General

Chemistry 2
Quarter 3 Module 1
 General
Chemistry 2
Grade 12
Quarter 3 Module 1

Schools Division Office Management Team: Rosemarie C. Blando, August Jamora,

Merle B. Lopez, Florendo S. Galang
Writer/s: Maria Cecilia S.J. Salvosa
Illustrator: Julius Burdeos

General Chemistry 2
PIVOT IV-A Learner’s Material
Quarter 3, Version 1.0
First Edition, 2021

Published by: Department of Education SDO-Rizal

Schools Division Superintendent: Cherrylou D. Repia
Assistant Schools Division Superintendent: Gloria C. Roque and Babylyn M. Pambid
 WEEK

Properties of Liquids and Solids to the 1

n
Nature of Forces Between Particles
I
Many of the things you use every day are materials in solid or liquid form. Milk,
juice, gasoline, alcohol, oil, and water are some of the important liquids that you need
in your daily activities. The number of solids you see daily is countless. Rocks, paper,
ballpen, fruits and books are examples of solid materials.
You learned that gases consist of molecules that are in constant random motion.
The molecules in a liquid are held more strongly than those in a gas. They are closer to
one another and their motion is limited, but this is still sufficient to allow them to slide
past one another, that’s why liquids flow. In solids, the molecules are “locked in” to
relatively fixed positions where they are held together.
In this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids.
2. Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces.
3. Describe the following properties of liquids and explain the effect of intermolecular
forces on these properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point
and molar heat of vaporization.

D I
Learning Task 1:
Using the K-W-L chart, write down on the first column (K) the things you know
about Intermolecular Forces, while on the second column, write the things that you want
to learn about the topic. Leave the last column blank as you will do this on the latter
part of the lesson.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
What I Know What I want to know What I Learned

Learning Task 2:
Illustrate kinetic molecular model of liquids and solids.

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Lesson 1
KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
The Kinetic Molecular Model explains the properties of solids and liquids in terms
of the intermolecular forces of attraction and the kinetic energy of the individual
particles. Intermolecular Forces (attractive forces between neighboring particles of one or
more substances) pull the particles together, while kinetic energy keeps the particles at
a distance and/or moving around. Kinetic energy is dependent on the temperature of
the substance.
To put this model in another perspective, consider a few drops of blue food color
added to a glass of water. The blue color slowly goes down the glass of water, spreads
out and ultimately colors the entire water blue. This happens because both the particles
of water and the food color are constantly moving due to their kinetic energy.
The table below compares the characteristics of solids and liquids.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

Solids Liquids
• Has definite shape. • Has no definite shape.
• Does not flow. • Flows and takes the shape
of its container.
Properties • Virtually incompressible.
• Very difficult to compress.
• Expands when heated, but
to a lesser extent than • Slightly expands when
liquids and gases. heated.
• Strongly attracted to each • Weakly attracted to each
other. other; breaks their
interaction easily.
• Vibrates a little but not
Particles much compared to liquids • Vibrates and moves more
and gases. than those in solid.
• Vibrates faster when • Moves faster when heated
heated.

Lesson 2
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules. Intermolecular forces
are responsible for the nonideal behavior of gases. They exert even more in the
condensed phases of matter- liquids and solids. We must understand the different types
of intermolecular forces which are Dipole-dipole forces, ion-dipole forces, London
dispersion forces and hydrogen bond.
Dipole-Dipole Forces
Dipole-Dipole forces exist between polar molecules. Recall that polar substances,
such as hydrogen chloride (HCl), are those that possess a permanent dipole moment

2
attributed to the difference in electronegativities of their component atoms and how
these atoms are arranged in space. Each polar molecule has unequal electron densities,
resulting in a dipole partial positive (δ+) end and a partial negative (δ-) end. Thus, when
two polar molecules are brought close together, the partial positive charge of one
molecule will be attracted to the partial negative charge of neighboring molecule.

Dipole-dipole attraction between two HCl molecules

Ion-Dipole Forces
Ion-dipole force acts between an ion (either positive or negative) and a polar
molecule. Such is the case for the aqueous solution of sodium chloride, where Na + and
Cl- ions are dispersed amidst polar water molecules. The degree of ion-dipole interaction
depends on the size and charge of the ion and on the size and dipole moment of the polar
molecule. Cations (positively charged ions) interact more strongly with dipoles than
anions (negatively charged ions) of the same magnitude of charge since they are smaller.
This means that between Na+ and Cl- (with +1 and -1 charges, respectively), Na+ will have
greater interactions with water than Cl-. Ion-dipole attraction becomes stronger either
as the charge of the ion increases, or as the magnitude of the dipole moment of the polar
molecule increases.

Ion-dipole forces between ions of NaCl and water molecules

London Dispersion Forces

London dispersion forces or simply dispersion forces, are intermolecular forces of
attraction that exist between all atoms and molecules. Moreover, these are the only
forces acting in nonpolar molecules. They arise from the continuous movement of

3
electrons in particles. Nonpolar molecules have zero dipole moment because their
electron density is uniform and symmetrical. Nevertheless, the electrons have some
freedom to move about the molecule; therefore, at any instance, the molecule
momentarily acquires a non-uniform electron density, resulting in a temporary dipole
(also called instantaneous dipole). This dipole can then induce dipoles in neighboring
molecules. Therefore, London dispersion forces are attractions between an
instantaneous dipole and an induced dipole, as in the two helium atoms as shown in
the given figure.
The size of a molecule can affect London dispersion force between molecules. The
bigger the molecule (which means that the molecule has greater surface area), the
stronger the attraction between two molecules. As an example, between helium and
argon, the two argon atoms will have greater London dispersion force because they are
bigger than helium atoms.

London dispersion force between two helium atoms

Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that exists only in
molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom
bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom such as N, O or F. The more
electronegative atom pulls the electron toward itself and gains a relatively large partial
negative charge. In turn, the hydrogen acquires a similarly large partial positive charge
that strongly attracts the partial negative charge of a neighboring electronegative atom.
Typically, a hydrogen bond is about five to ten times stronger than other dipole-dipole
attractions.
Note that unlike covalent bonding, where electrons are involved and are shared
between atoms, hydrogen bond is not a real chemical bond participated in by electrons.
A covalent bond is a type of intermolecular force of attraction, while hydrogen bond is
intermolecular in nature.

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Learning Task 3:
Describe how the kinetic molecular model of liquids and solids explain its
properties.

Learning Task 4:
What type of intermolecular force will act in the following compounds?
1. sulfur dioxide (SO)2
2. Iodine gas (I2)
3. Hydrogen Iodide (HI)

Learning Task 5:
Explain the type(s) of intermolecular forces that exist between the
following pairs.
1. HF and H2S
2. Br2 and CBr4
3. NH3 and C2H4

Lesson 3
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
General Properties of Liquids
Some of the general properties of liquids are surface tension, viscosity, vapor
pressure, boiling point, and heat of vaporization. These properties are influenced by the
intermolecular forces of attraction in a substance.

