TRANS UNIT 13: DEVELOPMENT, HEREDITARY, AND AGING

OUTLINE
I Prenatal Development uterus and going to uterine tube where oocyte is
A Fertilization
located.
B Early Cell Division
C Blastocyst The sperm will try to penetrate the cumulus cells of
D Implantation of Blastocyst and Development of Placenta oocyte with the enzyme present in the head of sperm
E Maternal Hormonal Changes cell. As one of the sperm cell enter the oocyte, it will
F Formation of the Germ Layers form a protective layer around it preventing other
G Neural Tube and Neural Crest Formation sperm from getting towards the nucleus of oocyte.
H Formation of General Body Structures Capacitation - makes the sperm cells capable of
I Development of Organ Systems
J Growth of the Fetus
fertilization by releasing the concentrated enzymes
contained in the acrosome, a region of the sperm cell
II Parturition head
III The New-born Secondary Oocyte – where enzymes digest a pathway
A Early Cell Division through the cumulus cells and the zona pellucida; able
B Blastocyst to fertilize up to 1 day after ovulation; hundreds of
IV Lactation sperm cell can reach but only 1 can enter
V First Year Following Birth
VI Life Stages
Zygote – fusion of oocyte and sperm cells that have 23
A Life Stages chromosomes each; develops into an embryo and has
B Aging Process 46 chromosomes.
C Death 2 haploid cells fusing together to form a diploid cell that
VII Genetics will contain 46 chromosomes.
A Chromosome
B Genes

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal Period – period of conception to birth; divided
in 3 parts.
First 2 weeks – formation of primitive germ
cell layers
2nd to 8th week – formation of major organ
systems
Last 7 months – organ system become
mature
Embryo – developing human between fertilization and
8 weeks of development; conceptus of less than 8
weeks of age; where organogenesis occurs
Fetus – developing human from 8th week to birth;
conceptus of greater than or equal 8 weeks of age;
organs are already developed and continuously
growing
Methods to determine the age of an unborn child:
Clinical stage – uses mother’s Last Menstrual
Period (LMP), considered to be a certain
number of days post-LMP
Developmental Stage – begins with
fertilization to describe timings of event; 14
days less than clinical stage because
fertilization occurs 14 days post-LMP
FERTILIZATION
Union of sperm cell and oocyte with chromosomes to
produce an individual
Process of sperm penetrating the oocyte fusing
together to form a zygote.
Sperm cells through semen are delivered towards the
vagina, and travels towards the vaginal canal going to
Figure 1. Fertilization
EARLY CELL DIVISION
18–36 hours after fertilization, the zygote divides by
mitosis; Day 1 = 2 cells divide to form Day 2= 4 cells,
which divide to form 8, and so on. Number of cells
increases, but the size of each cell decreases, so the
total mass of cells remains about the same size as the
zygote
Total number of cells can increase, decrease or
reorganized without affecting normal development
Monozygotic twins (identical)– where cells separates
and forms 2 individual; have identical gene information;
can occur a little later in the development
Dizygotic twins (fraternal) – when a woman ovulate 2
or more secondary oocyte fertilized by different sperm
cells
BLASTOCYST
Morula - embryonic mass of about 12–16 cells after
multiple cell division; mostly don’t form embryo proper
but will form support structures, such as the placenta
Blastocyst – cavity within the mass of the cell; has 2
parts:

