CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of the Study

English language was the major language in Malaysia prior to its independence from

the British in 1957. When ‘The National Education Policy’ was established in 1971, it

brought about the gradual change in the use of the English language in the Malaysian

education system. This decision has caused the standard of English language to

decline. To halt this, the government had introduced many policies and programs to

uplift the usage of English but yet it doesn’t reap any fruit. The drastic decrease in the

amount of exposure to English for the students was deemed a setback for Malaysia in

its ambition to achieve a developed nation by 2020. The government realised that in

order for Malaysia to move forward towards globalisation, Malaysians must be

proficient in the English language. Hence, a reconsideration of the role of the English

in Malaysia was necessary for the future development of the country and her people.

Reading is a multifaceted process that develops only with practice. There are

certain aspects of reading such as fluency and word recognition, which can be learned

in a few years. These basics must be mastered but at the same time reading
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comprehension should be emphasized in the process. Students can parrot words on a

page all day long but if they don’t have the necessary comprehension skills they will

not be able to make predictions about what will happen next, monitor their

understanding of content, sequence or characters, clarify confusing parts of the text or

connect what they’re reading to their own experience or prior knowledge. And that is

what true comprehension is all about.

In order to sustain students’ interest in reading, skimming strategy and i-

Think maps were chosen as the intervention strategies in my teaching since I felt that

all students should be given the opportunity to explore and discover their own

learning styles and build their thinking skills at their own pace and ease. It is also

hoped that skimming strategy and i-Think maps could help teachers to promote better

reading comprehension, good reading habits and exploration to other kinds of reading

texts.

Skimming strategy and i-Think Maps which are interesting with the use of

short words, pictures, images and designs will help the students to comprehend better

which later leads to better memory. Like the saying, a picture is worth a thousand

words. Thus, it is pertinent that teachers explore and use appropriate teaching

strategies to enhance students’ skills in reading.

Reading comprehension is also not an inborn skill and it has to be inculcated

through the teaching of certain reading comprehension strategies. Some of these

reading comprehension strategies such as circle map, bubble map, tree map and flow

map will definitely promote better understanding of a text or task.

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The Contemporary Children’s Literature (CCL) Program is an intensive

reading program which was introduced into English classes in Malaysian primary

schools in 2003 by the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) of Malaysia. With the

main objective of improving English language teaching through the introduction of

story books or children’s literature, this program hopes to inculcate better reading

habits which, in turn, will contribute to improved English language proficiency. This

development is seen as supportive of the Government’s decision to make English the

medium of instruction for the teaching and learning at both the primary and secondary

level and of attempts to curb declining levels of achievement in standard assessments

of English proficiency in recent years.

Furthermore, teachers have to take into considerations the different learning

styles of their students. They ought to recognize that each and every one of them is

gifted with different kinds of intelligence, as propounded by Gardner (1983) in his

Theory of Multiple Intelligences in his book, Frames of Mind.

1.1 Problem Statement

Malaysian students usually encounter problems related to the five components of

reading: phonological and phonetic awareness, word reading and phonics, fluency,

vocabulary, and comprehension. However, for some students, the problems could be

not only one of these but the result of a combination of two or more of these factors.

Or even for others, the difficulty could additionally be other elements such as

attention, memory, or the anxiety of understanding English as a second language.

In traditional education, the use of old memorizing strategies is part of

everyday teaching and learning practice since the thought is that the more words from
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a list or a text a student is able to memorize the more fluent he will become. Reading

comprehension is not restricted to the memorization of isolated words or isolated

ideas, it is the distinction between knowing a word and understanding it appropriately

in context; it is getting the main idea, supporting ideas, general message, etc.

Typically, when a traditional teacher wants to present a piece of reading in

English, he usually extracts a list of words before having students read it aloud and

consult meaning of the words in the dictionary. Then, the teacher reads the text and

makes the students answer some questions about it so as to know how much his

students have comprehended. At present, some teachers continue with these kind of

techniques for various reasons, especially because they have to fulfil a deadline of a

teaching plan and a syllabus and maybe traditional practice for developing the ability

of reading is easier and takes less time. Another reason is because they were taught

this way and it was useful at that time, but they have not taken courses to be trained

suitably to work with students in reading comprehension using modern alternatives to

improve this skill.

The ability to read is crucial to the success of students in school and important

for a satisfying life for adults. The ability to read affects students’ success or failure in

school. It has a profound effect on how much he/she is able to learn in his/her class,

how he feels about himself as a student, the courses he will be able to take in

advanced grades and secondary school. The above statements about the importance of

reading are strongly supported by Newman & Newman (1997), which mentioned that

reading is the most significant intellectual skill that develops during middle childhood

because it opens the door to so many others. They also believed that reading provides

access to new information, new uses of language, and new forms of thinking.
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Likewise, children are limited in their ability to learn Mathematics, Social Studies,

and Science if they cannot read. Once a child can read fluently, the possibility for all

manners of independent inquiry expands significantly.

All these statements are further supported by Smith (1978), who said that,

“There is very little we can learn about reading without reading.” So, the most useful

tool in this process is reading and of course reading comprehension. However, reading

comprehension is not an inborn skill and it has to be inculcated through the teaching

of certain reading comprehension strategies. Some of these reading comprehension

strategies such as semantic mapping, mind mapping, synthesis map and concept map

will definitely promote better understanding of a text or task. Among these strategies,

skimming strategy and i-Think maps, in language teaching and learning in Malaysia

are still new and very limited. Research literature in this area is not known as there is

not much study being carried out on the topic. Hence, this study is designed to inquire

the impact of i-Think maps in reading comprehension among the Year 5 pupils in an

ESL classroom.

Apart from that, studies have shown that the technique of mind mapping,

which is part of visual/graphic organizers would also indirectly enable our students

learn how to read effectively (Armbruster & Anderson, 1982). This would make their

every day tasks, much easier, and not only this may happen, its structure, laws and the

fact that visual/graphic organizers uses both sides of the brain ensure better results in

terms of recollection, comprehension and speed which will lead to better grades in

other subjects and more free time for relaxation and other healthy activities. Thus, this

study is also more concerned with whether or not the use of visual/graphic organizers
 6

would bring about a marked improvement in students’ reading comprehension in the

reading activities used in Year 5.

1.2 Research Questions

The aim of this study is to answer these three questions pertaining to the use of

i-Think maps as a reading comprehension strategy to enhance students’

reading comprehension levels in the text. They are as follows:

1. To what extent does the use of skimming skill help the students to identify

the main information in a reading text.

2. To what extent does the i-Think Maps help the students to answer the

reading comprehension questions.

3. What are the students’ perceptions regarding the use of i-Think Maps?

1.3 Research Objectives

The purposes of this research is to determine the impact of i-Think Maps in reading

comprehension skills and provide a workable intervention program for Year 5

students on the skills they lacked and improve students on reading comprehension

within primary school setting. ESL students found reading for information easy in

their first language but more difficult in a second language.