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Surface Tension
Surface tension is the property of a liquid to resist an external force and thus
assume a lesser surface area. This is attributed to the strong attractive and cohesive
forces between and among the molecules, particularly at the surface of the liquid.
Several manifestations of this property are the ability of water to hold a relatively heavier
paper clip on its surface and to allow water striders to walk on its surface. Moreover, the
strong cohesive force explains why spherical water droplets form on leaves.

water strider walking on surface paper clip floating on water

Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow. It is loosely referred to as the
thickness of a liquid. A glassful of water is relatively to pour than a glassful of oil or
honey. Thus, water is described as less viscous or thinner than oil and honey. The
greater the intermolecular forces, the more viscous the substance. Long chained
substances like oil have greater intermolecular forces because there are more atoms that
can attract one another, contributing to the substance’s total attractive forces. Honey is
also a highly viscous because of the hydrogen bonding that forms as a result of the
numerous -OH groups of the sugar molecules.
Vapor Pressure
The vapor pressure of a substance is the pressure exerted by its vapor when in
equilibrium with its liquid or solid. This means that when a liquid or a solid substance
is made to evaporate in a closed container, the gas exerts pressure above the liquid.
Substances with relatively strong intermolecular forces will have low vapor
pressure because the particles will have difficulty escaping as a gas. For example, at
25°C, water (H2O, hydrogen bonding) has a vapor pressure of 0.03 atm, while ethyl ether
(C4H10O, dipole-dipole and London dispersion forces) has a vapor pressure of 0.68 atm.
Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal
to the external or atmospheric pressure. Increasing the temperature of a liquid raises
the kinetic energy of its molecules until such point where the energy of the particle
movement exceeds the intermolecular forces that hold them together. The liquid
molecules then transform to gas and are bubbles that rise to the surface of the liquid
and escape to the atmosphere. The temperature at which a liquid boil under an
atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg (1 atm) is referred to as its normal boiling point.
The normal boiling point of water is 100°C. At higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure
is lower, hence, the boiling point will subsequently decrease.

6
 The boiling point of a liquid is influenced by the strength of its intermolecular
forces. The greater the attractive forces, the higher the energy needed to increase the
kinetic energy of the molecules to break these forces.
Heat of Vaporization
Molar heat of vaporization (∆Hvap) is the amount of heat required to vaporize one
mole of a substance at its boiling point. The application of heat disrupts the
intermolecular forces of attraction of the liquid molecules and allows them to vaporize.
Boiling point generally increases as molar heat of vaporization increases. The ∆Hvap is
also determined by the strength of the intermolecular forces between molecules.
Molar Heats of Vaporization for Selected Liquids
Substance Boiling Point (°C) ∆Hvap (kJ/mol)
Argon (Ar) -186.0 6.3

Methane (CH4) -164.0 9.2

Diethyl ether (C2H5OC2H5) 34.6 26.0
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 78.3 39.3
Water (H2O) 100.0 40.8

Values for ethanol (C2H5OH) are higher than those for diethyl ether due to the
former’s hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole and London dispersion forces. The high
value for water is attributed to hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole attraction.

E
Learning Task 6: Marble Race
Objective: To explain viscosity of liquids by intermolecular forces of attraction.
Materials: one glass of water
one glass of alcohol
one glass of honey (sugar syrup)
3 marbles
Procedure:
1. Drop each marble to each glass at the same time.
2. Record the time the marble reached the bottom of the glass.
3. Write the data obtained on the table below. Do this in your notebook.

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 Number of
Time reached the seconds marble
Liquids Time started bottom of the reached the
glass bottom of the
glass

Glass of water

Glass of alcohol

Glass of honey/sugar
syrup

Guide Questions:
1. In which liquid does the marble reached the bottom slowest?
2. In which liquid does the marble reached the bottom fastest?
3. Explain the type of intermolecular force that made the marble to reach the
bottom of the liquid slowest.

A
Learning Task 7:
Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces. Fill in the
table below. Do this in your notebook.

Reflection
I understand that
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
I realize that
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

8
 9
Learning Task 7: Learning Task 5: Learning Task 1:
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR 1. Both HF and H2S are polar Answers may vary
FORCES molecules. Therefore, the
1. Dipole-dipole intermolecular forces
present are dipole-dipole Learning Task 2
Exist between polar
forces as well as London
molecules; the partial Solid
dispersion forces.
positive charge of one
molecule will be attracted 2. Both Br2 and CBr4 are
to the negative charge of nonpolar, so there are only
the other molecule. London dispersion forces
between these molecules.
2. Ion-dipole
3. NH3 is polar and C2H4 is
Exists between ion and a Liquid
nonpolar. The forces are
polar molecule; degree of
dipole-induced dipole
ion-dipole interaction
forces and London
depends on the size and
dispersion forces.
dipole moment of polar
molecule.
3. Ion-dipole Learning Task 6:
Intermolecular forces that 1. Both HF and H2S are
exists between all atoms polar molecules. Learning Task 3:
and molecules; forces Therefore, the
acting in nonpolar intermolecular forces The Kinetic Molecular Model
molecules. present are dipole-dipole explains the properties of
forces as well as London solids and liquids in terms of
dispersion forces. the intermolecular forces of
4. Ion-dipole attraction and the kinetic
2. Both Br2 and CBr4 are energy of the individual
Exists only in molecules
nonpolar, so there are particles. Intermolecular
that contain a hydrogen
only London dispersion Forces pull the particles
atom bonded to highly
forces between these together, while kinetic energy
electronegative atom N,
molecules. keeps the particles at a
O,F.
3. NH3 is polar and C2H4 is distance and/or moving
nonpolar. The forces are around. Kinetic energy is
dipole-induced dipole dependent on the
forces and London temperature of the
dispersion forces. substance.
Learning Task 4:
1. Dipole-dipole; SO2 is a
polar substance.
2. London dispersion force; I2
is a nonpolar gas.
3. Hydrogen bond: Iodine is
attached to hydrogen.
 WEEK

Properties of Water and Structure of Solid 2

I
n

Water is a common substance on Earth that we often overlook its unique nature.
All life processes involve water. Water is an excellent solvent for many ionic compounds
as well as for other substances capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water.
Solids exhibit certain characteristics that distinguish them from liquids and gases.
All solids have, for example, the ability to resist forces applied either perpendicular or
parallel to a surface (i.e., normal or shear loads, respectively). Such properties depend
on the properties of the atoms that form the solid, on the way those atoms are arranged,
and on the forces between them.
In this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular
forces.
2. Describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids.

D DI
Learning Task 1:
Using the K-W-L chart, write down on the first column (K) the things you know
about Properties of Water and Structure of Solid, while on the second column, write the
things that you want to learn about the topic. Leave the last column blank as you will
do this on the latter part of the lesson. Write your answer in your notebook.

Properties of Water and Structure of Solid

What I Know What I want to know What I Learned

Learning Task 2:
True or False. Write your answer in your notebook.
1. Water is colorless, odorless, and tasteless at room temperature.
2. The molecules in water are linked by hydrogen bond.

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3. There is only one lone pair of nonbonding electrons of oxygen in water.
4. Ice is the solid form of water.
5. The boiling point of water is 100°C.

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WATER

A water molecule has a bent shape, with two partially positive hydrogen atoms and
a partially negative oxygen atom. These dipoles make the overall molecular polar.

https://lateralthinkingdepartment.com/2019/04/25/the-half-life-of-girl-guide-cookies/ April 25, 2019

The molecules in solid and liquid water are linked by hydrogen bonding. As
temperature increases, the number of linked molecules decreases because the increased
kinetic energy of some of the molecules make intermolecular interaction more difficult
to establish. In liquid water, an individual water molecule is hydrogen bonded to four
other water molecules. These attractions are strong enough to keep water in its liquid
state at room temperature.
The water molecules in ice have a more defined hexagonal arrangement. The low
density of ice is attributed to the larger (hollow) space occupied by this arrangement.
When ice is heated, the increase in the energy of the molecules causes them to move
faster. When the melting point is reached, the rigid open structure of the ice crystals
breaks down, turning the ice into liquid water in which molecules are more mobile. As
a result, molecules can move closer together, making liquid water denser than ice. At
0°C, the density of ice is 0.917 g/cm 3 and that of liquid water is 0.99984 g/cm 3.