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 TRANS UNIT 13: DEVELOPEMENT, AGING, AND HEREDITY
Trophoblast – remaining cell of blastocyst; forms
the embryonic part of placenta and membranes
(chorion & amnion) surrounding the embryo
Inner cell mass – thickened area of blastocyst
Blastocele – space in between trophoblast and inner
cell mass; fluid-filled cavity; mostly surrounded by
single layer of cells, at one end of blastocyst, cells are
several layers thick
Stem cells – developed from few cells of inner cell
mass; give rise to all cell types within the body
IMPLANTATION OF BLASTOCYST AND
DEVELOPMENT OF PLACENTA
Occur as the embryonic mass moves from the site of
fertilization in the uterine tube to the site of implantation
in uterus
Endometrium of uterus is prepared for implantation 7
or 8 days after ovulation, when secondary oocyte is
released from ovary.
7 days after, blastocyst attaches to uterine wall and
begins implantation
Trophoblast digest the uterine tissues as the blastocyst
burrows into the uterine wall
First few days of development, each cell has enough
yolk to supply its own energy needs and requires few
external nutrients
First couple of weeks of development, large numbers
of cells can die, but the embryo can fully recover.
Chorion – trophoblast cells form the embryonic portion
of placenta; will become placenta after developing that
will serve as nourishment for the developing embryo
Placenta – organ of nutrient and waste product
exchange of mother and embryo; facilitates
communication between the mother and the infant
Chorionic villi – finger like projections formed within
maternal endometrium protruding into cavities
Lacunae – cavities filled with maternal blood
Embryonic capillary wall – basement membrane, thin
layer of chorion separating embryonic and maternal
blood supply in mature placenta
Umbilical cord – connecting stalk attaching the embryo
to placenta; within it, blood vessels carry blood from
embryo to placenta and vice versa
No direct contact of embryonic and maternal blood
Endometrial side of placenta - Maternal Arteriole and
Maternal Ventrioles
Blood from maternal arteriole are present in lacuna,
there will be exchange of oxygen and nutrients from
maternal blood to the fetal circulation which will be
delivered by umbilical vein; it will be delivered towards
the fetus;
As the fetus uses of oxygen and nutrients, umbilical
arteries will deliver it back to the lacuna
In lacuna, carbon dioxide and waste products will be
diffused towards the maternal venule to go back in the
maternal circulation
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The exchange of oxygen and nutrients going towards
the fetal side from the maternal side; chorion separates
the maternal from embryonic blood
There is also Diffusion of carbon dioxide and waste
products from fetal side to the maternal side
There is no direct contact between fetal and embryonic
blood but just diffusion of different substances that
allows communication of mother and the fetus with
regards to nutrition and gas exchange.
Figure 1.1 Implantation of Blastocyst And Development of
Placenta
MATERNAL HORMONAL CHANGES
Osteoblasts - bone-forming cells; repair and
remodelling of bone
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hGC) – secreted by
chorion; travels in the blood to the maternal ovary and
causes the corpus luteum to remain functional;
secretion begins after implantation, increases rapidly,
and reaches a peak about 8 or 9 weeks after
fertilization; detected by pregnancy kits
Hydatidiform mole – collection of trophoblastic cells
present in uterus that also cause high levels of hCG
Levels decline to a lower level, where they are
maintained throughout the remainder of the pregnancy.
Most pregnancy tests are designed to detect hCG in
either urine or blood.
Equal amounts of hCG, estrogen and progesterone
during the 2nd trimester.
hCG decreases as the pregnancy goes on, while
estrogen and progesterone increases as the
pregnancy goes on, their production is transferred from
the ovary towards the placenta
Estrogen & Progesterone – secreted by corpus luteum
in ovary; essential for maintaining endometrium in the
first 3 months; secreted after placenta was formed;
placenta secretes sufficient amounts of it at the 3rd
month; levels increase in the blood throughout
pregnancy
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 TRANS UNIT 13: DEVELOPEMENT, AGING, AND HEREDITY
FORMATION OF THE GERM LAYERS
Amniotic Cavity – cushion of developing embryo which
will come from embryonic disk; formed inside the inner
cell mass and causes the part of the inner cell mass
nearest the blastocele to separate; bounded by
membrane
Amnion – membrane encase the embryo; and filled
with amniotic fluid; where embryo grows and amniotic
fluid serves as protective cushion
Embryonic Disk - flat disk of tissue; composed of 2
layers of cell:
Epiblast- adjacent to amniotic cavity and
Hypoblast - at side of the disk opposite of
amniotic cavity
Yolk sac – 3rd cavity formed inside the
blastocele from hypoblast; digestive tract of
developing embryo
NEURAL TUBE AND NEURAL CREST FORMATION
Primitive streak – thickened line where some epiblast
migrated; its formation establishes central axis of
embryo
Endoderm (inside)– displacement of hypoblast during
migration; previous hypoblast; consists mainly of
hollow visceral organs like digestive tract and related
structures
Mesoderm (middle) – germ layer emerged between
endoderm and epiblast; muscular and bony structures
except bones of the face
Ectoderm (outside) – epiblast cells that didn’t migrate;
epithelial and neural, including the epidermis of the skin
and all nervous structures as well as facial tissues
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Gastrulation – process of cell migration and formation
of 3 germ layers; process of forming the germ cell
layers as precursors of embryonic organs and tissues
Notochord – cordlike structure formed by specialized
cells as they move towards primitive streak ; marks
central axis of developing embryo
Figure 1.2 Formation of the Germ Layers
Neural Plate – formed 18 days after fertilization where
ectoderm overlying the notochord thickened
Neural folds - lateral edges of the plate begin to rise
like two ocean waves coming together
Neural grove – between neural folds
Neural tube – product of meeting and fusing of neural
folds into the midline; completely closed in day 26, if
failed to close, major defects of central nervous system
can occur
Neuroectoderm – cells of neural tube; became the
brain, spinal cord and parts of peripheral nervous
system
Anencephaly – birth defect where neural tubes did not
close
Spin bifida – defect of spinal cord; can range from
simple to more vertebral spinous processes split or
missing; no manifestation of sever defect can result to
paralysis. Sever defect are from failure of neural tube
in spinal cord to close. Vitamin B foliate or folic acid can
reduce the risk of such defects.; protrusion of neural
tissue of spinal cord above the skin at the back of the
spinal column
Neural crest cells - population of cells broke away from
the neuroectoderm along the crests of the folds;
become part of the peripheral nervous system or
become melanocytes in the skin. In the head, neural
crest cells also contribute to the skull, the dentin of
teeth, blood vessels, and general connective tissue.
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Cleft palate – midline cleft results from failure of the