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1.4 Significance of the Study

This research seeks to examine the significance of i-Think maps and their

relationships in enhancing students’ comprehension in reading. This main aim is

postulated in the belief that i-Think Maps can assist students, especially those average

or low proficient ones to comprehend their reading text with ease and have better

understanding of the reading text.

Secondly, it also seeks to find out whether i-Think Maps can help to develop

and enhance students’ thinking skills. It is predicted that i-Think Maps can assist

students to develop critical and creative thinking skills by requiring them to think,

explore and extract the relevant information from the text they have read.

Last but not least, across the globe, educationists have realised that children

need more skills than the 3 Rs (Reading, wRiting & aRithmetic) when they leave

school. In the globalised 21st century, the need to create high-quality human capital is

more important than ever.

While most countries agree that their curriculum needs to include a new set of

skills and competencies geared towards the 21st century and beyond, there is still little

consensus on what these are. Singapore’s Ministry of Education states that individuals

equipped for the 21st century will be a confident person, a self-directed learner, an

active contributor, and a concerned citizen. In Finland, the core 21 st century goals are

for personal growth, cultural identity and internationalism, media skills and

communication, participatory citizenship, responsibility for the environment, and

ensuring personal well-being and a sustainable future.

Here in Malaysia, the Ministry has defined a set of skills and competencies

that are aligned with the National Education Philosophy and will give Malaysian

students an internationally competitive edge. To this end, the national curriculum

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aims to create Malaysian students that are balanced, resilient, inquisitive, principled,

informed, caring patriotic, as well as an effective thinker, communicator, and team

player. (These outcomes are synthesised in the six student aspirations described in

Chapter 2). These skills and competencies is being reflected in the new KSSR and

KSSM curricula.

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

First of all, this study only focused on short story, And Something Weird Happened

and graphic novel, Gulliver’s Travels from children’s contemporary literature. Thus,

any finding from this study is limited to only two literature genres.

Secondly, this study involved only a group of 24 Year 5 students from SK Seri

Saujana, Sri Petaling, Kuala Lumpur. In addition, the sample consisted of mainly

Malay students as the chosen school is a National Type Primary School. As such, the

findings of this study could only be applied to the Year 5 students of that school, and

did not represent the whole population of that school. Therefore, the results of the

study would not be a representative of the country’s whole population.

The practical part of the research will take place within 3 months. Due to the

time constraint shouldered by the researcher, the number of experiments and

treatments that will be carried out is limited to seven each, for both the control group

as well as the experimental group. Finally, in accordance with the directives from the

Ministry of Education, a double period of English Language is allocated for Language

Arts per week. Therefore, the findings of this research will be limited and not

applicable to the available population as the researcher only will carry out seven
 9

sixty-minute lessons for the whole duration of research. This might also be too limited

a time for the students to successfully accept, adopt and practice a new and unknown

strategy. For a more conclusive answer on the validity of i-Think Maps, a longer

period is needed both for teaching and monitoring.

1.6 Research Framework

A study of effectiveness of using i-Think Maps in enhancing reading

comprehension among students in comparison to the traditional method.
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Controlled Group Experimental Group

Pre-test Pre-test

No treatment. Using Traditional Treatment using i-Think

Method. Test 1 and results. Maps. Test 1 and results.

No treatment. Using Traditional Treatment using i-Think

Method.Quiz 1 and results. Maps. Quiz 1 and results.

No treatment. Using Traditional Treatment using i-Think

Method.Quiz 2 and results. Maps. Quiz 2 and results.
No treatment. Using Traditional
Method.Quiz 3 and results.
Treatment using i-Think
Maps. Quiz 3 and results.
No treatment. Using Traditional
Treatment using i-Think
Method.Quiz 4 and results. Maps. Quiz 4 and results.

Compare results and analyze

results

1.7 Research Design

In many situations in educational research, it is not possible to conduct a true

experiment. Likewise, as the research taken by the researcher is an educational

research conducted in a school setting, it is thus not possible for him to assign subjects
 11

randomly to groups. Thus, the research design chosen for this study is quasi-

experimental. Although this design does not provide full control, the researcher still

used this design as this type of study is strongly supported by Campbell and Stanley

(1966), who stated that quasi-experimental studies are well-worth employing where

more efficient probes are unavailable. The following design in Table 3.2

Nonrandomised Control Group, Pre-test-Post-test Design will be employed by the

researcher in the present study.

Table 3.2

Nonrandomised Control Group, Pre-test – Pos-test Design

Group Pre-test Independent Variable Post-test

E Y1 X Y2

C Y1 - Y2

*** E refers to Experimental and C refers to Control

The Independent Variable in the above study was the use of i-Think maps whereas the

Dependent Variable consisted of the subjects’ comprehension scores as determined by

their performance in the post-test.

In this study, the variable of age, race and sex were controlled. Age was

controlled by confining the present study to 11-year-old students. Sex was controlled

by having the same proportion of boys and girls in both the groups.

1.8 Operational Definition

In this study, there are three terms which need to defined according to their areas of

specification.

a) Reading Text
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For the purpose of this study, the context of reading texts refers to short story and

graphic novel. A short story is a brief work of fiction, usually written in prose and

running 1,600 to 20,000 words in length. The literary roots of the short story can be

found in oral storytelling traditions, such as anecdotes, fables, fairy tales, and

parables. On the other hand, graphic novel is a book made up of comics content.

Although the word “novel” normally refers to long fictional works, the term “graphic

novel” is applied broadly and includes fiction, non-fiction, and anthologized work. It

is distinguished from the term “comic book”, which is used for comic periodicals.

b) i-Think Maps

They are eight visual patterns designed for students to use in order to learn and retain

information, through the process of gathering and packaging that information in a

visual, memorable and concise way.

Thinking Maps (TM)

- provide a common language to all students, teachers and school

- apply across all subjects and grade-levels

- lead to meaningful, memorable, and focused learning

- when different TM are used to go deeper and more complex on a given

topic/subject, their effectiveness is increased

i) The Circle Map is used for brainstorming or defining in context

ii) The Bubble Map is used for describing (use adjectives/adjective phrases).

iii) Double Bubble Map is used for comparing and contrasting (similarities and

differences).

iv) The Tree Map is used for classifying or categorizing.

v) The Flow Map is used for sequence of events or anything that has a step-by-step
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process.

vi) Multi Flow Map is used for showing cause and effect.

vii) The Brace Map is used for showing the whole and all its parts.

viii) The Bridge Map is used to show analogies (and their relating factor).

c) Impact

Impact refers to refers to the level of improvement achieved after using a certain form

of tool. In this study, if the subjects obtained an increase in their scores in the post

comprehension test given after the treatment, then the tool used in this experiment is

said to have impact.

1.9 Summary

This chapter attempts to provide some valuable insights to students and educators on

the use of i-Think Maps to enhance students’ understanding of the literary text that is

the graphic novel in this study. It also dispels any notion that teaching and learning of

reading comprehension of literary text is difficult and unpleasant.