Learning Task 3:
Traveling Water
1. Start with one cup filled with water and
one cup empty. Cut a length of string
about 24″ (61 cm) long. Hold one end of the
string and dip the rest into the water to get it
wet.

11
2. Tape the dry end of the string to the
inside bottom of the dry cup at the center. Pretty
much any type of tape will work. Press the tape
firmly to the cup. Test it with a gentle tug.
3. Add some food coloring to the water. This
makes it easier to see what is happening.
4. Hold the loose end of the string in the
water and hold the water cup slightly apart from
and above the dry cup. Keep them far enough
apart that the string is as taut as you can make
it without pulling off the tape.
5. Tilt the water toward the string and
slowly pour it out of the cup and down the string.
6. Keep the string in the bottom cup away from the rim so the water flows
into the bottom of the cup.

Guide Questions:
1. What properties of water are evident in the experiment?
2. Explain how properties of water work.

Physical properties
Water has several important physical properties. Although these properties are
familiar because of the omnipresence of water, most of the physical properties of water
are quite atypical. Given the low molar mass of its constituent molecules, water has
unusually large values of viscosity, surface tension, heat of vaporization, and entropy of
vaporization, all of which can be ascribed to the extensive hydrogen
bonding interactions present in liquid water. The open structure of ice that allows for
maximum hydrogen bonding explains why solid water is less dense than liquid water—
a highly unusual situation among common substances.

Selected Physical Properties of Water

molar mass 18.0151 grams per mole
melting point 0.00 °C
boiling point 100.00 °C
maximum density (at 3.98 °C) 1.0000 grams per cubic
centimeter
density (25 °C) 0.99701 grams per cubic
centimeter

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 vapor pressure (25 °C) 23.75 torr
heat of fusion (0 °C) 6.010 kilojoules per mole
heat of vaporization (100 °C) 40.65 kilojoules per mole
heat of formation (25 °C) −285.85 kilojoules per mole
entropy of vaporization (25 °C) 118.8 joules per °C mole
viscosity 0.8903 centipoise
surface tension (25 °C) 71.97 dynes per centimeter
https://www.britannica.com/science/water/Physical-properties

Chemical properties
Acid-Base Reactions

Water undergoes various types of chemical reactions. One of the most important
chemical properties of water is its ability to behave as both an acid (a proton donor) and
a base (a proton acceptor), the characteristic property of amphoteric substances. This
behavior is most clearly seen in the autoionization of water: H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq)
+ OH−(aq), where the (l) represents the liquid state, the (aq) indicates that the species
are dissolved in water, and the double arrows indicate that the reaction can occur in
either direction or an equilibrium condition exists.

TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOLID

Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous based on the arrangement
of their particles. Crystalline solids have a highly regular arrangement of particles, while
amorphous solids have considerable disorder in their structure. Amorphous solids have
varying degree of short-range order and only within a few atomic or molecular
dimensions.
Amorphous Solids
Amorphous solids, such as glass, are formed rather rapidly that its constituent
particles do not have time to align or organize into a more definite crystalline lattice.
Many amorphous polymers, including polycarbonate and polymethylmethacrylate, are
tough enough to be used as armor polymers. Other examples of this type of solids are
silicon, used in solar cells and thin film transistors, and quartz that may also exist as a
crystalline solid.

ionlearning.com/en/library/Chemistry/1/Properties-
https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Chemistry/1/Properties-of-Solids/209

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Crystalline Solids
A crystalline solid has a well-defined crystal lattice. A lattice is a three-
dimensional system of points designating the positions of the components (atoms, ions,
or molecules) that make up a crystal. A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit of lattice.
The seven common unit cells and their lattices are shown below.

https://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch13/unitcell.php

Common unit cells and their lattices

Learning Task 4:
Draw a Venn diagram on the similarities and differences of amorphous and
crystalline solids.

Crystalline solids can be categorized into different types. Ionic solids, such as
sodium chloride (NaCl), have ions at different points of the lattice. These ions are held
together by strong coulombic forces. Another type of crystalline solid is molecular solids
such as sucrose (C12H22O11) and ice (H2O). A molecular solid has discrete covalently
bonded molecules at each of its lattice points. The molecules of sucrose and ice are held
together in their lattices by strong intermolecular forces, the most outstanding of which
is hydrogen bonding.
Ionic and molecular solids have different properties. Although both sodium
chloride and sugar dissolve in water, a sodium chloride solution conducts electricity,
while sugar solution does not. These properties can be explained in terms of the
components of the solids.
Sodium chloride can dissociate into its Na + and Cl- ions in a polar solvent such
as water. The ions are distributed throughout the water and move freely, resulting in
the conduction of electricity. On the other hand, sugar is composed of neutral molecules
that are distributed throughout the water when the solid dissolves. Since there are no
ions in the solution, no electrical conduction will occur.

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 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/chemical-reactions-s

https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/images/576-sugar-dissolving-in-water

Dissolution of sodium chloride (a) and sugar (b) in water

Other types of crystalline solids are metallic solids, network solids and Group 8A solids
depending on the bond that exists among the atoms in the solid. Metallic solids such as
gold, copper or bronze are composed of metal atoms bonded together by metallic bonds.
Network solids are covalently bonded atoms that form continuous network. Silicon dioxide
and some forms of carbon such as graphite diamond are examples of this type. Group 8A
solids such as solid krypton and argon, consist of atoms of noble gases held together by
London dispersion forces.

Ionic crystal (NaCl) metallic crystal

Molecular crystal (ice) covalent network crystal (diamond)

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 Classifications of Crystalline Solids
Type of
Components
Interaction
that Occupy Typical
Type Between Examples
the Lattice Properties
Components of
Patterns
Lattice
Ionic Ions Ionic Hard; high Sodium chloride
melting (NaCl), calcium
Solids
insulating as a fluoride (CaF2)
solid but
conducting
when dissolved

Molecular Discrete Dipole-dipole Soft; low melting Ice, dry ice (solid
Solids Molecules and/or London point CO2)
dispersion forces

Metallic Metal atoms Delocalized Wide range of Silver, iron,

covalent hardness and brass
melting points

Network Nonmetal Directional Hard; high Diamond

atoms covalent (leading to melting point
giant molecules)

Group 8A Group 8A London dispersion Very low melting Argon

(noble gases) forces point
atoms

Learning Task 5: Identify the type of given crystalline solid and type of interaction
between the molecules. Do this in your notebook.
Type of interaction
Crystal solid Type
between molecules
1. Krypton
2. Quartz
3. Table sugar
4. KCl
5. gold

16
 E
Learning Task 6: Rock Candy Sticks

Get ready to watch some cool crystals grow! And when you are done, you can
eat them or give them away as Christmas gifts! Click here to download a rock candy
crystal printable.

