English Phonetics and Phonology I – I.E.S.

“Aguilares”– Ricardo Javier Palma

CONSONANT SOUNDS

A) DEFINING A CONSONANT SOUND

Difference between consonant and vowel sounds:

A preliminary and traditional definition states that consonants are sounds which require, for their
production, a certain type of obstruction of the airflow in some part of the vocal tract (from the larynx
to the lips). In contrast, vowels, according to Finch and Ortiz Lira(1982), are sounds ‘in the production
of which the airstream comes out through the mouth (or mouth and nose) centrally over the tongue,
and meets a stricture of open approximation.’ This is evidently an articulatory and phonetic definition,
but it poses certain problems when trying to apply this condition to most consonant sounds.

B) DESCRIPTION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS

According to Gimson(1994), the following questions come to our aid when trying to describe consonant
sounds:
1) Is the airstream set in motion by the lungs or by some other means? (pulmonic or non-pulmonic)
2) Is the airstream forced outwards or such inwards? (egressive or ingressive)
3) Do the vocal folds vibrate or not? (voiced or voiceless)
4) Is the soft palate raised, directing the airstream wholly through the mouth, or lowered, allowing
the passage of air through the nose? (oral, or nasal or nasalized)
5) At what point or points and between what organs does the closure or narrowing take place?
(place of articulation)
6) What is the type of closure or narrowing at the point of articulation? (manner of articulation)
Denes and Pinson(1963) approach the production of consonant sounds from an acoustic perspective.
According to them, ‘we see, then, that airflow from the lungs provides the energy for speech wave
production, that the vocal cords convert this energy into an audible buzz and that the tongue, lips
palate, etc. – by altering the shape of the vocal tract – transform the buzz into distinguishable speech
sounds.’
A detailed classification:
Consonant sounds can be classified according to:
 Voicing / Voice / Phonation:
This category is closely related to the action of the vocal cords during the process of consonant production. A
two-fold classification terms consonant sounds either as voiced (vocal cord vibration) or voiceless (absence
of vocal cord vibration). Consonants suffer different changes that may affect their voicing in certain
phonological contexts, where a devoiced or half-voiced allophone may be produced.
For example:
“On the very red carpet. Live on the air.” (heard from E!)
“Teachers use authentic texts to teach from.”  (87. Kelly) (twice)

 Place / Point of Articulation:

In order to produce the obstruction of the airstream, the articulators in the vocal tract (either the tongue,
palate, lips or even the vocal cords) are set in motion and thus bring about audibility and definition to the
initial mass of air coming from the lungs. In this process, the knowledge of the parts in which each
articulator is divided is crucial to understand the articulatory possibilities for consonant production. As
Kelly(2000) adds, ‘describing the consonant sounds in terms of the place of articulation gives more
information about what the various articulators actually do.’ We can classify the articulators involved in the
sound-making process in two groups: a) active articulators are those who are capable of moving (mobile
elements include the tongue, the lips, the vocal cords, etc.); and b) passive articulators are those who stay in
a fixed position or incapable of moving (here we can mention the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, etc.)
The following classification for consonants is based on an articulatory journey from the lips to the glottis
(adapted from Kelly:2000):
a) Read the following examples and guess which sounds are being produced:

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 English Phonetics and Phonology I – I.E.S. “Aguilares”– Ricardo Javier Palma

The price for the imperial palace was expensive. The bag with the money was brought by a bold beggar who
made his magnificent entrance on a mysterious Mule and many Mongolian monkeys.

 “Put your lips together. Try to breathe out, but don’t let the air escape. Release the air suddenly. Don’t
use you voice. Try again and add your voice.” The resulting sounds are / p / and / b /. “Put your lips
together. Use your voice, and let the air escape through your nose.” The resulting sound is / m /. The
place of articulation for these sounds is bilabial. Other authors called them labial sounds.
b) Read the following examples and guess which sounds are being produced:
A Flea and a Fly Said the flea, "Let us fly!"
A flea and a fly Said the fly, "Let us flee!"
Flew up in a flue. So they flew through a flap in the flue.