The next chapter of the study, Chapter 2, is on the review of related literature

pertaining to the study. Chapter 3 focuses on the research methodology employed in

the study whereas Chapter 4 is on the statistical analysis of the results obtained in the

pre-test, post-test and questionnaires. The last chapter, Chapter 5, is on the conclusion

drawn from the study, its implications and suggestions for future research.
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CHAPTER 1

Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

Reading is a very important component in the English Language. Many students face

problems in comprehending a given text. As stated previously, this study specifically

aimed at seeking answers to the following research questions:-

(1) To what extent does the use of skimming skill help the students to identify the

main information in a reading text.

(2) To what extent does the i-Think Maps help the students to answer the reading

comprehension questions.

(3) What are the students’ perceptions regarding the use of i-Think Maps?
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Reading comprehension is the process of constructing meaning from a text and

involves the complex coordination of several processes, including “decoding, word

reading, and fluency along with the integration of background knowledge and

previous experiences” (Klinger & Geisler, 2008, p. 65). English Language Learners’

reading comprehension can be influenced by their vocabulary knowledge, word

recognition skills, understanding of text structure, oral English Language proficiency,

and cultural background differences (Klinger & Geisler, 2008; Francis et al.,2006).

Vocabulary knowledge has been shown to be highly related to ELLs’ reading

comprehension ability (Klinger, et al., 2006). Students who struggle with reading tend

to place more focus on the “surface aspects of reading, use fewer comprehension

strategies, tap less into background knowledge, and have more limited vocabularies”

(Orosco, de Schonewise, de Onis, Klinger, & Hoover, 2008, p. 16). Struggling readers

often “fail to link new information with prior knowledge or monitor their

comprehension of what they are reading” (Narkon & Wells, 2010, p. 2). An

instructional strategy is “a purposeful activity to engage learners in acquiring new

behaviours or knowledge” (Shyyan et al., 2008, p. 148). Many students are not

efficient in learning because they are not aware of their own cognitive processes and

do not know how to determine the specific demands of learning tasks. Their lack of

knowledge of how and when to use comprehension strategies appropriately, keeps

these students from taking full advantage of their own abilities (Klinger & Vaughn,

1996).

2.1 Views on Reading

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Different people have carried out various in-depth discussions about reading. But as

knowledge about the reading process has evolved, definitions of reading have become

more complex. Although getting meaning from print is one method to define reading,

such simplified definitions do not adequately present the complexity of the process,

nor do they reflect the interaction of factors that enter into the reading act. Reading is

also assumed to go beyond pronunciation and involves understanding, thus the

process of reading is more than a mechanical skill; it is active and internal.

Although, there are differences in these researchers’ views on reading as some

of them see it as an active mental process, while others see it as a mechanical process,

it cannot be denied that reading is fundamental in a child’s language development.

Therefore, before any reading comprehension can take place, we must acquire the

reading skills and ability to read and decipher what we have read. There are a variety

of definitions on reading and one of them according to Goodman (1976:498),

“Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game which involves an interaction between

thought and language”. Efficient reading also does not result from precise perception

and identification of all elements, but from skill in selecting the fewest, most

productive cue necessary to produce guesses (about meaning) which are usually right

the first time.

Likewise, Widdowson (1976) defines reading as an active process, not merely

a reaction to the text but an interaction between the writer and the reader through a

medium of text. Reading efficiency depends on how much knowledge a teacher

brings to the text and how much he expects to extract from it. It is a cooperative

principle at work.
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Clay (1991) sees reading as a process in which children can, on the run,

extract a sequence of cues from printed texts and relate these, one to the other, so that

they understand the message of the text. Meanwhile, Dechant (1993), mentions that

reading begins with the registration of the printed words the brain by the visual and

perceptual processes, with the brain converting the written symbols to language, and

with cognitive and comprehension processes, adding meaning by relating the symbols

to the reader’s prior knowledge.

Besides that, Duffy & Roehler (1993) defines reading as a purposeful

reconstruction of an author’s printed message for recreational, aesthetic, or functional

purposes. However, Leu & Kinzer (1995) in their book, Effective Reading

Instruction, gave the definition of reading as a developmental, interactive, and global

process that involves learning. It is also believed that a personal process specifically

incorporating an individual’s linguistic knowledge and can be both positively and

negatively influenced by non-linguistic internal and external variables, or factors.

In addition, Rumelhart (1994:864) says reading is the process of

understanding written language. It begins with a flutter of patterns on the retina and

ends (when successful) with a definite idea about the author’s intended message.

Besides that, a skilled reader must be able to make use of sensory, syntactic, semantic,

and pragmatic information to accomplish his task. These various sources of

information interact in many complex ways during the process of reading. Last but

not least, according to Rubin (1993), “Reading is a complex, dynamic process that

involves the bringing of meaning to, and the getting of meaning from, the printed

page”. Simultaneously, other researchers believed that actual reading is said to be

established when the reader acquired the meaning of the writer but this meaning may

differ from one reader to another. These variations occur because of influences of
 18

home background, cultural environment, social influences and of individual

differences in motivation and interest.

2.2 Importance of Reading

The ability to read has been regarded as a truly magical phenomenon because of its

uniquely human process that results from a multitude of factors. This ability can open

the minds of children to new worlds, emotions, insights, and imaginative ideas;

information of all types; and exciting, creative pursuits. It can also help them further

their education and career opportunities and increase the quality of their lives through

personal enjoyment (Heilman et al, 1998).

Another important point that can be said about the ultimate objective of

reading is to develop the mind, which is the main source for intellectual development.

And if we do not utilize the mind, it will lose its ability to think rationally and make

decisions correctly. This statement on the importance of reading ability is in

accordance to Prof. Syed Hussein Alatas (1984:64), who stated, “… the main aim of

reading is to develop the mind. If we do not use the body, it suffers atrophy and this

physical atrophy is easily recognized. But the atrophy of mind is not easily recognized

unless we put it to a task”.

To enjoy books thoroughly, reading must be entirely spontaneous, for reading

is the greatest of all joys – the charm and flavour of a cultured life. Throughconstant

reading we learn how to clarify our thoughts and feelings. The characters that people

landscape these books offer us an alternative view of the world. These joys from

reading unambiguously coincide with the quotation from Francois Bacon (as in Looi,
 19

1995:7) who wrote, “Reading maketh a full man.” Education is always considered as

a life-long process. To be educated is to have the ability to think, to grow, to be

balanced and how to develop. So, the most useful tool in this process is reading and of

course course books. Subsequently, Steele (also quoted by Looi, 1995:13) said,

“Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body”. All these statements greatly

highlighted the importance of reading to a person.

Today, reading habits and books have significance in life because the future

society is often described as the learning society, which encourage scientific and

technological developments. Knowledge and intellectual development in the true

sense comes from reading. In reading, there is no limit to how much knowledge a

person can acquire. A good reader is also a good learner and the fact is important not

only when an individual is in school but also in life after school where he or she must

adopt to new surroundings and circumstances. Hence, the ability to read is undeniable

tool to lifelong education and success in life.