What You Need:

• 1 1/2 cups of white sugar

• 1 cup of water
• Small plate
• A spoon
• A glass
• Wax paper
• Saucepan
• Stove
• Several 250 ml beakers or small clean jars
• Cake pop sticks or wooden skewers
• Food coloring pack (optional)

Note: You can make Rock Candy without sticks. Use a piece of clean cotton
string or thread. Follow steps 2-7 below then dip the string into the solution so that half
of the string is coated. Take the string out and let it dry. Once the string has dried, tie
the clean end around a pencil and put the dipped end back into the glass of sugar water
solution, balancing the pencil across the rim of the glass. Make sure the string does not
touch the bottom or the sides of the glass, or your crystals will not form right! When
your piece of “rock candy” is as big as you want it to be (about one week), take it out of
the glass, let it dry, and enjoy!

1. Fill a glass with water, pour some sugar on a small plate, and lay out a sheet of
waxed paper. Dip one end of each stick (cut pointed ends off if you use skewers)
into the water and then roll it in the sugar, tapping it gently to remove excess.
Set each stick to dry on the waxed paper.
2. Pour the cup of water into the saucepan and add 1/2
cup sugar. Stir it well until no more sugar will dissolve.
Add more sugar (1/2 cup at a time) until you can’t get
any more to dissolve even after stirring for several
minutes. You should end up with about 1 1/2 cups
sugar dissolved in the saucepan. It’s OK if there is
some undissolved sugar at the bottom of the pan. (You
now have a saturated sugar solution.)
3. Ask an adult to help you heat the sugar mixture on the
stove until it boils, stirring the whole time. Turn the

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 heat to medium-low and keep stirring until all the sugar
dissolves. (Now you have made a supersaturated solution!)
4. Keep cooking the liquid and stirring it until it becomes
clear, but not for more than 5 minutes, or it will get too hot
and turn into hard candy! Turn off the stove as soon as it
starts to look clear.

5. Move the pan off the heat and allow it to cool down
until the pan is no longer hot (the sugar solution will still be
slightly warm).

6. Have an adult slowly pour the thick sugar solution

into the jars. Fill each about 2/3 full, or enough so that sugar
solution will cover several inches of your sugar-coated sticks.

7. Add 5-6 drops of food coloring to each jar and stir.

(Optional: Only do this step if you want to make different
colors of rock candy!)

8. Once the solution is cool

and the sugar-coated sticks are
completely dry, place several
sticks into each jar.

9. Carefully move the jars to

a place where they won’t be
disturbed. Check them every
other day and gently stir the
sticks around in the sugar
solution to break up any large
crystals forming on the surface.

10. Within a few days, you should start to see crystals

growing on the sticks. After about one week, you will probably
have a lot of crystals. When your
“rock candy” crystals are as big
as you want them to be, take
them out of the jars and set each
color of candy in a clean glass to dry.

11. Once they are dry, you can wrap in cellophane food
wrap and tie with ribbon for a sweet Christmas gift.

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Guide Question:

1. Explain how the crystals are formed in rock candy sticks.

A
Learning Task 7:
Explain why marine organisms were able to survive freezing surface in water in
cold countries. Do this in your notebook.
__________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Reflection
I understand that
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
I realize that
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

19
 20
Learning Task 1;
answers may vary
Learning Task 4: Learning task 2;
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
Learning task 3:
Each molecule of water is
made up of two hydrogen
atoms (H) and one oxygen
atom (O). A drop of water has
a gazillion molecules that are
held together by electrical,
molecular bonds. In this
case, it’s called hydrogen
bonding and it’s quite strong.
Learning Task 5: These strong hydrogen
bonds allow water molecules
Type of
interaction to stick together very well
Crystal solid Type and move down the string
between
into the bottom cup. When
molecules
like molecules grab each
1. Krypton Group 8A London other, it’s called cohesion.
dispersion forces
The string is moistened to
2. Quartz Network Directional help the water molecules
covalent stick together and stick to
the string. Water molecules
3. Table sugar Molecular solid Dipole-
can stick to other materials,
dipole/London
too. This property of
dispersion forces
different molecules sticking
4. KCl Ionic Ionic to each other is called
adhesion. In this case,
5. gold metallic Delocalized
water molecules stick to the
covalent
string and other water
molecules stick to them. It’s
likely that some water
dripped off of the string
somewhere on its downhill
trip. This is because
adhesion is not as strong as
cohesion.
 21
Learning task 6:
In step two you made a saturated
solution—there was so much sugar in the
water that it couldn’t dissolve any more
sugar and some was left in the bottom of
the pan. Once the saturated solution
started to heat up, the water was able to
dissolve even more sugar and a
supersaturated solution was formed in
step three. Then, as the solution cooled,
the sugar molecules in it started to join
with the sugar molecules on the sticks.
The sugar on the sticks are called “seed”
molecules and the sugar molecules in the
solution attached themselves to the seed
molecules.
Meanwhile, the water in the solution
started to evaporate or dry up into the air,
leaving only sugar molecules behind.
More sugar molecules gradually joined
with the ones already on the stick,
forming larger crystals. Because all of the
solute molecules are the same (they are
all sugar), they all form the same shape
of crystals and they all stick together,
making a big chunk of sugar crystals that
are pretty to look at and tasty to eat!
Learning task 7:
Since water expands at temperatures
below its freezing point, the lower density
of ice on lakes and rivers keeps it afloat.
This property prevents bodies of water
from freezing completely during winter
and allowing marine organisms to thrive
through such periods.
 WEEK

Phase Changes in Terms of the 3

Accompanying Changes in Energy
and Forces Between Particles
n
I
Water is an essential part of the earth system. Water is special not only because
it covers 70% of the earth’s surface, but also because it is the only known substance
that can exist in gaseous, liquid, and solid phases within the relatively narrow range of
temperatures and pressures found on earth.
Water’s special qualities come from the unique shape of the water molecule. Each
molecule contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, arranged such that
one side of the molecule (nearest hydrogen) is positively charged while the other side
(nearest oxygen) is negatively charged. If two water molecules come together, the positive
side of one side is attracted to the negative side of the other, making the molecules cling
together. This simple fact accounts for the high heat capacity, surface tension, cohesion,
adhesion, and other characteristics that make water so important to the earth’s
biosphere.
In this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide.
2. Determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance.

D DI
Learning Task 1:
Try to recall what you have learned about phases changes. Fill out Original Phase
and Final Phase to complete the table below. Do this in your notebook.
Phase Change Original Final Phase Example
Phase
Melting Ice crystals to raindrops
Freezing Liquid droplets to
snowflakes
Condensation Water vapor to dew

22
 Evaporation Feel cooler when
sweating
Sublimation Naphthalene balls
decrease in size
Deposition Formation of snow

Lesson 1:
PHASE CHANGES
Phase changes occur with increased temperature. The particles of a solid are held
close together by intermolecular forces of attraction. Because the particles are so close
together, they tend to vibrate in a fixed point. However, when heat is supplied to the
solid, the increased kinetic energy intensifies the vibration of the particles. When the
heat supplied exceeds the intermolecular forces that hold the solid particles, they start
to become “loose’ from the solid lattice and melt, decreasing their molecular order, which
allows the particles to slide past each other. Further increase in heat supplied can
overcome the intermolecular forces between liquid particles, causing them to begin
moving independently and colliding with other particles, forming a gas or vapor. Most
solids undergo this two-step process before they become gas. There are certain solids,
however, that go directly from being solid to vapor and do not melt upon gaining
sufficient energy. These solids are described to undergo a process called sublimation.
An example of a solid that sublimes is dry ice, the solid form of CO 2.