Vera invited some friends and when they arrived they gave her some videos which were very violent.
 “Touch your top teeth with your bottom lips, and breathe out. Don’t use your voice. Hold the sound, and
add your voice.” The articulators used are the upper teeth and the lower lip. The resulting sounds are / f
/and / v /, and their place of articulation is called labiodental.
c) Write down the missing words which are dictated and guess which sounds are being produced:
Ethan was enthusiastic about many things he thought he needed in his bath. His father and mother took him
to the mall, where he also bought some smooth leather clothes for his other brothers.
 “Put the front of your tongue against the back of your top teeth. Let the air pass through as you breathe
out. Don’t use your voice. Hold the sound, and add your voice.” The point of articulation of the resulting
sounds, / θ /and / ð /, is dental.
d) Complete the missing elements in the following bingo and guess which sounds are being produced with a
frequent repetition:
Thomas visited the river Thames at that time. Daniel had died in dreary December. Nathan spent nine
months in the north of Nottingham. Sarah suffered from a severe illness while she stayed in Sussex. Lizzie is
a busy businesswoman in an advertising agency. Lawrence learned the local language very late in his life.
 The following area is very productive. For example, “put your tongue against the hard bump behind your
teeth. Try to breathe out, but don’t let the air escape. Release the air suddenly. Don’t use your voice. Try
again, and add your voice.” The resulting sounds are / t / and / d /. Now “put the front of your tongue
lightly against the bump behind your teeth. Let the air pass through as you breathe out. Don’t use your
voice. Hold the sound, and add your voice.” The sounds produced are / s / and / z /. The following
sounds require further adjustments. “Put the front of your tongue against the bump behind your teeth.
Use your voice, and let the air escape through your nose.” The sound is / n /. For the last sound
produced in this area, / l /, “Put the front of your tongue against the roof of your mouth. Use your voice,
and let the air pass out of your mouth.” All of these sounds are said to have an alveolar articulation.
e) Read the following examples and guess which sounds are being produced:
Are you sure Sheila showed sheer pleasure in watching television as a leisure activity?
Shy Shelly says she shall sew sheets shortly. Was that a mirage or casual vision?
Jolly juggling jesters jauntily juggled jingling jacks. A rich Chinese merchant purchased eye-catching
pictures from the chief. Robert rented a radio and then rang Rita for a romantic date with red wine and red
roses.
 “Put the front of your tongue against the bump behind your teeth. Let the air pass through as you breathe
out, making an / s / sound. Now move your tongue slightly back. Don’t use your voice. Hold the sound,
and add your voice.” The sounds produced are / ʃ / and / Ʒ /. Place the tongue in the position for / t /.

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 English Phonetics and Phonology I – I.E.S. “Aguilares”– Ricardo Javier Palma

Hold the air for little time and then release it with friction, as in / ʃ /. Now add your voice during the
whole process. The resulting sounds are / ʧ / and / ʤ /. Taking into account the part of the mouth
involved we call these sounds palatoalveolar.
 “Put the front of your tongue towards the roof of your mouth. Use your voice.” Don’t make any contact
between the articulators. The sound produced is / r /. For some authors, this sounds shares the
palatoalveolar articulation. For others, they are considered postalveolar.
f) Read the following examples and guess which sounds are being produced:
If you’re young, value your youth and use your time in useful occupations.

 Make the sound / iː /, followed by the sound / uː /. Now put them together, and keep the sound
short.” The resulting sound is / j /. The point of articulation of this sound is palatal.
g) Complete the following advertisements and guess which sounds are being produced:
Wonderful wedding cakes, swell sandwiches, Aunt Wendy’s
Kent Carter, Credit Card Company Consultant.
Give your granny the greatest gift she can get. Biggert glasses!
Singing songs long forgotten, hanging out during spring evenings. Raving drinks.
 “Put the back of your tongue against (the soft bit of) the roof of your mouth. Try to breathe out, but don’t
let the air escape. Release the air suddenly. Don’t use your voice. Try again, and add your voice.” The
resulting sounds are / k / and / g /. For the next sound, / ŋ /, “Put the back of your tongue against the
roof of your mouth. Use your voice, and let the air escape through your nose.” “Make the sound / uː /,
followed by the sound / iː /. Now put them together, and keep the sound short.” Round the lips during
the whole process. We call this sound / w /. These are the last sounds which are still observable and
they are called velar sounds.
h) Complete the following news report and guess which sounds are being produced:
Hunter Hall was hitch-hiking when he hit upon one hundred pounds in a heavy hat beside the highway.
Apparently, it was hidden behind a horse fence and had been placed there by a lucky hare hunter who had
high hopes that it would not be found.
 “Open your mouth and breathe out. Don’t use your voice, but try to make a noise.” Try to feel that the air
comes directly from the vocal cords. The resulting sound is / h / and the point of articulation is glottal.
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 Manner of Articulation:
When we consider the type of obstruction which the speech organs produce, we talk about the manner of
articulation of consonants. It is thus a relevant feature for the description of consonants. It is mainly an
articulatory approach which we can generally perceive, though we are not totally aware of its production.
The typical obstruction types in the vocal tract for consonant production may include a stricture of complete
blockage (for instance when we pronounce / t / or / p /), a partial closure (/ n / is an example of this), a
narrowing (as in / s / and / ʃ /) or a sort of narrowing without friction (/ j / and / r /, for example).