Theories

Researcher Dr. David Hyerle developed the Thinking Maps language based on current

brain research, Marzano’s Nine Instructional Strategies and possibly also on a

previous learning model called the Upton-Samson Model. Hyerle felt the sheer

amount of education research was impractical and daunting for teachers. Condensing

it down into a concrete model that would be “classroom ready” would enable teachers

to use some researchers’ good scholarship and improve student learning.

According to the Thinking Maps website, a 1960 study showed that an early

predecessor of Thinking Maps, the Upton-Samson model, increased student

intelligence by 10 I.Q. points on average. More recent research by Hyerle has

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demonstrated that the Thinking Maps model probably increases students’ knowledge

retention by enabling tighter connections between old and new material.

Benefits

According to Dr. Hyerle, the main benefits of the Thinking Maps model are that is it

“Reflective, consistent, integrative, flexible and developmental. Other benefits include

an emphasis on complex thinking skills, the development of independence as students

learn to use the organizers, appropriateness for all age levels, cross-disciplinary

freedom and research demonstrating increased student comprehension. In his book

“Student successes with Thinking Maps,” Hyerle maintain that test results, classroom

observations and concrete research have proven that Thinking Maps improve student

performance.

Expert Insight

According to Dr. Hyerle, brain-based research supports the notion that if there is no

emotional or logical connection between new information and that which has already

been stored, the new information will be discarded. Thinking Maps graphic organizers

give students a way of recalling stored information by using patterns, which helps

them integrate new information. The Thinking Maps model is designed to promote a

complete sequence of critical thinking.

Examples

There are eight Thinking Maps, each serving its own purpose in organizing student

thinking. One type of Thinking Map is a “Flow Map”. When using a Flow Map,
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students chart a logical sequence of steps. It can take increasingly complex forms,

organizing information such as the correct order for mixing and baking bread such as

a sequence in physics.

Another type of Thinking Map is a “Tree Map”. When using a Tree Map,

students chart information into groups. For instance: under a main heading of “Food

Groups” and secondary headings of “Dairy, Breads and Vegetables/Fruits,” students

would list specific foods like milk, pasta, corn and avocados

2.3 Theoretical Framework

In the reading process, interaction between the reader and the text is central to the

process, especially in the schematic-interactive model of reading. In this study, the

conceptual framework is based on this model, because the reader does not

comprehend only by trying to decipher the linguistic forms but also try to reconstruct

meaning at the same time, based on his knowledge of the text, knowledge of and

expectations about how the language works, motivation and interest towards the text

and the contract it contains. Besides that, this study is also based on the Theory of

Multiple Intelligences because Dr. Howard Gardner’s research has revealed each and

every student or learner is unique and different in their own individual ways. The

researcher has based this study on these three theories because he believes that every

student or learner is like a piece of white cloth and he or she can be shaped into any

desired design according to the designer. Thus, the researcher based his conceptual

framework on these three theories.

2.3.1 Schema Theory

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There is a general consensus among researchers and theorists that a person’s

knowledge and language input is stored in the form of interconnecting networks or

structures or schemata. Barnett (1989:42) defined schemata as a reader’s existing

concepts about the world or knowledge that are already stored in memory. Hence,

schemata provide frameworks for interpreting the world of a given text. In reading,

the student relates the concepts and structures in the text to his past experiences, in

order to construct meaning from his reading.

Bartlett (1932) and Rumelhart (1980) in Carrell et al (1988:76) say that any

text, either spoken or written, does not by itself carry meaning. Rather, it only

provides directions for listeners or readers as to how they should retrieve or contruct

meaning from their own previous acquired knowledge, which is also known as

background knowledge.

As comprehending a text is an interactive process between the reader’s

background knowledge and the text, efficient comprehension thus requires the ability

to relate the textual material to one’s knowledge (Carrell et al, 1988:76). This is

strongly supported too by Cooper (2000:94) who says that in the schema theory, an

individual understands what they read only as it relates to what they already know.

Hence, relying on one’s linguistic knowledge in comprehending words, sentences and

entire texts is insufficient, as Anderson et al in Carrell & Eisterhold (1983:73) has

pointed out, “every act of comprehension involves one’s knowledge of the world as

well”. Stott (2001), says that readers develop a coherent interpretation of text through

the interactive process of combining textual information with the information reader

brings to a text. Every reader has his or her own mental stores, which are termed as

schemata (Bartlett in Cook, 1977:86). In simpler terms, schemata are the units of

memory, which record our perceptions and understanding of objects, situations,

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actions and events (Moms & Stewart-Dore, 1984). They are hierarchically organized,

from most general at the top to most specific at the bottom (Carrell et al,1988:76).

There are two types of schemata: content schemata or prior knowledge, and

formal schemata or text structure. Content schemata can be culturally determined,

interest-driven or discipline-specific. Formal schemata include knowledge of text,

structure and knowledge of how a text is organized; a story and a newspaper would

have different text organization. A story would normally follow a chronological

sequence and a news report usually answers who, what, where, when and how

questions (Barnett, 1989). Therefore, both these schemata help the reader to identify

the different types of genre, formal structure and topic of a reading text and

subsequently activate them. This activation allows the reader to comprehend the text

(Swales, 1990:89). If this does not happen, then some disruption of comprehension

may occur.

In this respect, Alvarez & Risko (1983) say that because texts are never

explicit, the reader must rely on pre-existing schemata to provide plausible

interpretations. Yet, they add that there is much evidence that good and poor reader do

not always use schemata appropriately or are unaware of whether the information they

are reading is consistent with their existing knowledge. Hence, strategies including

the use of i-Think Maps are needed to help students relate new information appearing

in written discourse to existing knowledge.

As such, the use of i-Think Maps are of paramount importance in any reading

text as they are capable of presenting the required information in a clear and visual

manner. More importantly, the link among the various ideas is also vividly displayed.

By reacting to visual clues or information provided, students can activate their prior

knowledge of the topic, and subsequently anticipate other information (Thompson,

 24

1997). In this sense, it is clear that i-Think Maps possess the ability to activate and

form links among different type of schemata , which otherwise remain idle or

inactivated.

In short, i-Think Maps help to activate prior knowledge, create a meaningful

framework whereby new knowledge could be tied with existing ones, and

subsequently producing new schemata. This definitely help students to increase their

understanding of the reading text as learning becomes meaningful to them.

2.3.2 Interactive Model of Reading

The process of reading and interpretation of the text is guided by the principle that

every input is mapped against some existing schemata. There are two basic models of

reading or processing input: the bottom-up model and top down model. However,

researchers realised that neither models adequately describe the reading process

among second language learners. They found out that most readers rely on both

models to help them to process a text efficiently and thus the first interactive model of

reading was posited by Rummelhart 91977:573-603). The interactive process is a

combination of ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ processing modes. The student’s prior

knowledge and inference skills are the core of this model; reflecting conviction that

comprehension involves connecting information from the text to information already

stored in the reader’s head. Information comes to the reader from the text. The student

uses information about decoding vocabulary meaning, grammar cohesion and passage

structure to help to connect the new information to what is already known. The output

is meaning and meaning is constructed from prior knowledge, it is not inherent in the

text.
 25

2.3.3 The Theory of Multiple Intelligences

The traditional view of intelligence is now being challenged by Dr. Howard Gardner’s

Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Campbell et al (1996:xv) state that the traditional

theory of intelligence adheres to two fundamental assumptions: that human cognition

is unitary and that individuals can be adequately described as having a single

quantifiable intelligence. This type of intelligence is defined in terms of intelligent

quotient (IQ) and it is composed of verbal or linguistic and logical or mathematical

abilities only (Christison & Deborah, 1999).