palate to fuse; can vary from slight cleft of uvula to
entire length of palate.
Cleft lip and palate can occur together resulting to a
continuous fissure.

Figure 1.3 Neural Tube and Neural Crest Formation

FORMATION OF GENERAL BODY STRUCTURE

Limb buds – appearance of arms and legs 28 days
after fertilization then began to elongate.
At 35 days, expansions called hand and foot plates
form at the ends of the limb buds. Zones of cell death
between the future fingers and toes of the hand and
foot plates help sculpt the fingers and toes.
Processes – development of face by fusion of five
growing masses of tissue
Frontonasal process – form forehead, nose, and center
of the upper jaw and lip; responsible for formation of
frontal bone and nasal structures
Maxillary Processes (2) - form the maxillae (upper lip
and jaw); formation of zygomatic bone
Mandibular processes (2) - form the mandible (lower lip
and jaw)
Nose begins as two structures, one on each side of the
forehead mass; two parts of the nose approach each
other in the midline and fuse as brain enlarges
Nasal Placodes – areas of thickening; precursors of
nose
Two masses forming the upper jaw expand toward the Figure 1.4 Formation of General Body Structure
midline and fuse with part of the nose to form the upper
jaw and lip DEVELOPMENT OF ORGAN SYSTEMS
Cleft lip – result from failure of structures to fuse; don’t Embryonic period (2nd – 8th week) – where major
usually occur in the midline but on the side; varies in organ systems begin to develop; also called as period
severity from slight indentation to fissure extending of organogenesis
from mouth to nares (nostril) While the neural tube is forming (18–26 days), the
Palate begins to form as vertical shelves of tissue that remainder of the embryo is folding to form a tube along
grow on the inside of the maxillary masses. Shelves the upper part of the yolk sac. The developing digestive
swing to a horizontal position and begin to fuse with tract pinches off from the yolk sac as a tube but remains
each other at about 56 days of development attached in the center to the yolk sac by a yolk stalk.

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 TRANS UNIT 13: DEVELOPEMENT, AGING, AND HEREDITY

Outpocketings appear at 28 days after fertilization

along the entire length of the digestive tract. Large
number of important internal organs develop from
outpocketings, including the auditory tubes, tonsils,
thymus, etc.
Heart develops from 2 blood vessels that lie side by
side in the early embryo and fuse 21 days after
fertilization into a single heart. Heart begins to beat.
Blood vessels form from “blood islands” on the surface
of the yolk sac and inside the embryo. These islands
expand and fuse to form the circulatory system.
Rotation – after the fusion, the ventricles and atrium will
be formed in this process
The major chambers of the heart, the atrium and
ventricle, expand rapidly.
Interventricular septum – division of ventricle into 2
chambers; a ventricular septal defect result from not
growing enough of this septum to completely separate
the ventricles; separating the right and left ventricle
Congenital Heart Disease – failure of development of
interventricular septum also known as ventricular
septal defect where there is a mixing of blood between
right and left ventricle
An interatrial septum – division of two atria; separating
the left and right atrium
Foramen ovale – opening of interatrial septum;
connects 2 atria and allows blood to flow from the right
to the left atrium in the fetus; Because of this, some
blood in the fetus passes from the right atrium to the
left atrium and bypasses the right ventricle and the
lungs; allows communication between right and left
atrium
The foramen ovale normally closes off at the time of
birth, and blood then circulates through the right
ventricle and the lungs.
Atrial septal defect occur if foramen ovale didn’t close
off; present in infants, failure of development of
interatrial septum; there would be communication of Figure 1.5 Development of Organ Systems
right and left atria
The kidneys develop from mesoderm located along the
lateral wall of the body cavity.
NOTE: The embryonic kidneys are more extensive than the
An interatrial septal defect or a ventricular septal adult kidneys, extending the entire length of the body
defect usually results in a heart murmur cavity. Closely associated with internal reproductive
organs, such as the ovaries or testes, and reproductive
ducts, such as the uterine tubes or ductus deferens.
Most of the embryonic kidneys degenerate, with only a
very small part forming the adult kidney

GROWTH OF THE FETUS

8 weeks after fertilization, the embryo becomes a fetus.
Beginning of bone ossification marked as the beginning
of the fetal period
Most of the organ systems are developing in the
embryo, whereas in the fetus the organs are present.

