ωcm cm2V-1s-1 10-14s 10-8V2K-2 room temperature
Ag 1,62 66 3,7 2,31
Cu 1,68 44 2,5 2,28
Au 2,22 48 2,7 2,38
Al 2,73 13 0,7 2,22
Na 4,74 50 2,8 2,23
W 5,39 9,2 0,5 2,39
Zn 6,12 7,8 (+) 0,4 2,37
Cd 7,72 8,7 (+) 0,5 2,54
Fe 9,71 3,8 0,2 2,39
Pt 10,5 8,9 0,3 2,57
Sn 12,2 3,5 0,4 2,62
Pb 20,8 2,0 (+) 0,3 2,49
(+) hole conduction

* calculated using σ-values, electron-concentrations according to the number of valence electrons s and effective mass m*=m
IWE
source: [Arl 89 / 188] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 15, 12.02.02
Influence of different Impurity Elements (1 at%)
different impurity elements in Cu
∆ρ / µΩcm
µΩ ∆ρ / µΩcm
µΩ
Fe
8 8
As
Co
6 6
Sb
Rh
4 Ge 4
Sn
2 Ga 2
Ni
Zn Pd Cd In
Ag
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
atomic number atomic number
IWE
ρtotal / Ωm
ρt
ρi + ρd
temperature / K
Matthiessen´s rule
ρtotal = ρt + ρi + ρd
ρi , ρd: temperature independent parameters:

impurities, dislocations, grain boundaries,
secondary phases
IWE
source: [Schau 90 / 96, Tip 94 / 1355] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 17, 12.02.02
Electrical Resistivity of Metals as a Function of Temperature ρt = f(T)
temperature / °C
temperature dependence of
resistivity ρtotal
ρtotal(T) = ρtotal(0 °C) ⋅ (1 + αT)
temperature T in °C
ρtotal(T)
temperature / K
IWE
source: [Mü 93 / 78]] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 18, 12.02.02
Electrical Properties of Metals
ρ d ρ•d TKρ λ
[µΩcm] [µΩcm] [% / K] [W / cm K]
Na 4,2 0,97 4,1 1,4

Ia
K 6,2 0,86 5,3 0,9
Cu 1,7 8,9 15 0,43 4,0
Ib Ag 1,6 10,5 17 0,41 4,1
Au 2,2 19,3 45 0,40 3,1
Mg 4,5 1,7 7,7 0,41 1,4

II a Ca 3,9 1,5 5,9 0,42
Zn 5,9 7,2 43 0,42 1,1
II b Cd 6,8 8,6 59 0,42 1,0
Hg 97 13,5 1310 0,08 0,08
III a Al 2,7 2,7 7,3 0,43 2,3

Sn 12 7,3 88 0,43 0,7
IV a
Pb 21 11,3 237 0,35 0,4
Fe 9,7 7,9 77 0,65 0,7
VIII b Co 6,2 8,9 55 0,60 0,7
Ni 6,8 8,9 61 0,69 0,9
Ta 13 16,6 216 0,38 0,5
Cr 14 7,2 100 0,30 0,7
V b / VI b
Mo 5,2 10,2 53 0,40 1,4
W 5,5 19,3 106 0,40 1,6
Rh 4,5 12,5 57 0,42 0,9
VIII b Pd 9,8 12,0 118 0,38 0,7
Pt 9,8 21,4 210 0,39 0,7
IWE
Application of different Metals
contact magnetic
resistors materials
materials
conductors current sources
IWE
Application of different Metals and Alloys
3-dimensional coils Cu
communications Cu σ / σAg
technology
cables 1,0
energy-
technology Al, Cu, (Na)
0,8
conductors
overhead line Al/St, Cu, Al

0,6
waveguide Ag Ag Cu
0,4 Au
integrated circuits Al, Al/Cu, Au Al
0,2 Na Mg
planar
thin film technology Al, Au, Ag, Cu Zn