However, Gardner’s research reveals a wider family of human intelligence

than those postulated by the traditional theory of intelligence. Not only that, Dr.

Howard also generated a refreshing pragmatic definition of the concept of

intelligence. Instead of viewing human intelligence in terms of a score on a

standardised test, Gardner define it as the capacity to solve problems or to fashion

products that are valued in one or more cultural setting (Brualdi, 2000). Hence, the

Theory of Multiple Intelligence broadens the traditional view of intelligence.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence also helps teachers to understand

that all human beings manifest intelligence-in different ways. It maintain that all

humans possess at least 7 different intelligences that represent a variety of ways to

learn and demonstrate understandings.

Therefore, it is clear that teachers must recognize that each and every student

is unique in their own individual ways. Campbell et al (1996:xv) argue that while

most students possess the full spectrum of intelligence, each individual reveals

distinctive cognitive features. Each possesses varying degrees of the seven

intelligences, and he or she combines and uses them in highly personal ways.
 26

In this context, the incorporation of i-Think Maps in reading text is one way of

achieving the desired results. I-Think Maps possess the inherent capability of

presenting the core information visually, and thus enhance the students’

comprehension especially those students with more visual or spatial intelligence.

However, this does not mean that the other students will benefit less. According to

Levine & Borman (1997:51), “The usefulness of visual aids such as visual or graphic

organizers extends beyond aiding only visual learners. Being able to “see” the

concepts or information being described helps most students learn better, as most

students comprehend more when they are using more than one channel (visual,

auditory, and tactile) to take information”.

Hence, teachers and educate should be proactive, adventurous and open-

minded to incorporate new learning strategies such as i-Think Maps in any kind of

reading text. I believe that such measure is necessary and pertinent in enhancing their

understanding of the reading text.

2.4 Literature and Language Learning

Recently, there have been many arguments against the teaching and learning of

literature especially in a fast developing country like Malaysia. Students seem to find

that this component of the English Language subject, which lingers on the beauty of

language and moral values of its characters, is not relevant to their life. However,

these wrong perceptions on literature are mainly because people have undermined its

practical value.

The main point of using literature in language learning is to provide learners

with opportunities for affective and cognitive engagement in the process of language

learning. Without affective engagement, there is no deep processing of language

 27

(Brumfit & Carter, 1986) and no durable learning can be achieved (Masuhara, 2003;

Tomlinson et al, 2004 & Williams & Burden, 1997). Thus, there is a need to stimulate

the learners to laugh, to feel joy, to be excited, to feel sympathy, to be disturbed, to be

empathetic in order to help them to learn language and to develop emotional maturity

too. Without cognitive engagement, the learners do not develop the ability to think

critically and creatively. The probable solution of stimulating learners to achieve both

affective and cognitive engagement is to help them to experience literature both in the

classroom and at home.

Rosli talif (1995: 22-24) lists the values of literature as having ; firstly, the

capacity to produce pleasure and enjoyment to ordinary readers in many walks of life

and therefore its ability to provide a living to its producers. Secondly, the ability to

contribute to cultural identity, national pride and social aims in developing societies

throughout the world. Thirdly, the capability as a component in education (both

formal and non-formal), the process by which human individuals gain awareness of

themselves and of their worlds and are assisted to construct their value systems.

Finally, the ability to pursuit to meet human needs, to challenge the imaginations, to

present different perspectives of the human condition that may not be possible to

experience throughout lifetime. Loban, Ryan & Squire (1961), stress that literature is

capable of exposing our actions and emotions. Literature is a subject that caters for

everyone. Therefore, a child reading Charlotte’s Web may understand the meanings

of obligations and loyalties that are essential in a friendship. At the same time, an

adult too can measure his loyalties as he reads the novel War and Peace. They also

claim that through this evaluation and capability of showing different images of life,

the reader actually builds his own sense of values. He also changes and forms his

views on himself and his world based on these exposures. Karlin (1964) also argues
 28

that literature helps in the understanding of human being because its motivations are

actually reflections of our own. This realization opens opportunity for us to

understand ourselves better and in deeper perceptions.

Besides that, literature actually records how we feel and think and helps us to

understand the world in which we live and ourselves. Realizing this, educationist

believes that through literature, learners of English would be motivated, interested,

expressive and satisfied in the learning of English. Broughton et al (1978) in their

Book, Teaching English as a Foreign Language stated that “Literature does not have

to wait for advanced knowledge of the language. Even the most elementary learner

can derive pleasure from traditional rhymes and riddles… or from simple but

aesthetically complex poems.”

Similarly, dramatic interpretations of literature evoke aesthetic responses, and

they help children find success because there are no correct or wrong answers

(Fennessey, 1995). Through drama, children can deepen their responses to literature

and discover underlying meanings. Drama helps children become aware of different

points of view and develops imagination and critical thinking.

Fowler (1965) also shared similar sentiments as Karlin. He explained literature

as a vicarious experience that provides young people with important insights. Through

these insights, young people especially are believed to be able to realize much about

themselves and the world they live in. This achieved by exposing oneself to books

which deal about life. Apart from that, through the help and discussion with parents,

siblings, peers, and teachers on these texts, they grow to understand themselves, their

relationship in the society and also the moral values in the books.

Literature can actually aid students to probe beneath the economic façade to

explore deeper humanistic and spiritual values in their search of fulfilment in life.
 29

This is alluded by Garden (1964:I) who argued that “literature has the capability to

awaken the students to the heritage to develop and enlarge his concepts of himself and

of other people…”. Russell (1967), Matheison (1975 as cited in Zughoul, 1983), &

Perine and Arp (1993) summarize literature as an art that can humanize. In an era

where social problems among students are increasing and relationships in the society

are deteriorating, these values of literature will be needed more than ever. Moreover,

these tendencies of literature also contribute towards the objectives of our national

Educational Philosophy which upholds the concept of lifelong education geared

toward the development of a morally upright person who is intellectually, spiritually,

emotionally and physically integrated (Rosli Talif, 1995).

Even though the idea of learning literature often frightens some people but

those with good reading ability usually enjoy them. According to Jacobus, L. (1996),

literature gives us pleasures, moves our feelings, tells us what we don’t already know,

gives us a special awareness of what we already know, puts us in another world, and

uses language in especially powerful ways. Unfortunately, there are many others who

had doubts the role of literature. Students are curious about literature and the usage of

literature texts in the language classroom. Similarly, according to Sawyer & Comer

(1991), to say that literature has a special place in the development of the young child

is an understatement. They stated that literature, if shared aloud in a warm atmosphere

and at an appropriate pace, could be the vehicle through which children can learn

about their world.

