John Benedict D.

Vagilidad 22/04/2022

11B – STEM Friday

Lesson 8

IMPACT OF HAZARDS ON EXPOSED ELEMENTS

THE HAZARD IMPACT

❖The levels of impact of hazards depend on its interaction with the physical, social, biological, economic
and environmental elements found in a given geographical location of people, property, and
infrastructure.

❖ Disaster risk increases as the interactions between the hazard and the elements increase.

❖ The interactions expose the elements to the hazard thereby increasing their susceptibility to the
impact of the hazard.

THE HAZARD IMPACTS

1. Physical Impact

● This includes the destruction or damages to infrastructure and tangible properties.

● Mortality, human injuries, and health impacts are classified under this as well

2. Socio-cultural Impact

● Hazards can disrupt human and community activities.

● Hazards can cause the loss of cultural identity and conflicts.

3. Economic Impact

● Hazards can result to disruption of economic activities.

● Disruption of economic activities can lead to loss of livelihood and increased poverty

4. Environmental Impact

●Hazards can change the physical features of land and water forms.

5. Biological Impact

● Hazards affect biodiversity, ecosystem balance, and its sustainability

Lesson 9

EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

(GROUND SHAKING)

Earthquakes occur in the crust or upper mantle, which ranges from the earth's surface to about 800
kilometers deep (about 500 miles).

An earthquake is a phenomenon caused by the sudden and rapid movement of large volumes of rock
along fractures on the surface of the earth called faults .

The outermost shell of the earth, which includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, consists of
tectonic

These are massive and irregularly shaped slabs of rock. Due to their roughness, the edges of these plates
get stuck while the plates continue moving.

Eventually, when the plates move far enough to overcome the friction of the fault and separate; the
energy stored in the rocks is released in the form of seismic waves.

Ground shaking and earthquake are usually used synonymously because people perceive earthquake
often when the ground below shakes without warning.

3 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE GROUND SHAKING

1. Faults are breaks on the surface of the earth that generate earthquakes when it moves. The earth has
three main layers: crust, mantle, and core.

2. Frequency is the number of times a movement such as ground shaking is repeated within a certain
amount of time.

3. Seismic Waves There are two types of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Body waves are
seismic waves that travel through the interior of the earth.

Body Waves

● Body waves are seismic waves that travel through the interior of the earth.

○ Primary (P) waves are the first waves that reach the surface of the earth and make the ground
shake.1,600–8,000 m/s,
○ They move the ground back and forth along the direction they are traveling.

○ The shaking from P waves is light or sometimes not felt.

○ Secondary (S) waves are body waves that vibrate perpendicular to their propagation direction.

○ They produce an up and down motion. ○ They move slower but shake the ground more strongly than
P waves.

Surface Waves

● Surface waves are waves that are trapped near the surface.

○ Love waves are surface waves that have a horizontal motion perpendicular to the direction they are
traveling.Augustus Edward Hough Love

○ Rayleigh waves shake the ground in a rotational manner with no transverse motion. John William
Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
Lesson 10

GROUND RUPTURE

Ground rupture is the visible breaking and displacement of the Earth’s surface along the trace of a fault.
It may be a vertical movement, a lateral movement, or a combination of both, depending on the type of
fault generating it.

Ground rupture Can make severe damage to the infrastructures It could change the land formation

KINDS OF STRIKE SLIP FAULT

Strike-slip faults are vertical or near-vertical faults that displace rock horizontally. If the block opposite
you when looking across a fault moves to the left, it is a sinistral (or left-lateral) fault. If the block moves
to the right, it is a dextral (or right-lateral) fault.

Normal faults are characterized by the downward movement of the hanging wall with respect to the
footwall. Reverse or thrust faults are faults which move the hanging wall up. These faults are dip-slip
faults, which causes a vertical displacement of the ground.

THE MAIN CAUSE OF RUPTURE

❖ An earthquake can push and pull the ground, tearing the surface and pushing the ground apart and
upward. These are known as “surface ruptures”.

❖ A surface rupture may occur suddenly during an earthquake, or it can happen more slowly—in either
case, surface ruptures often happen along preexisting faults.

❖ The rupture velocity is about 3 km/s, so the rupture duration in seconds is given by fault length in
kilometres divided by 3.

THINGS TO REMEMBER:

❖ Phivolcs now recommends avoiding construction within 5 meters on each side of a fault trace, or a
total width of 10 meters.

❖ We may call this the ideal "10-meter wide no-build zone" in the vicinity of a fault
Lesson 11

Liquefaction is a process by which water-saturated sediment temporarily lose strength and acts as a
fluid

● Liquefaction occurs when the ground loses stiffness and behaves like liquid in response to
earthquakes.

○ grains of the underlying material vibrate and undergo compaction wherein the sediments are
compressed and fluids in the pore spaces are squeezed out

○ When the pore water pressure is equal to the weight of the overlying material, liquefaction occurs.

EFFECTS OF LIQUEFACTION

● The ground becomes unable to support the structures on top of it, causing buildings to tilt on their
sides and/or sink into the ground.