Fe
thick film technology Au, Ag, Pd, Pt 0,0
circuit boards Cu, Sn
IWE
Alloys for Precision-Resistors
maximum
material alloy operation ρ* TKρ * thermal voltage
elements / wt.% temperature vs. copper * **
Mn Ni Al / °C / µΩcm
µΩ / K-1 / µV/K
CuMn12Ni2 12 2 - 140 43 ± 1·10-5 - 0,4
CuNi20Mn10 10 20 - 300 49 ± 2·10-5 - 10
CuNi44 1 44 - 600 49 + 4·10-4 - 40
- 8·10-4
CuMn2Al 2 - 0,8 200 12 4·10-4 + 0,1
CuNi30Mn 3 30 - 500 40 1·10-4 - 25
CuMn12NiAl 12 5 1,2 500 40 ~ 10-5 -2
* T = 20 °C ** Seebeck-coefficient
choice
choicecriteria:
criteria:high resistivityρρ, ,long
highresistivity longterm
termstability,
stability,well
welldefined
definedand
andvery
verylow
lowTK
TKρρ, ,
small
smallthermal
thermalvoltage
voltagevs. copperÞ
vs.copper Þalloys
alloys
IWE
source: [Mü 87 / 102) M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 22, 12.02.02
ρ and TKρ of Alloys for Precision-Resistors
15
ρtotal (T) / ρtotal (0 °C) →
AuCr2 CuMn12Ni2
CuMnSn
1,00 CuMnSn CuMn12Ni2
ρ / 10-5 K-1 →
10 AuCr2
5
0,98 CuMn12AlFe
TKρ
CuMn12AlFe
0
0,96 -5
-200 0 200 400 -200 0 200 400
temperature / °C → temperature / °C →
IWE
Alloys for Furnace Heating Elements
Alloys alloy structure ρ maximum operation coating

elements / wt.% temperature
Fe Ni Cr Al / µΩcm
µΩ /°C
NiCr 80 20 - 80 20 - 112 1200
NiCr 60 15 25 60 15 - 113 1150
kfz Cr2O3
NiCr 30 20 50 30 20 - 104 1100
CrNi 25 20 55 20 25 - 95 1050
CrAl 25 5 70 - 25 5 144 1300
krz Al2O3
CrAl 20 5 75 - 20 5 137 1200
choice
choicecriteria:
criteria:high
highmelting
meltingpoint,
point,formation
formationof
ofprotective
protectivecoating
coating
IWE
Resitivity of Heating Elements as f(T)
material operation protective

temperature coating
Tmax / °C
Pt 1000 none*
µΩcm →
Fe Ni Cr 1200 Cr2O3
Fe Cr Al 1300 Al2O3
ρ / µΩ
MoSi2 1600 SiO2

Mo, W, Ta 1700 in gas (H2)
graphite 3000 in gas (H2)
temperature / °C →
IWE
Metals and Alloys for Sensor Applications
Sensor Applications
temperature T force F, strain ε
operating known F
voltage UH temperature T0
R (εεM)
R(T) T0
T1 ∆T)
UTh(∆
UH
resistive thermocouple strain

resistive thermocouple straingauge
gauge
thermometer
thermometer
IWE
Resistive Temperature Sensors
fixing of looped
feed cable coarse alignment Al2O3-substrate
resistance
feed cable
increased
Pt 100 - 100 Ω
Pt 1000 - 1 kΩ Ω
ρ = 9,83·10-6 Ωcm (0 °C)
TKρρ =0,00385 K-1 (0...100 °C)
fine alignment loop Toperation -220...+800 (1200) °C
Pt 100 cheap
easy alignment
resistance / Ω
Ni 100 hysteresis due to

thermal expansion
calibration curves for resistive of Al2O3-substrate
temperature sensors adhesion of Pt on Al2O3
Pt 100 and Ni 100 - substrate deteriorates
due to thermocycling
temperature / °C
IWE
Thermocouples
T1 temperature difference generates potential difference
T1
U Th = ò ηAB ( T )dT
A
mat
l
eria
T0
eria
m at
Seebeck-coefficient
l
thermoelectric voltage
B
T0 ηsemiconductor ≈ 100...600 µV/K