The technology of television, telecommunications, and computer science

allow information to come to us today at an increasing speed and in greater abundance

than ever before. However, people are not always capable of processing this

information in any meaning way. This is true for children. When the amount of
 30

information is too great and the speed too rapid, the full meaning is lost. The nuances

are not noticed. The subtle humour slips past. The message becomes devoid of

emotion.

In addition, there has been an abundance of research over the past, half a

century, which stresses the importance of books and literature as part of a child’s

development. When children come to school already reading or with a deep interest in

reading, critical facts can often be found in their preschool experience. They usually

had books in the home. They observed adults reading. They were also read to by

adults. They had someone to talk about books, reading, and literature (Turner & paris,

1995; Gambrell, 1996). Further more, Allison & Watson (1994) also mentioned the

significance of adult storybook reading styles on the development of yaounchildren’s

emergent reading. Therefore, home environment plays an important role in promoting

interest and reading ability of a child before he can indulge in the learning of

literature.

Early in life, children strive for meaning. They try to find out how things

work. Bettelheim (1977), a well-known child psychologist and holocaust survivor,

contends that finding meaning in life is the greatest need any human being possesses.

He believes that finding meaning in life is also the most difficult achievementfor

anyone at any age. So, the purpose of literature and education is to help people arrive

at this meaning.

Subsequently, a broad exposure to literature is a critical component of child

development. It is also believed that through literature, responses through art and

music can be inculcated among children who have difficulty in expressing themselves

with words (Hoyt, 1992). Galda & Short (1993), mentioned that through exposure to

well-illustrated picture books, children learn to appreciate the artists’ work and begin
 31

to see themselves as illustrators capable of creating their own art. They can also

interpret stories through many art media, including clay, paint, papier-mache, scraps

of cloth and ribbon, coloured pencils, and three-dimensional objects. Using such

media, they create collages and montages, dioramas and puppet figures, mobiles and

stabiles, and illustrations for their own storybooks (Russell, 1994).

Children also have a natural tendency to respond to the rhythm and melody of

music, so it makes sense to combine music with literature and language (Kolb, 1996).

More picture books of children’s story, songs and singing games are available than

ever before, and these books help children connect the words they sing with the words

they see in print (Beaty, 1994).

Further justification to learning literature is given by Duff & Maley (1991)

who said that literature is a worthy subject because of its content that is filled with a

wide range styles, registers, and text-types at many levels of difficulty. By exposing a

student to these many styles of writing, we are actually improving his knowledge in

the language itself.

Apart from that, literature also contributes toward freedom in thinking and

interpreting. Probst (1994) further supported this statement when he said that

literature is manipulative and its works upon us to see, interpret, and notice one

situation from other things in various ways. He further argued that this experience

helps individual’s intellectual growth and enabling them to see and understand events

in life in various ways.

Finally, the world of literature serves many purposes, including that of a rich

source of information on content-oriented themes. Students should be exposed both

narrative and expository literature (Armbruster, 1991; smith & Johnson, 1994).

Whether the topic is history, different cultures, animals, science, environmental

 32

concerns, or mathematics, quality literature not only will help students understand

content, but also will stimulate their interest and active engagement, promote reading

as a lifelong activity, aid in developing reading fluency, and promote application of

reading-comprehension strategies.

The positive impact of literature upon language skills is by no means short

story and graphic novel, since students exercise or practise all of the four language

skills in literature courses. This is because literary texts offer valuable authentic

materials and enhances language development. It can also provide cultural enrichment

and foster personal involvement in readers. The “world” of a graphic novel, poems or

short story is a created one. However, it still offers a full and void context in which

characters from any social backgrounds can be depicted. A reader can discover their

thoughts, feelings, customs, possessions, beliefs, fears, enjoyments, how they speak

and behave behind closed doors (Collie & Slater, 1987).

Besides that, collie & Slater (1987:3) also said, “… literature offers a beautiful

and extremely varied body of written material which is ‘important’ in the sense that it

says something about fundamental issues and which is enduring rather than

ephemeral”. Subsequently, according to Zarillo (1994), literature can provide

opportunities for students to use all the language skills besides learning the languagein

meaningful ways. Incorporating good expository literature, including picture books,

into the content areas is an excellent means for reinforcing all of the language

processes – reading, writing, listening, and speaking – across the curriculum (Farris &

Fuller, 1994). Besides that, a number expository books at various levels dealing with a

particular topic is another way of meeting the varied needs of students in any

classroom.
 33

The value of literature is in relation to competence. Literature helps students

of English acquire a native-like competence in English, such as express their ideas in

good English. They also learn the features of Modern English, and how the English

linguistic system is used for communications. Through literature, they can see how

idiomatic expressions are used, how to speak clearly, precisely, and concisely and

become more proficient in English. Learning literature also helps them to become

creative, critical as well as analytic learners. Learners are also exposed to the realistic

experience and real life situations in the target language. Literature whether prose

fiction, drama, and or poetry, is a matter of fact, a good means for upgrading learner’s

competence in English. Moreover, reading and discussing good literature help every

student become a worthy critic, what Kingsbury (1984:17) defies as one “who offers

us new perspectives on a text, who sees more in it than we saw, who motivates us to

return to it for another reading”.

Besides that, through literary materials, understanding of the cultural values of

English-speaking people that is part of gaining true fluency in the language can be

achieved. The materials also provide a basis for learners’ conversation, group work,

writing and problem-solving activities. Literature develops students’ open

mindedness, broadens their imagination, and gives them exposure to foreign culture,

which sharpens their perceptions of other people. Literature learning is also important

to a person because it promotes appreciation and understanding of other people’s

cultures and values systems. All these statements are further supported by Rasinski &

Padak (1990), who stated that students explore and expand their cultural values and

beliefs as they read multicultural literature. It is also mentioned that through the use of

literature, children are able to understand and interpret the moral and ethical issues

faced during certain historical events. Through literature too, the negative
 34

stereotyping of people from other cultures can be decreased besides providing better

understanding of multicultural issues, which might occur. They also vicariously

experience other cultures, and these experiences influence the way they interact with

people in our culturally pluralistic world (Yokota , 1993).

The importance of literature is also strongly supported by our Ministry of

Education, which includes Contemporary English Literature for primary schools

under KSSR. In the preliminary National Education Blueprint (2013-2025), once

again English literature is juxtaposed as a tool to help increase English proficiency

2.5 Thinking Skills

Many people always wonder and ask what thinking is. Thinking is simply a process or

an operation. It occurs in a person’s mind when he thinks of something that consists

of cognitive and meta-cognitive operations (Woodfolk, 1987). Similarly, Peter C.

Shepherd (1988:71) also states that thinking is a complex process that goes on in an

individual’s mind. This concept involves the functioning of certain mental operations

upon knowledge and experiences stored in one’s mind. These mental operations could

be divided into two types that are cognitive operations and meta-cognitive operations.

