SOEE5171

Seismic Reflection Interpretation

Interpretation Procedures
1.1 Philosophy
The major objective of seismic interpretation is to produce a sub-surface geological map.
This is best achieved by the use, integration and correct application of all available data.

One should try to achieve the most reasonable sub-surface interpretation based on the
limited data that is available that is consistent with all the seismic and well-log
information as well as other geophysical data (e.g. gravity), together with structural and
sedimentological models of the region/sequences.

Only one interpretation is wanted which offers the greatest possibilities for significant
hydrocarbon accumulation (ie optimistic) but at the same time is consistent with all the
data. Better to induce further work - the ultimate sin is to give another company a
prospect due to pessimism!

To undertake such an interpretation need:

• An understanding of local structural style; basic principles of structural geology,
petroleum geology, stratigraphy and sedimentology.
• The application of the correct mapping techniques undertaken with 'optimistic
imagination'.
• Accurate correlations of formation tops or unconformities
• Integration of faults with the geological structure
• Interpretative rather than mechanical contouring of the data points

There is sometimes a divide between interpretation for structure (reflection time) and
stratigraphy (seismic stratigraphy).

2.1 Types of Maps

• Geological structure, Fault or Salt maps contouring elevation below a specified
datum.
• Interval Isopach maps contouring the thickness of a geological interval.
Isochore = Vertical thickness of the interval
Isopach = True stratigraphic thickness
• Per-centage sand
• Net Pay Isopach contouring the thickness of the pay zone

3.1 Indentification of reflections - data validation

What do the reflections represent? Different pulse shapes and amplitudes dependent on
the properties of the interface and the surrounding layers (tuning and interference).

Interpret – a) Stratigraphic tops of formations, b) Significant acoustic impedance changes

(easily identifiable reflections that cross the whole region of study), c) Target horizon.

Correlation with borehole information or pick sequence boundaries.

Might need to phantom pick a particular horizon of interest as does not produce a
mapable reflection.

3.2 Initial Procedures

Before start interpretation need to
• study base map for survey line orientations; dip and strike lines (2D), in-lines and
cross-lines (3D)
• have some understanding of structural style

1 MSc Seismic Interpretation, University of Leeds, SOEE5171 - G.W.Stuart

 • organise seismic lines in terms of dip and strike lines (or at the very least in terms of
orientation)
• overview the whole of the data and understand roughly the structure before starting
interpretation
• start interpretation with dip lines and lines through boreholes.

4.1 Tying around Loops

Methodical tying of reflectors and faults around loops (both 2D and 3D) of seismic
survey lines is a powerful check on accurate mapping and is the method by which
horizons are mapped away from areas of well control.

Jump correlate data from one line to the next at the tie-point and across faults. Search
for loops of seismic data that have a tying path that crosses as few faults as possible for
best correlation, especially when dealing with syn-depositional faults.

4.2 Mis-ties between 2D lines or two 3D surveys of different vintages

Can be divided into:
• Static mis-ties - constant bulk shift of seismic at tie point for a match
• Dynamic mis-ties - mis-tie varies with TWT eg increasing mist-tie with dip also
known as migration mis-ties.

Need to keep track of mis-ties; normally take misties relative to a base line - a seismic
line from which all the mis-ties are measured relative to should :
• cross as many of the other lines as possible
• be as close to a dip line as possible
• be the best quality data for interpretation

Static Mis-ties
Cause a bulk shift of TWT's on intersecting lines. Best determined in low dip areas to
eliminate migration misties.

Causes of static mis-ties are:

• Navigation or surveying errors - (in marine data use water depth to check)
• Polarity conventions - reverse polarity between different vintage lines
• Processing Problems - (eg stacking velocities, static corrections, NMO stretch due to
different mute patterns, wavelet shape ie min. or zero phase) the major cause of mis-
ties
• Diffraction effects near faults

Unmigrated seismic lines should always tie; so mis-ties on these lines are of the static
variety.

Dynamic Mis-ties
Problem with migrated data. Shallow low dip events will tie reasonably; mis-ties
increase with dip and TWT.
Dip lines appear too deep relative to strike lines at the tie-points since dipping events
have been steepened and moved up dip to their correct geographic position on the base-
map by the migration process.

Problem can be handled in two ways:

• Use strike lines only to tie events among the dip lines; map only the dip lines -
wasteful on information held in the dip lines.
• Explicitly correct strike line data by moving the data to their proper position on the
basemap. This can be accomplished graphically eg move strike lines up-dip on the
intersecting dip lines until they tie and plot the strike line information at the tie location
on the basemap. Note that this correction will vary with dip and TWT.
Ref O'Brien, C. (1989) Pragmatic migration: A method for interpreting a grid of 2-D
migrated seismic data in 'SEG Seismic Interpretation Series', vol 1, 37-42 and in
Leading Edge, 7, no2, 24-29.