ηmetal ≈ 0...40 µV/K
ηAB = ηA - ηB
absolute Seebeck electromotive force
UTh of materials A, B
thermocouple
IWE
source: IWE M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 28, 12.02.02
Metals and Alloys for Thermocouples
negative site positive site UTh / mV max. temp. / °C
constantan copper (Cu) 4,25 400

(55 Cu 44 Ni 1 Mn) iron (Fe) 5,37 700
nickel
(98 Ni 2 Al) chromnickel
chromel 4,1 1000
alumel (90 Ni 80 Cr)
(94,5 Ni 2,5 Mn 2Al 1 Si)
pallaplat 32 pallaplat 40 2,65 1300

(52 Au 46 Pd 2 Pt) (95 Pt 5 Rh)
platinum platinum-rhodium 0,64 1500

(Pt) (90 Pt 10 Rh)
UTh for ∆T = 100 K
IWE
Thermocouples
• UTh = f(T) • choice criteria
––high
highUUThTh-values
-values
highηηAB ==ηηA - -ηηB
°C →
c 0 → high
1 00 AB A B
= –– UUTh ~~TT
Th
ax
Tm ––high
highmelting
meltingpoint
point
°C
––chemical
chemicalstability
stabilityat
0
at
70
UTh
high
hightemperatures
=
temperatures
ax
m
T
C
= 1500 °
T max
IWE
Strain Gauges
DMS:
resitance change
due to strain / compression
∆R ∆l
= K ⋅ = K ⋅ εM
R l
application:
force sensor, manometer, balance
layout:
looped arrangement
→ maximum length (l)
→ high accuracy (K·εεM)
IWE
source: [Tip 94 / 1353] M&D-electrical Conduction.PPT, slide: 31, 12.02.02
Metals and Alloys for Strain Gauges
material composition K-factor
constantan 55 Cu 44 Ni 1 Mn 2,0
Fe-Ni-wire 65 Ni 20 Fe 15 Cr 2,5
„Iso-Elastic“-wire 52 Fe 36 Ni 8,5 Cr 3,5 Mn 3,6
Fe-wire 100 Fe 4,0
relativ resistance change:

dR dl dA q dρ dA q dl dρ dl
= − + using = −2 υ ⋅ and = K1 ⋅ Þ
R l Aq ρ Aq l ρ l
poisson-ratio
length resistivity
area ∆R
resistance change due to strain: = K ⋅ εM
ν + K1)
(K = 1 + 2ν R
IWE

Conduction

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Conduction

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Electrical Conduction

Electrical Properties of Solids: Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law current density

resistivity electric field intensity

10+6 10-6 GaAs

empty states filled valence

6000 K For E ≥ (Ef + 3kT),

conductivity σ = n e µe n - the number of free or conducting electrons per unit volume

• mean drift velocity v of an electron

material concentration of mobility of

metalls n = const µn ~ T-a

* band gap Eg ≤ 100 kT at 25 °C (kT = 0,025 eV at 25 °C)

(+) hole conduction

ρi , ρd: temperature independent parameters:

Na 4,2 0,97 4,1 1,4

Mg 4,5 1,7 7,7 0,41 1,4

III a Al 2,7 2,7 7,3 0,43 2,3

conductors current sources

overhead line Al/St, Cu, Al

thin film technology Al, Au, Ag, Cu Zn

circuit boards Cu, Sn

Alloys alloy structure ρ maximum operation coating

material operation protective

MoSi2 1600 SiO2

temperature T force F, strain ε

resistive thermocouple strain

Ni 100 hysteresis due to

T1 temperature difference generates potential difference

T0 ηsemiconductor ≈ 100...600 µV/K

negative site positive site UTh / mV max. temp. / °C

constantan copper (Cu) 4,25 400

pallaplat 32 pallaplat 40 2,65 1300

platinum platinum-rhodium 0,64 1500

UTh for ∆T = 100 K

• UTh = f(T) • choice criteria

material composition K-factor

relativ resistance change:

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