i) Consider the following text: (Situational Dialogues. Ex. 16 [ii], page 32) Write the missing letters
above each gap.
A: I’ve / /een / /ol/ / you migh/ / have a vacan/ / room.
B: Yes, I’ve go/ / a s/ /are sin/ /le.

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 English Phonetics and Phonology I – I.E.S. “Aguilares”– Ricardo Javier Palma

A: Wha/ / are your / /erms?

B: Thir/ /y seven / /oun/ /s for / /e/ / an/ / / /rea/ /fas/ /.
A: / /oul/ / I have a loo/ / a/ / the room, / /lease?
B: I/ /’s a bi/ / aw/ /war/ / jus/ / now. / /oul/ / you / /ome / /omorrow?

 Plosive Sounds:
Producing a plosive sound implies a stricture of complete closure in a part of the mouth, that is, the air is
stopped completely. According to different authors we may have three or four stages or phases when we
produce a plosive sound. We will consider only three:
- First Phase (Closure, or Closing Stage): Both the active and the passive articulators approach and
block the outcoming flow of air altogether.
- Second Phase (Stop or Compression Stage): Air is compressed behind the blockage because of air
pressure from the lungs. This stage may be produced with vibration of the vocal cords or without it.
- Third Phase (Release Stage): The air is released suddenly with an explosion (thus plosive), once the
articulators part rapidly.
The plosive sounds in English form pairs with a voicing distinction (voiced versus voiceless) in accordance
with their place of articulation. Thus, we can find plosive bilabials (/ p / and / b /), plosive alveolars (/ t
/ and / d /) and plosive velars (/ k / and / g /). With voiceless plosives, in particular, an aspirated
allophone is used when they are followed immediately by a vowel in stressed position and not preceded by /
s /(for instance in pʰiːtə]/ p /[ pʰ  )

j) Listen to the following song: (Internet)  (twice)

Artist: ROBBIE WILLIAMS

Title: No Regrets

Tell me a story Mine to give away No regrets now / they only hurt
Where we all change Couldn't stay to watch me cry Sing me a love song
And we'd live our lives together You didn't have the time Drop me a line
And not enstranged So I softly slip away... Suppose it's just a point of view
But they tell me I'm doing fine
I didn't lose my mind it was No regrets / they don't work

j.1) Compare the underlined words from the song and answer the following questions:
a) Are they produced in the same way?
b) How would you describe the process by which you pronounce them?
 Fricative sounds:
The stricture caused by fricative sounds is one of close approximation. It means that the articulators
approach each other, leaving a sufficiently narrow gap which produces a turbulence of air, called friction.
We can think of two stages in the production of fricative sounds:
- First Phase (Approximation Stage): Both the active and the passive articulators approach and are
held close to each other.
- Second Phase (Friction Stage): The noise component is audible, since the air pressure from the lungs
attempts to escape through this passage. This stage may be produced with vibration of the vocal cords
or without it.
This manner of articulation is quite extensive. It contains different fricative sounds with points of articulation
which cover most of the vocal tract with a voiced / voiceless distinction; therefore, we can find the fricative
labiodentals (/ f / and / v /), fricative dentals (/ θ / and / ð /), fricative alveolars (/ s / and / z /),
fricative palatoalveolars (/ ʃ / and / Ʒ /) and the fricative glottal (/ h /).
 Affricate sounds:
The close set of affricate sounds involves both a double articulation and a double manner. The stricture
produced is of complete closure and restricted opening.