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During the fetal period, the organ systems enlarge and LABOR
mature. At 8 weeks, the fetus grows from about 3 cm - Is the period during which uterine contractions
and 2.5 g and to 50 cm and 3300 g at the end of occur that result in expulsion of the fetus.
- Three Stages:
pregnancy.
1. Often called the dilation phase,
The growth during the fetal period represents more begins with the onset of regular
than a 15-fold increase in length and a 1400-fold uterine contractions and extends until
increase in weight. the cervix dilates to a diameter about
Amniotic fluid - contains toxic waste products from the the size of the fetus’ head (10cm)
fetus’ digestive tract and kidneys. 2. Often called the expulsion phase,
lasts from the time of maximum
Lanugo - Fine, soft hair covering the fetus cervical dilation until the time the baby
Vernix caseosa – waxy coat of loose epithelial cells; exits the vagina
forms a protective layer between the fetus and the 3. Often called the placental phase,
amniotic fluid; cheesy like substance composed of involves the expulsion of the placenta
denuded epithelial tissue from the uterus.
Subcutaneous adipose tissue - accumulates in the
fetus; provides a nutrient reserve, helps insulate, and
aids the new-born in sucking by strengthening and
supporting the cheeks, so that a small vacuum can be
developed in the oral cavity.
Peak body growth occurs late in gestation, but as the
placenta reaches its maximum size, the O2 and
nutrient supply to the fetus becomes limited.
Growth of the placenta essentially stops at about 35
weeks, limiting fetal growth.
38 weeks of development, the fetus is ready to be
delivered. The average weight at this point is 3250 g
for a female fetus and 3300 g for a male fetus.

PARTURITION
is the process by which the baby is born

Figure 1.7 Factors that Influence Parturition

THE NEWBORN
Experiences several dramatic changes at the time of
birth. The major and earliest changes are the
separation of the infant from the maternal circulation
and the transfer from a fluid to a gaseous environment

RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULATORY CHANGES

SURFECTANTS
The fatal lungs produce hair substance, which coast the
inner surface of the alveoli, reduces surface tension in the
lungs, and allows the new-born lungs to inflate.

Figure 1.6 Parturition

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AGING PROCESS
Development of a new human being begins at
fertilization, and so does the process of aging.
Cell division occurs at an extremely rapid rate during
early development and then begins to slow as various
cells become committed to specific functions within the
body.
Many cells in the body continue to divide throughout
life, replacing dead or damaged cells, however, some
cells, such as mature neurons in the brain, cease to
divide.
Dead neurons tend not to be replaced.
Young embryonic tissue has relatively small amounts
of collagen, making it very flexible and elastic.
However, many of the collagen fibers produced during
development are permanent components of the
individual.
The tissues with the highest collagen content and the
greatest dependency on collagen for their function are
the most severely affected by the collagen cross-linking
and tissue rigidity associated with aging.
As most people age, both the number of fibers and the
size of each tend to decline. The decline in muscle fiber
size may be more related to a general decrease in
activity than to any specific age-related changes.
Figure 1.8 Circulation in the Fetus and New-born Cardiac muscle cells also do not normally divide after
birth. Age-related changes in cardiac muscle cell
function probably contribute to a decline in cardiac
DIGESTIVE CHANGES
function with advancing age.
MECONIUM Reduced cardiac function also can result in decreased
blood flow to the kidneys, contributing to decreases in
The bile from the liver are eliminated as a greenish anal
discharge. the kidneys’ filtration ability.
Arteriosclerosis is hardness of the artery.
LIFE STAGES Thrombosis is the formation of a clot or plaque inside a
The stages of life from fertilization to death are divided vessel.
into three prenatal stages and five postnatal stages as Embolus is a detached clot or foreign body that
follows: occludes a blood vessel.
i. Germinal period, fertilization to 14 days The ingestion of harmful agents can accelerate such
ii. Embryo, 14–56 days after fertilization changes.
iii. Fetus, 56 days after fertilization to birth Cellular wear and tear or cellular aging, contributes to
iv. Neonate, birth to 1 month after birth aging.
v. Infant, 1 month to 1 or 2 years after birth (the One characteristic of aging is an overall decrease in
end of infancy is sometimes set at the time ATP production. This decline is associated with a
that the child begins to walk) decrease in oxidative phosphorylation, which has been
vi. Child, 1 or 2 years old to puberty (about 11– shown in many cases to be associated with
14 years) mitochondrial DNA mutations.
vii. Adolescent, teenage years, from puberty to Immune system changes may also be a major
20 years old contributing factor to aging.
viii. Adult, 20 years old to death. Adulthood is Aging increases the lack of ability to adjust to stress.
sometimes divided into three periods: young
adult, 20–40 years old; middle age, 40–65
DEATH
years old; and older adult, or senior citizen, 65 Death is usually not attributed to old age.
years old to death.
Death is based on the permanent cessation of life
functions and the cessation of integrated tissue and
organ function.