● Objects underground like pipes and storage tanks can literally float to the surface. In some cases,
groundwater rises and causes flood.

● Liquefaction at depth can cause geysers of sand and water to shoot from the ground, a phenomenon
called sand boils.

Factors Affecting Liquefaction

Liquefaction is affected by different factors such as:

● duration and intensity of shaking ○ Stronger, prolonged shaking produces a greater degree of
liquefaction.

● proximity of area to the fault.

● density of infrastructure in the area, and

● geology. ○ Loosely-packed, saturated sediments are especially vulnerable to this earthquake hazard.

Liquefaction in Urban Areas

● Denser infrastructure or more buildings in a certain area contributes to the weight of the sediments.

● The impact of liquefaction on populated centers is more severe as compared with the less populated
or underdeveloped areas.
Lesson 12

LANDSLIDES AND TSUNAMI

LANDSLIDE

● Mass wasting, more commonly known as a landslide, is the downslope movement of rocks or
sediments under the influence of gravity.

● It is a process that follows weathering.

● Landslides can be triggered by factors such as heavy or prolonged rain, oversteepened slopes, removal
of vegetation, and earthquakes.

FACTORS FOR an Earthquake-Induced Landslide

● the strength of the earthquake

● Man-made structures

● the distance from the fault

● topography ○ Hilly and mountainous areas, especially in portions where the slope is cut to build roads
and other man-made structures

FACTORS FOR an Earthquake-Induced Landslide

For an earthquake to induce landslides, the following factors must be considered:

● climate

○ Extended periods of rainfall increase the moisture content of the soil on a slope.

● the characteristics of the rock or soil prone to earthquake-induced landslide:

○ old, weathered rocks

○ loose, unconsolidated materials

○ when the rock has fractures

Landslide Warning Signs

How soon a landslide occurs after an earthquake varies. In some cases, there are warning signs you can
watch out for.

These include:

● cracks or bulges in the road or ground that weren’t there before;

● increased soil content in streams;

Landslide Warning Signs

How soon a landslide occurs after an earthquake varies. In some cases, there are warning signs you can
watch out for. These include:

● leaning poles or walls;

● a rumbling sound that grows louder; and

● unusual sounds such as cracking trees and colliding rocks.

Landslide Mitigation Measures

The effects of earthquake-induced landslides can be minimized by:

● avoiding construction on or near steep slopes and natural drainage ways

● knowing what kind of material your house is built on and if there are any nearby faults

Landslide Mitigation Measures T

he effects of earthquake-induced landslides can be minimized by:

● stabilizing slopes or walls of rock

● Understanding that earthquake-induced landslide susceptibility map is useful in determining

vulnerable areas.
Lesson 13

VOLCANIC HAZARD

LAVA FLOW

● Lava is a molten rock or magma that has reached the surface of the earth.

● Lava flows can be fluid or viscous depending on its composition, temperature, and gas content.

○ fluid- low silica content, high temperature, and low gas content

○ viscous- high silica content, low temperature, and has a high gas content

Types of Lava Flow

● Pahoehoe is lava flow that has high fluidity creating a smooth and ropy texture when they harden. As
Pahoehoe cools, it transitions into another type of lava flow called Aa.

● Aa is lava flow that is slower and more viscous that has a blocky and jagged appearance.

Negative Impacts of Lava Flows

● Lava flows can crush and bury structures and livelihoods. They solidify over time making the areas
buried by the lava useless.

● Lava flows also burn surroundings because of its intense heat. Flammable resources such as wood,
plants, and houses can get caught on fire as lava flows along their path.

Mitigating the Negative Effects of Lava Flows

Like other volcanic hazards, lava flow cannot be stopped. Lava flow can be controlled, however, to
minimize its effects on people’s lives.

● Artificial barriers can be constructed to prevent and divert lava from flowing over a particular area.

● Water jets can also be used to cool and slow it down, eventually stopping its movement.

● Use of explosives can also alter the pathway and source of the lava flow.

Volcanic Gases

● The release of volcanic gases is one of the most common volcanic activities that occur before, during,
and after eruptions.

● Volcanic gases are composed of different materials depending on its location.

○ Water vapor and carbon dioxide typically make up the bulk composition of volcanic gases, followed by
sulfur dioxide.

○ Other common volcanic gases include hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride

Negative Impacts of Volcanic Gas

● Most volcanic gases are hazardous to people except for water vapor.

○ Sulfur dioxide

■ can form into sulfuric acid which is a component of acid rain; and

■ direct contact with sulfur dioxide can irritate the eyes, cause skin rash, and poison the respiratory
system.

○ Carbon dioxide in high concentrations can cause asphyxiation without warning because of the gas’
odorless and colorless nature.

○ Volcanic gases also help in reflecting the heat outside Earth creating an albedo effect.

○ Hydrochloric acid helps in the degeneration of the ozone layer

PYROCLASTIC FLOW

● Pyroclastic Flows are hot, dry, turbulent mass mixtures of different pyroclastic materials and gases
that move downwards along the slope of a volcano at speed that can go up to several hundred meters
per second.