PHASE DIAGRAMS
Each substance has specific conditions at which their phase changes occur.
These conditions may be obtained from phase diagrams. A phase diagram is a graphical
representation of the pressure-temperature relationships that apply to the equilibria
between the phases of a substance. It is useful in determining the combination of
temperature and pressure at which a substance will exist as a solid, liquid or gas or the
conditions at which two phases exist in equilibrium. Two commonly studied phase
diagrams are those of water and carbon dioxide.

The physical state of a substance and its

phase-transition temperatures are represented
graphically in a phase diagram.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Valley_City_State_University/Chem_122/Chapter_2%3
A_Phase_Equilibria/2.4%3A_Phase_Diagrams

23
Learning Task 2 Write at least five important information you can get in phase diagram.
Do this in your notebook.

Water
The figure below illustrates the phase diagram of water. The solid curved lines in
the diagram give the temperatures and pressures at which two phases exist in
equilibrium. Equilibrium means that the phase change from Phase A to Phase B occurs
at the same rate as the phase change from Phase B to Phase A. Line AB shows the
temperature-pressure conditions for solid-gas equilibrium. Line AC for liquid-gas
equilibrium and Line AD for solid-liquid equilibrium. All points that do not fall on any
of the lines in the figure represent conditions under which there is only one stable phase.
One atypical figure of the phase diagram of water is the negative slope of the
solid/liquid boundary line, which signifies that the melting point of ice decreases as the
external pressure increases. This behavior manifests because the density of ice is less
than that of a liquid water at the melting point. The maximum density of water is
observed at 4 °C, the temperature at which liquid water freezes and its volume increases.

https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-4GOeEY5bygM/V-wS0I7ct5I/AAAAAAAABsk/_QKT3T6HfxsYTnyVZZoxglZqh6jig8HZACLcB/s400/1.jpg

Note that the normal boiling point of water is 100 °C and it’s normal freezing point is 0
°C. Point A is referred to as the triple point, where all the three phases coexist in
equilibrium. The triple point of water is 0.01 °C and 0.0060 atm. Point C is the critical
point, the temperature-pressure condition at and above which the vapor of the
substance cannot be liquefied no matter how much pressure is applied. The critical
point of water is 373.99 °C at 217.75 atm.

24
Learning Task 3:
Answer the following questions. Do this in your notebook.
1. What phases of water are shown in the diagram?
2. At what temperature is liquid water changed to gas?
3. What is the phase of water at lowest temperature?
4. At what pressure is water in normal freezing point?
5. At what temperature is water in critical point?

Carbon Dioxide
The next figure below illustrates the phase diagram for carbon dioxide. At
pressures around normal atmospheric pressure, CO 2 can be either solid or a gas
depending on the temperature. At 1 atm, solid CO 2 is in equilibrium with the gas at -
78.5 °C. As solid CO2 warms above this temperature, it sublimes rather than melts;
hence, the term “dry ice” is used for gaseous CO 2. The triple point of CO2 is -56.7 °C
and 5.11 atm. This means that CO2 cannot be a liquid at pressures less than 5.11 atm.
From the phase diagram, CO2 can be converted to a liquid at 20-25 °C by applying
moderate pressure on the gas. This is how CO2 is regularly shipped to industrial
companies and laboratory. The critical point of CO2 is 31 °C and 73 atm. Once the
critical point is reached, distinct liquid and vapor phases are no longer evident. This
homogenous phase is called supercritical CO 2. A supercritical fluid is a substance that
has a temperature above its critical temperature and a density near its liquid density.

Phase Diagram for CO2

https://socratic.org/questions/how-does-the-water-phase-diagram-differ-from-those-of-most-substances

25
Learning Task 4:
Answer the following questions. Do this in your notebook.
1. What phases of carbon dioxide are shown in the diagram?
2. At what temperature are the three phases of carbon dioxide coexist in equilibrium?
3. When is liquid and gaseous carbon dioxide no longer evident?
4. What is the phase of carbon dioxide when it reached temperature of above -78.5 °C?
5. When is carbon dioxide become a supercritical fluid?

E
Learning Task 5:
Identify the phase of water and carbon dioxide given temperature and
pressure.

WATER

TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PHASE

-8 °C 0.86 atm 1.

22 °C 0.01 atm 2.

100 °C 10 atm 3.

220 °C 1 atm 4.

0 °C 217.75 atm 5.

26
 CARBON DIOXIDE

TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PHASE

-99 °C 75 atm 1.

21.8 °C 1 atm 2.

21.8 °C 65.8 atm 3.

37.5 °C 5.1 atm 4.

-78.5 °C 72.9 atm 5.

Lesson 2:

HEATING AND COOLING CURVES

What happens to the temperature of a block of ice when you put a Bunsen burner
underneath it? You might think that the temperature goes up smoothly, but that's not
what happens. The graph of temperature against time is called a heating curve. Let's
look at the heating curve for water.

Heating Curves
Notice that, in general, the temperature goes up the longer the heating continues.
However, there are two horizontal flat parts (segments BC and DE) to the graph. These
happen when there is a change of
state. The plateaus are also
called phase changes. The first
change of state (segment BC) is
melting (changing from a solid to
a liquid). The temperature stays
the same while a substance
melts. For water, this
temperature is 0°C because the
melting point for water is 0°C.
Over the course of this line
segment, both liquid and solid
exist in various ratios, starting at
100% solid and ending at 100% liquid.
https://d2vlcm61l7u1fs.cloudfront.net/media%2Fa92%2Fa92154b3-7316-4478-9bce-
fe9127c436d5%2FphpVJAQ1h.png

27
 The second change of state (segment DE) is boiling (changing from a liquid to a
gas). The temperature stays the same while a substance boil. For water, this
temperature is 100°C because the boiling point for water is 100°C. Over the course of
this line segment, both liquid and gas exist in various ratios, starting at 100% liquid
and ending at 100% gas. Different substances have different melting points and boiling
points, but the shapes of their heating curves are very similar. For example, this is the
heating curve for iron, a metal that melts at 1538°C and boils at 2861°C.

Learning Task 6:
Refer to the graph of heating curve. Fill in the blanks.
1. As time increases, the temperature _______________.
2. When a solid changes to liquid, the _____________ stays the same.
3. When a substance __________, the temperature stays the same.
4. Alcohol and water have ________________ boiling points and melting points.
5. Water and iron has ________ heating curves.