According to him, cognitive operations are the skills of thinking we normally use such

as when making comparisons, summarising, inventing, giving ideas, and etc. Meta-

cognition, on the other hand involves the guiding of the cognitive operation that both

the cognitive and meta-cognitive operations are important for successful learning.

Besides that, according to Grawith (1991), cognitive operations are common

thinking skills such as comparing and contrasting, analyzing, synthesizing, logical

thinking and composing. This operation also encompasses decision making processes

or strategies and problem solving whereas, meta-cognitive operation covers those that
 35

require directing and controlling cognitive skills and processes. Simon & Kapplan

(1989), state that critical thinking which is a major domain of the thinking skills, is in

fact the formation of logical inferences which rest upon reasoned judgements. Stahl &

Stahl (1991), on the other hand, view critical thinking as the development of cohesive

and logical reasoning patterns.

However, Scriven & Paul (1997), say that critical thinking is incorporated in

an interwoven mode of thinking, among which are scientific thinking, mathematical

thinking, historical thinking, moral thinking, philosophical thinking, economical

thinking and anthropological thinking. They also view critical thinking as having two

components, that are a set of skills to process and generate information and beliefs

and the habit based on intellectual commitment of using those skills to guide

behaviour. However, these two components have to be contrasted with the mere

acquisition and retention of information, the mere possession of a set of skills and the

use of these skills. Therefore, critical thinking is considered to be the hub around

which all other education ends come together. Consequently, as students learn to think

more critically, they become proficient at developing skills, abilities and values which

are crucial in their daily lives. Lastly, Morrison & Paullin (1997), said that critical

thinking is a contrast to rote memorization or simple information recall. It has its’

goal as the simulation of analytical and evaluation processes of the mind.

2.6 Advantages of i-Think Maps

In applying thinking skills, the appropriate instruments that aid in the thinking process

are visual/i-Think Maps. Visual/i-Think Maps involve the use of pictures, illustrations

and graphics depicting statements and words. Visual/i-Think Maps depict the link

between one basic fact or main idea with other ideas for easier understanding and a
 36

systematic thinking in order to stimulate thinking. Among the aids used in i-Think

Maps are circle maps, bubble maps, double bubble maps, tree maps, flow maps brace

maps, bridge maps and multi-flow map.

Ausubel (1968) in Stephens et al (1996:123) is the first person who conceives

the earliest form of visual organizer, known as advance organizer. This form of

organizer is an introductory text that would provide cognitive scaffolding or

framework within which students could organize the information they were to learn.

Besides that, previous studies done by Armbruster & Anderson (1980),

Alvermann & Van Arnam (1984), Poh Swee Hiang (1977) and Chung Han Teck

(1991), confirmed that strategies involving visual or i-Think Maps benefit readers,

regardless of their levels of proficiency. This is because visual or i-Think Maps assist

readers in visualizing their thinking about the content of a subject or a text they have

read.

2.7 Summary

Ability to read is all the more important today. In this age of information technology,

it is the only way an individual can be educated, continue to learn, keep abreast with

developments as well as progress in the work place. Reading is the tool to ensure

education for life, and lifelong education.

Hence, it cannot be denied that reading ability is a skill where an individual

widens his or her knowledge, experience and improve one’s cognitive ability.

Reading can also help one live happily and bring along a great deal of practical

benefits including understanding ourselves, our friends, and our environments.

Lastly, the capability of i-Think Maps in enhancing students’ understanding in

reading text has been proven beyond any shadow of doubt. I-Think Maps offer
 37

guidance and meaningful learning for students. It also sustains their interest in the

lesson and sharpens their thinking skills too. Nevertheless, they need to be taught how

to recognise the various types of text structures in any reading text, and how to

develop the right i-Think Map that suits the specific text structure. Only then, they

will be able to reap the fruits of their effort.

 38

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

The purpose of this research is to find out how students used the i-Think Maps to help

them in comprehending a reading text. The aim of using i-Think Maps in this study is

to provide students with content knowledge through i-Think Maps during reading

comprehension. It is also to instil a positive attitude towards working with i-Think

Maps and effective reading comprehension in the classroom.

The research questions of the study are as follows:-

(1) To what extent does the use of skimming skill help the students to identify the

main information in a reading text.

(2) To what extent does the i-Think Maps help the students to answer the reading

comprehension questions.

(3) What are the students’ perceptions regarding the use of i-Think Maps?

This chapter discusses the research design and methodology adopted for the study.

The objectives of the study will also be clearly expounded. Next, predicted outcomes
 39

and the reasons for hypothesizing these will be discussed. Then, an account of the

design of the experiment, the procedures involved and the instruments of

measurement used in the experiment will be discussed in detail.

3.1 Variable Measurements/Instrumentation

The materials used in this study are short story, graphic novel, text notes and i-Think

Maps from the prescribed short story (And Something Weird Happened), graphic

novel (Gulliver’s Travels), reading texts (Year 5 Text Book) and manila cards for the

drawing of i-Think maps and sets of test questions for the pre-test and post-test. In

addition, questionnaires are also will be distributed to the students in the Experimental

Group at the final stage of the data collection procedure.

The set of questions used for the pre-test and post-test are a comprehension test

consisting of twenty questions which will be developed to measure the students

comprehension of the stories. These comprehension questions will be formulated

according to the classification of questions based on Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956).

After the pre-test and post-test, the individual scores will be recorded and also

calculated and then, they will be presented in tabular and graphic form. The findings

from the questionnaires will also be recorded and tabulated into tables.

The results of the scores will be compared using t-test so as to find out whether

there would be any significant differences between the two results. Besides that, the

scores acquired by the students during the pre-test and post-test will also be used to

calculate the mode, median, means and standard deviation. Thereafter, the results of

the t-test will be analysed to see whether they correlate with the findings of the

questionnaires. Thus, any validation of the researcher’s hypothesis is determined.

 40

3.2 Data Collection

Based on the result of the pre-test, the participants will be divided into two groups.

Then, all participants will receive a reading test including 20 multiple-choice

questions. After the completion of these tests, the next step is some treatment sessions

that included using i-Think Maps instruction to the experimental group and there is no

instruction for the control group. The students will practise the reading

comprehension which will be prepared by the researcher. Based on the constructivist

theory, in order to construct i-Think Maps, the following i-Think Maps will be used:

 Making vocabulary schema by i-Think Map strategy in pre-reading

stage

 Working collectively to answer comprehension questions during

reading stage

 Creating i-Think Maps and displays it to the class

After the treatment sessions, which will last for seven weeks, the students will do a

post-test based on the graphic novel Gulliver’s Travels. All the students will answer

the questions. After the treatment sessions, the post-test will be given to the students

in both groups in order to see whether there would be any significant difference

between students’ scores on the pre-test and post-test. Finally, the results of both pre-

test and post-test will be compared.

3.3 Sampling

The subjects selected for this study will be consisted of 24 students of mixed-race

from Sekolah Kebangsaan Seri Saujana an urban national school in Kuala Lumpur.
 41

First of all, this school chosen because the researcher is teaching in the school and

thus it was easier for him to conduct his study.