● Pyroclastic materials, also known as tephra, is a collective term for volcanic fragments that have been
ejected out of a volcano.

● Parts of Pyroclastic Flow ○ a basal flow of coarse pyroclastic materials ○ a turbulent ash cloud riding
over the basal flow

● When the turbulent ash cloud separates from the main pyroclastic flow, they are separately called the
pyroclastic surge.

3 Types of Pyroclastic Flow

● Soufrière type occurs from the collapse of a high vertical column coming from a highly explosive
eruption.

● Pelée type occurs when a highly viscous lava dome blocks the opening of a volcano, building pressure
until it can no longer be contained and explodes to one side of the volcano without forming a high
eruption column.

● Merapi occurs when a lava dome grows too steep over a volcanic crater which then falls due to
gravitational force.
Negative Impacts and Mitigation of Pyroclastic Flows

The highly destructive nature of pyroclastic flow is attributed to its high temperature, high velocity, and
high mobility relative to other volcano hazards.

● It can destroy virtually any structure along its path.

● Humans can get asphyxiated, be buried alive, and incinerated upon contact.

Mitigation

Pyroclastic flows cannot also be easily identified before an eruption. Early warning and evacuation
before a potential volcanic eruption are the only risk-mitigating actions possible for such events.

BALLISTIC PROJECTILES AND TEPHRA FALLS

● Tephras are fragments of volcanic material that are ejected into the atmosphere from the eruption of
a volcano.

● They are differentiated based on the size of the ejected fragment.

○ ash, if it is less than 2mm

○ lapilli if it is 2-64mm

○ blocks and bombs if they are greater than 64 mm in size

● Large tephras that leave the volcanic vent with force and trajectory are called ballistic projectiles.

● Tephra falls occur as a result of tephra being spewed out by a volcano initially hovering and riding over
the prevailing wind direction before eventually falling into the earth’s surface.

Negative Impacts of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

● Tephra falls can spread over a wide range of area depending on how large the volcanic eruption is and
how the prevailing winds move them.

● Ballistic projectiles, on the other hand, have effects that are in relative proximity to the volcanic
source. This is because the projectiles are too heavy to be carried by prevailing winds.

● Tephra falls and ballistic projectiles can destroy properties and endanger lives because of the force of
impact as they fall into the Earth’s surface.

● Burial can also occur if large amounts of tephra are concentrated over a certain area.

● Accumulated ash also gets heavier when mixed with water.

● Tephra falls can carry harmful and poisonous particles and gases.

● Suspended ash can also hinder aircrafts from flying over the vicinity
Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles

Some tephra fall hazards can be practically mitigated to minimize its destructive effects without the
need for evacuation.

● Clearing the ash fall buildup over a certain structure before it accumulates, can lessen the risk of
failure of the structure.

● Roofs over a structure can be designed to prevent ash buildup.

● Strengthening of structures can also be done to lessen the effect of projectile impacts and withstand
the load of ash buildup.

● Humans can also wear masks or respiratory apparatuses that can significantly reduce the inhalation of
ash and poisonous gases.

LAHAR

● Lahar is created when tephras mix with water and form a slurry.

● It flows along the slopes of a topography.

● As they move downhill, lahar incorporates other materials along its path which can result in its volume
growing more than ten times its initial size.

LAHAR Types of Lahar

● Primary lahar can form when pyroclastic flows occur along areas where bodies of water such as
streams and rivers are present.

○ Jökulhlaups or glacier bursts is primary lahar formed when glaciers melt as hot lava, gas, or
pyroclastic materials are ejected out of a volcanic vent.

● Secondary lahar is formed after an eruption event. Mass failure or overtopping of dams formed by
lava flows, lahar, pyroclastic flows, or crater rims can also cause

Negative Impacts of Lahar

● Lahar can travel quickly especially on steep slopes where its speed can reach more than 20 km/h.

● The force of impact from lahar, which contains varying materials of different sizes, can destroy
virtually anything in its path.

● The reach of lahar flows defines their hazard.

○ Hyperconcentrated lahar nearer its source destroys structures and agriculture through erosion.
 ○ The diluted lahar, usually found farther from the source, can dry out and become as hard as
concrete which becomes dangerous when it fills and buries an urbanized or agricultural area.

● A freshly deposited lahar can also act like quicksand that hampers immediate search and rescue
efforts.

Mitigating the Negative Impacts of Lahar

Depending on the gathered information on the community and gained knowledge on the potential lahar
hazard within the region, specific risk reduction measures can be designed.

● Hazard avoidance, or a complete ban of development in a lahar prone area, is the most effective way
to reduce risk.

● Hazard modification is accomplished by engineering structures to protect the affected area by

diverting or blocking lahars, or weakening, or preventing lahar flows altogether.

● Hazard warning helps in disseminating information to the community of an impending lahar flow
before it reaches and affects the community.

● Hazard response and recovery planning focuses on the response to the lahar hazard after it has
occurred.