5.1 Digitisation and Map Posting

2 MSc Seismic Interpretation, University of Leeds, SOEE5171 - G.W.Stuart

 The horizontal distance between CMP / TWT digitisation points should be such that linear
interpolation is valid.
Position of fault cuts should be noted.

TWT's need posting on base map (2D). Before contouring all faults are best marked on
the map and some decision on how they are joined made.

6.1 Contouring
Rules of Contouring
• a contour line cannot cross itself or any other contour except under special
circumstances
• a contour line cannot merge with a contour of the same value or different value.
Contours may appear to merge or even cross when mapping an overhang.
• a contour must pass between points whose values are lower and higher than its own
value
• a contour line of a given value is repeated to indicate change of slope
• a contour line of a continuous surface must close within a mapped area or at the
edge of the map
(After Tearpock & Bischke, 1991)

Contour maps should always have:

• a reference datum that is stated on the map
• a constant contour interval - about twice the limit-of-trivia (Tucker, 1988) ie contours
are smoothed versions of the actual data values
• a graphic scale (so the map can be reproduced with the scale)
• every 5th contour should be wider and labelled - known as the index contours
• hachered lines should be used to indicate closed highs and depression

Methods of Contouring

Mechanical Contouring
• assume the slope or angle of dip of the surface being contoured is uniform between
points of control and any change occurs at the control points. Spacing of contours is
made by mathematically proportioning the distance between adjacent control points
(triangulation)
• not recommended as map is probably geologically unreasonable in areas of sparse
control
• objective technique used in litigations

Parallel Contouring
• contour lines are drawn parallel or nearly parallel to each other.
• may yield inrealistic geological structures - highs appear 'bubble-shaped' - used to
contour flow structures.
• generally thought to be a more realistic technique than mechanical contouring

Equal-spaced Contouring
• assumes uniform slope or angle of dip over an entire area or at least on the flank of a
structure (special version of parallel contouring)
• may result in highs and lows or undulations that are not based on established points
of control but the result of a constant contour interval - this may be an advantage as
indicates maximum number of highs and lows. Used to contour topographic folding
(Tucker, 1988)

Interpretative Contouring
• use of above techniques with geological license to map while honouring the available
control points
• most acceptable technique, but subjective

Ref: Tucker, P.M. (1988) Seismic contouring: A unique skill. Geophysics, 53, 741-749

3 MSc Seismic Interpretation, University of Leeds, SOEE5171 - G.W.Stuart

 Care must be taken interpreting computer drawn contour plots. What are the
mathematical assumptions behind the contouring routine? Cannot incorporate geological
knowledge which by its nature is subjective. (see Anstey (1977) p585-596)

7.1 Seismic Interpretation Report

Typical report will include most of the following sections
• An introduction describing the aims of the interpretation
• A description of the data used with notes on acquisition and processing parameters;
details of mis-ties
• A description of the geological and structural framework of the area with relevant
diagrams
• A section describing ties between wells and seismic sections including a list of tops.
• A section on the selection of marker horizons which have been mapped. It is usual
to present a sample sections to illustrate typical structural features and reflector
quality.
• A detailed description of the interpretation for each horizon mapped.
• A description of main prospective structures. Cross-sections through structures.
• Recommendations for further work - more seismics, drilling. If drilling recommended
produce a drilling prognosis (estimated depths to horizons)
• Summary and conclusions of the work undertaken

References
Anstey, N.A., (1977) Seismic Interpretation: The Physical Aspects IHRDC Publications,
Boston, USA
Badley, M.A., (1985) Practical Seismic Interpretation Reidl Publ.
Coffeen, J.A. (1984) Interpreting seismic data work book Pennwell.
McQuillan, R., Bacon, M. and Barclay W. (1984) An Introduction to Seismic
Interpretation Graham and Trotam.
Sheriff, R. (1982) Stuctural Interpretation of Seismic Data AAPG Education Course 23
Sheriff, R. and Geldart, L. (1993) Exploration Seismology 2nd Edn Cambridge
University Press.
Tearpock, D.J. and Bischke, R.E. (1991) Applied Subsurface Geological Mapping
Prentice-Hall

4 MSc Seismic Interpretation, University of Leeds, SOEE5171 - G.W.Stuart