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 English Phonetics and Phonology I – I.E.S. “Aguilares”– Ricardo Javier Palma

We may consider three stages to produce an affricate sound:

- First Phase (Closure, or Closing Stage): Both the active and the passive articulators approach and
block the outcoming flow of air altogether.
- Second Phase (Stop or Compression Stage): Air is compressed behind the blockage because of air
pressure from the lungs. This stage may be produced with vibration of the vocal cords or without it.
- Third Phase (Friction Stage): The air is released slowly in a fricative manner.
The most typical affricate sounds of the English language include / ʧ /and / ʤ /. However, for some
authors (Finch and Ortiz Lira, Roach) / ts / and / dz /, / dr / and / tr / can be placed under this
classification.
k) Practise the following tongue twister:

Leaping lizards like to lick lovely lemon lollipops for lunch.

k.1) Compare the underlined sounds from the rhyme and answer the following questions:
a) Are they produced in the same way?
b) Where is the tongue place when you pronounce them?
c) How does the air go out of the mouth? Is plosion or friction involved?
 Lateral sounds:
The active articulator (the tongue) comes into contact with the palate or alveolar ridge, but the sides of the
tongue are left suspended, so the air comes out through one or both sides of the tongue. This articulatory
movement is evident when it is initial in the syllable or between vowel sounds. It contains a retracted
allophone called dark “l”, whose articulation involves the retraction of the tongue and an approximation
towards the velum. This “dark” allophone is produced when it is followed by a consonant or in final position
in the utterance. These sounds are also called liquids.

l) Listen to the following poem and correct the underlined words:

The Ballad of Reading Gaol

By Oscar Wilde

I know not whether laws be right,
Or whether laws be wrong.
All that we know who lie in gaol,
Is that the wall is strong;
And that each day is like a year,
A year whose days are long.
The vilest deeds like poison weeds,
Bloom well in prison air;
It is only what is good in man
That wastes and withers there;
Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate,
And the warder is Despair.

l.1) Compare the underlined sounds from the poem and answer the following questions:
a) Are they produced in the same way?
b) Is the tongue involved in their production? How?
c) How does the air go out of the mouth? Is plosion or friction involved?
 Nasal sounds:
They are mainly produced by lowering the soft palate or velum, so that the air finds its way out through the
nasal cavity. This process is accompanied by a stricture of complete closure in some part of the mouth
(bilabial, alveolar or nasal regions), (Note that all nasal sounds have a voiced articulation).
 Approximant sounds and semivowels
For the production of these consonants, the stricture is not narrow enough to produce friction, or complete
enough to produce a total blockage of the airstream. Some authors (O’Connor:1991) may also classify them

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 English Phonetics and Phonology I – I.E.S. “Aguilares”– Ricardo Javier Palma

as frictionless continuant sounds (vowel-like and voiced). They may have a fricative allophone when
preceded by / p // t // k /, as in price, twice, cure, with a slight devoicing.
 Lenis / Fortis opposition
O’Connor defines this opposition as follows, “… the lungs may push air more vigorously or less vigorously
for a particular sound. For example, at least part of the difference between the final sounds in bus and buzz is
due to the fact that the lungs push harder for the s that for the z. Sounds with greater pressure are fortis
sounds, and those with less are lenis.”
The lenis / fortis dual distinction applies to plosives, fricatives and affricates only.
Exercise (5): LCO

C) ENGLISH AND SPANISH CONSONANTS (extracted from Finch and Ortiz Lira)

 The distributional table of the English consonant phonemes shows only eight empty slots,
out of a total of seventy-eight. (Initial / Ʒ / can be found in just a few loan words, e.g. gigolo, genre.)
Exercise (6): LCO

INITIAL MEDIAL FINAL INITIAL MEDIAL FINAL

Pin Upper Top Those Father Soothe
Buy Rubber Rib Same Pussy Miss
Tea Butter Boot Zoo Reason Choose
Desk Lady Word Sure Ocean Rush
Come Echo Weak Vision Rouge
Guest Again Rug Horse Ahead
Cheese Richer Much Must Hammer Some
Joy Region Charge Nail Dinner Thin
Tree Extra Hanger Longer
Drive Address Look Allow Fall
Fancy Affect Laugh Red Very
Voice River Live Wet Away
Think Earthy Faith Yet Beyond

 A confrontation of the structure of the English and Spanish syllable reveals important
differences:
a) The simplest syllable structure in both English and Spanish is V (i.e. one vowel by itself), but whereas
the English syllable may take up to three consonants before the vowel, and up to four after it, Spanish can
only take two consonants before, and one – exceptionally two – after. This can be expressed as follows:
English syllable: (CCC)V (CCCC) - e.g. spray, texts
Spanish syllable: (CC) V (CC) - e.g. trans-cri-bir
b) Whereas in English there is a predominance of closed syllables – i.e. those ending in C – 60%,
Spanish strongly favours open syllables – i.e. those ending in V – 72%.
c) The number of possibilities of consonant clusters in word initial and final positions in the two
languages is:
CCV- CCCV- -VCC -VCCC -VCCCC
English 20 3 96 173 62
Spanish 12 0 0 0 0