Different substances have different melting points and boiling points, but the shapes of
their heating curves are very similar. For example, this is the heating curve for iron, a
metal that melts at 1538°C and boils at 2861°C.

https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/drVTDKl94h-
tW0c5jBQsqSTr8aAPmjNKVZeCCt5nqE4gdAESM7ruUmgLo39LgHtBAxLhdl8KfMiDO_HACtYu4MAs4GbdLaPKynUKw7QAvm0PyQ2y99s

Cooling Curves
Heating curves show how the temperature changes as a substance is heated up.
Cooling curves are the opposite. They show how the temperature changes as a
substance is cooled down. Just like heating curves, cooling curves have horizontal flat
parts where the state changes from gas to liquid, or from liquid to solid. These are mirror
images of the heating curve. You will use lauric acid in a school lab to make your own
cooling curve. Lauric acid has a melting point of about 45°C and is easily melted in a
test tube placed in a beaker of hot water. The temperature can be followed using a

28
thermometer or temperature probe connected to a data logger. The liquid may be cooled
by putting the boiling tube in a beaker of cold water or just leaving it in the air.

https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/drVTDKl94h-
tW0c5jBQsqSTr8aAPmjNKVZeCCt5nqE4gdAESM7ruUmgLo39LgHtBAxLhdl8KfMiDO_HACtYu4MAs4GbdLaPKynUKw7QAvm0PyQ2y99s

Energy Changes Since Temperature is a measure of "Average Kinetic Energy", any

change in temperature is a change in Kinetic Energy. All the diagonal line segments on
a heating or cooling curve show a temperature change and therefore a change in kinetic
energy. During these regions, a single state of matter exists, and the sample is either
getting hotter or cooler. During the horizontal line segments, there is no change in
temperature, so kinetic energy remains constant. However, all the energy that is
absorbed or released is related to changes in potential energy. Remember the 3 Ps:
Plateau, Phase change and Potential Energy Change.

A
Learning Task 7:
Write True if the statement is correct, but if it’s false, change the underlined word
or group of words to make the whole statement true.
__________1. The phase of a substance is determined by the balance between the kinetic
energy of its particles and the intermolecular forces of attraction that hold the particles
together.
__________2. A phase diagram shows the state of a substance at a given temperature-
pressure condition.
__________3. The point at which all three phases coexist in equilibrium is critical point.

29
__________4. As the heating continues, the temperature increases.
__________5. All the diagonal line segments on a heating curve only shows a temperature
change and therefore a change in kinetic energy.

Reflection
I understand that
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
I realize that
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

30
 31
Learning Task 7: Learning Task 4: Learning Task 1:
1. True 1. Solid, liquid, gas solid Liquid
2. True 2. -56.6 °C/-56.7 °C liquid Solid
3. Triple Point 3. At critical point gas Liquid
4. True 4. gas liquid Gas
5. Heating and 5. When carbon dioxide solid Gas
cooling curve reached a temperature
above its critical gas Solid
temperature and a
density near its liquid
density. Learning Task 2
1. Show phases at
different temperature and
Learning Task 5: pressure.
WATER 2. To know the
1. Solid temperature at which one
phase exists and changes.
2. Gas
3. To know the
3. Liquid pressure at which one
4. Gas phase exists and changes.
5. Liquid 4. Suggests triple point.
CARBON DIOXIDE 5. Shows critical point.
1. Solid
2. Gas Learning Task 3:
3. Liquid 1. Solid, liquid,
gas/vapor
4. Gas
2. 100 °C
5. Solid
3. Solid
4. 1.00 atm
Learning Task 6:
5. 373.99 °C
1. Increases
2. Temperature
3. Boils, changes
from liquid to
gas.
4. Different
5. Same/ similar
 WEEK

Properties of Solutions, Solubility and the 4

Stoichiometry of Reactions in Solutions
I
n

“Chemistry is the art of dissolving natural bodies, of coagulating the same when
dissolved and of reducing them into salubrious, safe and grateful medicaments.”
- Tyrocinium Chymicum
Solutions are extremely important. Throughout the living world, solutions are necessary
for maintenance and survival. In the human body, nutrients are transported in solution,
while waste products are removed as solutions. In plants, all internal organs are
constantly bathed in moisture; in photosynthesis, a wet surface is required on which
gases can diffuse materials to the body. The atmosphere, oceans, lakes and soils are
examples of solutions. Solutions are around us at all times.
In this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions: percent by mass, mole
fraction, molarity, molality, percent by volume, percent by mass, ppm.
2. Perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution.
3. Describe the effect of concentration on the colligative properties of solution.

D DI
Learning Task 1: Try to recall what you have learned about components of
solution. Identify the solute and the solvent. Do this in your notebook.

Solution Solute Solvent

solid Hydrogen in palladium
solid Mercury and sodium
solid bronze
liquid Hydrochloric acid
liquid wine

gas Naphthalene sublimed in air

liquid 14 karat gold

32
Lesson 1:
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
The concentration of solution is a measure of the amount of solute in each
amount of solvent or solution. One type of solution may be prepared and expressed in
different concentrations. A cup of hot water with one teaspoon of coffee is an altogether
different solution than a cup of water with a few teaspoons of coffee.
Medications are solutions of substances. A 5 ml dose of a certain concentration
of medicine might cure sick person, but a 5 ml dose of a higher concentration might
already be harmful to the person. Therefore, understanding the concept of the
concentration of a solution is a practical aspect of life.
The amount of solute in solution may be expressed in several ways. These include
percentage by mass, volume, mole fraction, molarity, molality, percent by volume,
percent by mass and parts per million, among others.
Percent by Mass, Volume, Mass-Volume
The percent by mass (or percent by weight, % w/w) of a solute in a solution is
given by:
mass of solute
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑥 100
mass of solution
mass of solute
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑥 100
mass of solute + solvent

As the term suggest, the percent by volume (% v/v) of a solution

involves the volume of both the solute and the solution. In mathematical
expression,
volume of solute
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑥 100
volume of solution

Note, however, that in determining the percent by mass or percent by volume expression,
the measurements of the components should be expressed in the same units.
A 10% by volume aqueous solution of HNO3 contains 10 ml of HNO3 in 100 ml
of solution. Take note that volume is not additive. This means that adding 10 ml of
HNO3 and 90 ml of water will not be equal to 100 ml solution. To prepare a 10% by
volume HNO3 solution, place about 60 ml of water in a 100 ml volumetric flask, add 10
ml HNO3, then add more water to fill the flask to its 100ml- mark.

The percent by mass- volume (or percent weight-volume, % w/v) of a solution is

given by
mass of solute in grams
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑥 100
volume of solution in ml

33
 When using density in calculations, keep in mind that it gives the relationship
between the mass of the solution and the volume of the solution. Simply use density as
a conversion factor to obtain either the mass or volume of the solution.
Mole Fraction
The mole fraction of a component in a solution is equal to the number of moles of
that component divided by the total number of moles of all the components present. The
sum of the mole fractions of all components in a solution will always be equal to one.
For example, in a solution of a substance A and B containing moles of A and moles of
B, the mole fractions of A and B would be
number of moles of A
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 =
number of moles of A + number of moles of B

number of moles of B
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 =
number of moles of A + number of moles of B

mole fraction of A + mole fraction of B = 1

Molality (m)

Solutions may also be expressed in molality. The molality of a solution is the number
of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

moles of solute
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
mass of solvent (in kg)

The unit of molality is molal (m). Thus a solution containing one mole of solute A in
one kilogram of a solvent has a concentration of 1 molal A.

Molarity (M)

The molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute per liter of

solution. It is especially useful in doing stoichiometric calculations involving
solutions. The unit of molarity is molar (M). Hence, a 1M solution of A
contains one mole of solute A in every one liter of the solution.

moles of solute mass of solute/ MM of solute

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
volume of solution (L) volume of solution (L)

34
Parts per million (ppm)

Parts per million expresses the number of parts of solute per one million
parts of the solution.

grams of solute
𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
1 x 106 grams solution

The unit is usually used to describe the concentration of relatively small

levels of solute in solution such as contaminants or pollutants. It may be
expressed in other units depending on the given information.