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 TRANS UNIT 13: DEVELOPEMENT, AGING, AND HEREDITY
The most widely accepted indication of death in
humans is whole brain death, which is manifested
clinically by the absence of:
1. Response to stimulation.
2. Natural respiration and heart function.
3. Brainstem reflexes, in addition to an
electroencephalogram (EEG) that remains
isoelectric (“flat”) for at least 30 minutes.
Hypothermia slows all chemical reactions, including
those involved in degenerative changes that begin at
the time of death.
Neocortical death is a condition in which major portions
of the cerebrum are no longer functioning. The patient
is comatose and incapable of responding to stimuli.
However, heartbeat and respiration still continue
because of some relatively unimpaired brainstem
functions.
GENETICS
Study of heredity.
The functional units of heredity are genes, which
are carried on chromosomes.
CHROMOSOMES
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
Type of nucleic acid containing the sugar
deoxyribose.
The genetic material of cells.
Molecules and their associated proteins become
visible as densely stained bodies, called mitotic
chromosomes.
KARYOTYPE
Display of chromosomes arranged by pairs.
There are 22 pairs of autosomes, which are all the
chromosomes except the sex chromosomes, and
there is one pair of sex chromosomes.
The sex chromosome pair of a normal female
consists of two X chromosomes (XX) and a normal
male consists of one X and one Y chromosome
(XY).
KARYOTYPE
Germ cell
Produced by meiosis.
MEIOSIS
Reduction division because it produces gametes that
have half the number of chromosomes that somatic
cells have.
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GENES
Sequence of nucleotides in DNA that is a chemical set
of instructions for making a specific protein.
Each gene consists of a certain portion of a DNA
molecule, but not necessarily a continuous stretch of
DNA.
Determines the proteins in a cell.
Similar genes on homologous chromosomes are called
alleles.
Homozygous Having two identical genes for a given
trait.
Heterozygous Having two different genes for a given
trait.
DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE GENES
Genetic traits are recognized because defective alleles
for those traits exist in the population.
Genetic traits effects of one allele for that trait can mask
the effect of another allele for the same trait.
Dominant- a gene that is expressed phenotypically to
the exclusion of a contrasting recessive trait.
Recessive-a gene that may not be expressed
phenotypically because of the expression of a
contrasting dominant gene.
The inheritance of dominant and recessive traits can
be determined if the genotypes of the parents are
known. Probability can be determined easily by using
a table called a Punnett square.
SEX LINKED TRAITS
Traits affected by genes on the sex chromosomes.
Most sex-linked traits are X-linked, Trait caused by a
gene on the X chromosome.
Only a few Y-linked traits exist, largely because the Y
chromosome is very small.
OTHER TYPES OF GENE EXPRESSION
Incomplete Dominance-dominant allele does not
completely mask the effects of the recessive allele.
Codominance-two alleles can combine to produce an
effect without either of them being dominant or
recessive.
GENETIC DISORDER
Caused by abnormalities in a person’s genetic
makeup, that is, in his or her DNA.
May involve a single gene or an entire chromosome.
Some genetic disorders result from a mutation, a
change in a gene that usually involves a change in the
nucleotides composing the DNA.
The importance of genes is dramatically illustrated by
situations in which the alteration of a single gene
results in a genetic disorder.
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GENETIC COUNSELING
Predicting the possible results of mating involving
carriers of harmful genes and talking to parents or
prospective parents about the possible outcomes and
treatments of a genetic disorder.
The first step in genetic counseling is to attempt to
determine the genotype of the individuals involved.

Representative Diseases and Disorders: Pregnancy

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