1mg 1mg
1𝑝𝑝𝑚 = =
kg L

To find the ppm equivalence in mg/L, consider one gram of pollutant in soil.

1000mg
1 g pollutant 1 g pollutant x mg pollutant
1𝑔
1𝑝𝑝𝑚 = = = 1
1 x 10 6 g soil sample 1kg 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
1 x 106 g soil sample x
1000𝑔

Lesson 2

SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

The reactants and products in chemical reactions are usually quantified in terms
of their mass or volume. Many reactions occur between solutions, mostly aqueous in
nature, of different substances. Handling calculations involving common solutions may
employ the following important conversion schemes.

https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/image-files/stoichiometry-map.png

Stoichiometric analysis of solutions involves the use of a balanced chemical equation

and can be done through these general steps:
1. Express the given amount substance in moles.

35
 2. Convert the moles of the given substance to the moles of the desired
substance using a stoichiometric factor derived from the balanced chemical
equation.
3. Convert the moles of the sought substance to any other desired units or
expression.
Calculations usually make use of the amount and concentration of the given
solution to determine the number of moles of the solute involved in the
reaction.

Sample Problem:
Calculate the mass (in grams) of calcium nitrate [Ca(NO 3)2] that can be produced by
reacting 136 ml of 4.00 M nitric acid (HNO 3) with excess calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2]. (molar mass of [Ca(NO3)2] = 164.1 g/mol)

Solution:
Write first the balanced equation for the reaction.
2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 → 2H2O + Ca(NO3)2

Follow these two general steps in solving the problem.

Step 1: Use the molarity and volume of the solution to get the number of moles of
HNO3.
Mole HNO3 = (molarity) (volume of solution in L)
= (4.00 M) (0.136 L)
= 0.544 mol

Mole Ca(NO3)2 = 0.544 mol HNO3 x 1 mol Ca(NO3)2

2 mol HNO3
= 0.272 mol

Step 2: Find the mass of Ca(NO3)2 = (0.272 mol) (164.1 g/mol)

= 44.6 g

36
Factor Affecting Solubility
A solute can have different solubilities in different solvents. Solubility is the
maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific
temperature. Different factors can affect solubility.
Nature of Solute and Solvent
The solubility of solutes in solvents is based on the principle “like dissolves like”,
which pertains to the similarity in the polarity of these substances. Ionic and polar
solutes are soluble in polar solvents, while nonpolar solutes are soluble in nonpolar
solvents. Sodium chloride (NaCl, an ionic compound) and sugar (C 12H22O11, a polar
compound) are both soluble in water (a polar solvent). These solutes are insoluble in
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4, a nonpolar solvent). Some nonpolar substances like bromine
(Br2) are slightly miscible (term used for liquid-liquid solution) in polar solvents. The
molecules of these nonpolar substances can be polarized in a polar solvent and is thus
partially miscible in the solvent.
Particle size also affects solubility of solid solutes. Smaller particle size of a solid solute
means there are greater surface areas exposed to the solvent; thus, the solute has higher
solubility.
Stirring the solution also helps to slightly increase the solubility of a solid solute since
this disperses the solvent particles around the solute, allowing the fresh portions of the
solvent to come in contact with the solid.
Temperature
For many solid salts dissolved in liquids, solubility increases with temperature. The
increase in temperature raises the kinetic energy of the solution, allowing the solvent
particles to more effectively break apart the solute particles held together by
intermolecular forces of attractions. There are some substances, however, for which the
solubility remains constant with changes in temperature increases. Solutes that
dissolve endothermally will have increased
solubility when heated, while those that dissolve
exothermally behave otherwise.
The solubility of gas in a liquid has an inverse
relationship with temperature; that is, an increase
(or decrease) in temperature results in a decrease
(or increase) of the solubility of the gas in the liquid.
The high kinetic energy that results from high
temperature enhances the motion of the gas
particles in the solution, which then induces the
breaking of the intermolecular forces between the
gas particles and the solvent, and allows their
escape from the solution. This phenomenon can be
observed when water is heated. Before the boiling
point of water is reached, dissolved oxygen escapes
from the solution in the form of bubbles. As
temperature increases, the solubility of the oxygen
gas in water decreases, so the gas is given off.
https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/52264/soltemp.png?revision=1

37
Pressure
Pressure has an appreciable effect on the solubility of gases in gas-liquid
solutions, but it has no effect on the solubility of solid salts in water. The solubility of a
gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.
This principle is known as Henry’s law, named after its proponent, the British chemist
William Henry (1775-1836)
Consider the carbon dioxide gas dissolved in carbonated drinks. As the beverage
container is closed, the carbon dioxide remains dissolved in the liquid because of
considerable partial pressure of the gas above the liquid. When the bottle is opened, the
pressure is released and the solubility of the gas decreases, escaping out of the liquid
as bubbles.

Lesson 3
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Some properties of solutions depend on the nature of their constituent substances while
others depend solely on the number of the solute particles in the solution. These
quantity-dependent properties are collectively called colligative properties, which
include vapor pressure lowering, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation and
osmotic pressure. Colligative properties are influenced by the extent of dissociation of
the solute in solution.
Solutions that depend on the nature of their components can be classified as electrolytic
or nonelectrolytic. Electrolytes are particles that ionize in a solution; as a result, they
conduct electricity. Nonelectrolytes are those that do not ionize at all in a solution and
thus do not conduct electricity. Electrolytes that can completely ionize in water such as
ionic compounds (e.g. NaCl), strong acids (e.g. HCl) and strong bases (e.g. NaOH) are
referred to as strong electrolytes. Those that only partially ionize in water such as weak
acids (e.g. CH3COOH) and weak bases (e.g. NH4OH) are described as weak electrolytes.
Generally, polar covalent compounds like table sugar dissolve in water as molecules and
not as ions. They are thus described as nonelectrolytes.
Since colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles in solution,
electrolytes have a greater affect on the lowering of vapor pressure and freezing point,
increase in the boiling point an don osmotic pressure. In predicting the behavior of
colligative properties, the solute particles are assumed to have negligible interactions.

Vapor Pressure Lowering

The vapor pressure of a solution with a nonvolatile (can easily evaporate) solute
is always lower than that of the pure solvent. The relationship between the vapor
pressure of the solution and the vapor pressure of the solvent depends on the
concentration of the solute in the solution. This relationship is expressed as Raoult’s
law, which states that the vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution (P solvent) is
equal to the product of the vapor pressure of the pure solvent (P° solvent) and the mole
fraction of the solvent in the solution (x solvent). In expression,
P solvent = x solvent P° solvent

38
For a solution containing only one solute,
x solvent = 1 – x solute
where x solute is the mole fraction of the solute. Manipulating the equation gives
P solvent = (1-x solute) P° solvent
= P° solvent - x solute P° solvent
P° solvent - P solvent = ∆P = x solute P° solvent

The resulting equation suggest that the decrease in vapor pressure (∆P) is directly
proportional to the solute concentration.
Sample problem:
Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution containing 600 g of sugar
(C12H22O11) and 1000 g of water at 25 °C. The P°H2O at 25 °C is 26.33
torr (molar masses= C12H22O11= 342 g/mol, H2O= 18.0 g/mol)
Solution;
Number of moles of C12H22O11 = 600 g x 1 mol C12H22O11 = 1.75 mol
342 g
Number of moles of H2O = 1000 g x 1mol H2O = 55.6 mol
18.0 g
The mole fraction of water in the solution is
mol H2O 55.6 mol
x H 2O = = = 0.969
mol H2O + mol C12H22O11 55.6 mol + 1.75 mol

since sugar is nonvolatile,

P H2O = xH2O P°H2O = (0.969) (23.6 torr) = 22.9 torr

Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation

Depending on what the solvent is, one mole of any nonelectrolyte will lower the
freezing point of a given amount of solvent by a constant amount referred to as the
freezing point depression constant (Kf) also termed cryoscopic constant.
Consider the Kf of water equal to 1.86 °C • kg/mol. If one mol of sugar is dissolved
in one kilogram of water, the freezing point of the solution will be
Freezing point = 0 °C - 1.86 °C
The freezing point depression (∆tf) is related to the molal concentration of a
nonelectrolyte solute by the following equation:
∆tf = tsolution - tpure solvent = -(molality)(Kf)
Similarly, one mole of any nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solute will elevate the boiling point
of a given amount of solvent by a constant factor depending on what the solvent is. The

39
factor is referred to as the molal boiling point elevation constant (Kb), also termed
ebullioscopic constant. The Kb for water is 0.52 °C • kg/mol or 0.52 °C/m. A solution of
one mole of sugar in one kilogram of water will have a boiling point of 100.52 °C.
Boiling point = 100 °C + 0.52 °C = 100.52 °C
The boiling point elevation (∆tb) is related to the molal concentration of a
nonelectrolyte solute by the expression
∆tb = tsolution - tpure solvent = (molality)(Kb)

Sample Problem:
Calculate the freezing point and boiling point and boiling point of a solution containing
4.27 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) and 50.0 g of water, (molar mass of C 12H22O11 = 342
g/mol, Kt of H2O = 1.86 °C/m, Kb of H2O = 0.52 °C/m)
Solution:
moles of C12H22O11 4.27 g C12H22O11 1 mol C12H22O11
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 C12H22O11 = 1𝑘𝑔
𝑥 = 0.250𝑚
mass of H2O in kg 50.0 g H2O( ) 342 g C12H22O11
1000𝑔

∆tf = -(molality)(Kf)
= - (0.250 m) (1.86 °C/m) = -0.464 °C

The freezing point of the solution will be

tsolution = tpure solvent + ∆tf
= 0.00 °C + (-0.464 °C)

∆tb = -(molality)(K)
= (0.250 m) (0.52 °C/m) = 0.13 °C

The boiling point of the solution will be

tsolution = tpure solvent + ∆tb
= 100.00 °C + 0.13 °C = 100.13 °C

Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis is a process through which a solvent flow through a semipermeable
membrane from less concentrated solution to a more concentrated one. A
semipermeable membrane is a selectively porous material: that is, it only allows certain
substances to pass through it. During osmosis involving water, water tends to equalize
the concentration of the solution in both sides of the membrane. It initially passes
through the membrane in both directions at different rates. Once the solution
concentrations achieve equilibrium, the rate of osmosis across the membrane from
opposite sides become equal.

40
 Osmotic Pressure is the amount of pressure required to stop osmosis. Two
solutions having the same osmotic pressure are said to be isotonic. Solution with higher
osmotic pressure is hypertonic and solution with lower osmotic pressure is hypotonic.

E
Learning Task 2:
An alloy is prepared by mixing 60g copper and 70g zinc. Find the percentage by mass
of copper and zinc.
Learning Task 3:
How many liters of ammonia (NH3) are contained in 800 ml of a solution that is
12% ammonia by volume?
Learning Task 4:
Express the concentration of solution in % w/v containing 12 g sodium chloride
and 50 ml of water.
Learning Task 5:
What is the mole fraction of sodium chloride and water in a solution, prepared
by mixing 256 g of sodium chloride and 176 g water? (Na=23g/mol Cl= 35g/mol
H=1g/mol O=16g/mol)?

Learning Task 6:
An acid solution contains 18 kg of water and pure hydrochloric acid (HCl). Its
concentration is 0.60 mol/kg of solvent. Compute for the number of moles of solute
contained in the solution.

Learning Task 7:
What is the molarity of a 10 L solution that contains 3.5 moles of potassium
chloride solution?
Learning Task 8:
How many liters of 0.55 M HCl is required to neutralize 1.10 g of sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3)? (molar mass of Na2CO3 = 105.99 g/mol)
2HCl + Na2CO3 → 2NaCl + H2CO3

41
 A

Learning Task 9:
Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. Which of the following depends directly on the number of solute particles
in a solution rather than on their identity?
a. colligative c. dissolution
b. dilution d. mixture
2. Which is the mathematical definition of molality?
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
a. c.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
b. d.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

3. Adding salt to water will make the freezing point of the resulting solution
____________ 0°C
a. Equal to c. lower than
b. Higher than d. greater than or equal to
4. As the temperature increases, the solubility of a gas in a carbonated drink
____________________.
a. decreases c. stays the same
b. increases d. decreases then increases
5. Which of the following is not a colligative property?
a. electronegativity c. osmotic pressure
b. freezing point depression d. vapor pressure depression

Reflection
I understand that
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
I realize that
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

42
 43
Learning Task 1;
Learning Task 7: Solute Solvent
Molarity = 0.35 M Hydrogen palladium
mercury sodium
Learning Task 8:
tin copper
volume = 0.038 L
HCl gas water
Ethyl water
alcohol
Learning Task 9:
1. a naphthale air
ne
2. c
3. c 10 parts 14 parts gold
copper
4. b
5. a
Learning Task 2:
% mass copper= 66.67% %
mass zinc= 33.33%
Learning Task 3:
volume of ammonia= 0.10 L
Learning Task 4:
% mass-volume= 24 %
Learning Task 5:
mole fraction NaCl= 0.31
mole fraction H2O= 0.69
Learning Task 6:
no. of moles HCl= 10.8 mol
Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D. “What Is a Molecular Solid?” ThoughtCo. Accessed February
6, 2021. https://www.thoughtco.com/molecular-solid-definition-and-examples-608341.
Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D. “What Is a Network Solid?” ThoughtCo. Accessed February 6,
2021. https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-network-solid-605396.
Bayquen, Aristea V., and Gardee T. Peña. Exploring Life Through Science Series: General
Chemistry 2. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, 2016.
Bayquen, Aristea V. Chemistry: Exploring Life through Science. 2nd ed. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, 2011.
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009.
“How to Make Crystals: 5 Ways to Grow Crystals at Home: HST.” Home Science Tools, April
16, 2020. https://learning-center.homesciencetools.com/article/crystal-growing-
science/#rockcandy.
Libretexts. “12.7: Types of Crystalline Solids- Molecular, Ionic, and Atomic.”
http://chem.libretexts.org/. Libretexts, June 10, 2020.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/College_of_Marin/CHEM_114%3A_Introductory_Ch
emistry/12%3A_Liquids%2C_Solids%2C_and_Intermolecular_Forces/12.07%3A_Types_of
_Crystalline_Solids-_Molecular%2C_Ionic%2C_and_Atomic.
“Physical Properties.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed
February 6, 2021. https://www.britannica.com/science/water/Physical-properties.
“Solid.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. Accessed February 6, 2021.
https://www.britannica.com/science/solid-state-of-matter.
“Traveling Water: Experiments: Steve Spangler Science.” The Lab, March 16, 2020.
https://www.stevespanglerscience.com/lab/experiments/traveling-water-sick-science/.

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