Then, the students will be chosen using the opportunity sampling method, as it

is not possible for the researcher to randomly select the students without disrupting

the class, master time-table, school routine and the students’ after school activities.

Next these students are from Year 5 class that the researcher is teaching and

they have also been streamed according to their Year 4 Final examination results and

therefore their English language proficiency is of almost the same level. They are also

chosen irrespective of their gender and social background.

Finally, the researcher divided the class into two groups of 12 students. Group

C the Control Group and the Group E the Experimental Group. It was also ensured

that both groups would be represented by the same number of subjects from mix race

and both genders, namely 4 males and 8 females.

The gender variable in this study could not be fully controlled by the

researcher due to the fact that majority of the population in good classes comprised by

female students. Moreover, Hartin & Sherif (1981) asserted that gender accounts for

only one percent of the overall variance found in educational media research,

including the use of visuals. Likewise, a similar study done by Hurt (1987), revealed

that there was no significant differences between the male and female students in their

ability to use visuals. Therefore, based on these given findings, the researcher found it

justified to use more female students in the present experiment. Table 3.1 below

shows the distribution of the subjects according to gender.

 42

Table 3.1

Distribution of Subjects based on Gender

Gender Control Group Experimental Group

Male 4 4

Female 8 8

Total 12 12

3.4 Experimental Procedures

Two groups of twenty-four students were involved in this study and they were as

equal as possible in their English proficiency based on their Final Exam (Semester 2)

results for English language, which was held in October 2016. The groups are named

Control Group or Group C and Experimental Group or Group E.

Next, the researcher will ask the students chosen for the study to read the

prescribed reading text (And Something Weird Happened) at home, a week before a

pre-test will be given. After seven days, a pre-test will be administered to all the

groups and the measurements will be collected at the same time for the groups. The

pre-test will be comprised of some comprehension questions (20 multiple choice

questions) based on the given reading text, And Something Weird Happened. The test

papers are then will be collected for correction and marks will be recorded as pre-test

scores. After that, the pre-test scores will be tabulated into tables and a paired t- test

will be administered to ensure that both groups of subjects are of almost the

proficiency level.
 43

Then, the Control Group will be taught using the normal instructions in

reading comprehension as part of their curriculum by the researcher. The normal

teaching instructions used by the researcher comprised of the text, explaining of

difficult words and asking of simple Wh-Questions to test their comprehension. The

exercises given to the Control Group of students will be the same as the Experimental

Group. However, the Experimental Group will be administered with the treatment on

how to use i-Think Maps in reading comprehension. In all, seven 60-minute period

lessons will be conducted in the duration of the study to the Experimental Group

(Refer to Table 3.3). The materials for the lessons will be drawn from various sources.

It will be imperative, before the teaching of i-Think Maps that students will be

grounded in the sub-skills necessary for the drawing of i-Think Maps. Thus, two

lessons will be reserved for the acquisition of this groundwork. In particular, the

students in the Experimental Group will be taught basic text organizational patterns

such as defining in text, describing qualities, comparison, contrast, classification,

cause, effect, sequence and process. In addition, they will be also taught how to

extract main ideas and supporting details from texts. In the first and second lessons,

the researcher resorted text book materials. In those lessons, the researcher will teach

the students in the Experimental Group how to look at organizational patterns and

identifying the main ideas and supporting details. They will also be shown how to

draw their i-Think Maps. Besides that, the researcher will give the students lots of

examples of i-Think Maps which can be used to display their ideas such as circle

maps, bubble maps, and flow maps. Then, the students will answer their

comprehension exercises that will be given at the end of the two lessons, by using the

i-Think Maps provided by the researcher.

 44

It will be only from Lesson 3 that the students in the Experimental Group will

be exposed to the use of i-Think Maps in the text. During that lesson, the students in

the Experimental Group will read the reading text chapter by chapter.

Next, the researcher will divide the students into groups of four and will ask

them to discuss about the first chapter of the story, Gulliver’s Travels and then choose

a representative to present their findings in front of the class after the discussion. The

students will also be encouraged to use i-think Maps such as circle maps and bubble

maps to present their findings. Due to the rather drastic change in the number of

words and level of difficulty of texts used in comparison to those used in the earlier

lessons, there will be increased researcher guidance to the groups. During the

presentations by the group representatives, the students with the aid of the researcher

will analyse and discuss the mistake or omission of ideas pertaining to the chapter 1

of the particular text. After all the presentations, the researcher will also present two

samples of i-Think Maps on the board for the students to copy into their exercise

books. The first i-Think Map (Circle Map) will highlight all the main ideas of the first

chapter in the story. The second i-Think Map will be more detailed one and it will

seek to represent the relationship between the main ideas, supporting evidence and

examples from the story which will be relevant to support their answers for any

comprehension questions on the story.

Subsequently, during lesson 4-7, the other elements of the story such as

characters, themes, plot and moral values will be analysed and discussed by the

students. The procedures of the above four lessons will be similar to lesson 3. After

the last lesson, the subjects in both groups will be given a post-test. The subjects in

the Experimental Group will be told to draw the i-Think maps learnt in the previous

lessons to help them in their comprehension and then answer the test papers given.
 45

The questions for the post-test will be from the second story Gulliver’s Travels. Later,

after the post-test papers to be corrected, the results of both the groups will be

compared for analysis to see whether there exist any differences in the scores.

In addition to the post-test, the students from the Experimental Group will also

answer the questionnaires that will be given by the researcher. The questionnaires will

be basically geared towards finding out the students’ perceptions about using i-Think

Maps during the lessons and their expectations towards the learning of the graphic

novel.

Table 3.3

A Brief Overview of the Experimental Procedures

Lesson Topic/Task Source

Comprehension Questions Short story

- And Something Weird
- 20 Multiple Choice Questions
Initial Assessment
Administration of (MCQ) Happened
Pre-test

Types of organizational patterns Reading text from Year 5 text

Identifying main ideas and book
Lesson 1-2 supporting details

Read chapter 1 and fill up the Graphic Novel

Circle Map on main ideas Gulliver’s Travels
Lesson 3
 46

Read chapter 2 and then discuss in groups and Graphic Novel

draw Bubble Map on characters and Gulliver’s Travels
characteristics. Complete given exercise.
Lesson 4

Read chapter 3 and then discuss and draw Tree

Graphic Novel
Map on setting and plot. Gulliver’s Travels
Lesson 5

Read chapter 4 and discuss and draw Tree Map Graphic Novel
on themes and moral values. Gulliver’s Travels
Lesson 6

Discuss and draw Flow Map Graphic Novel

of the story-line Gulliver’s Travels
Lesson 7

Comprehension Questions Graphic novel

Gulliver’s Travels
Post-Test 20 multiple-choice Questions

Graphic Novel
Close ended questions Gulliver’s Travels
Questionnai
res

3.5 Techniques of Data Analysis

In analyzing the students’ performance to determine if there would be any significant

differences in their reading comprehension scores before and after treatment, both the

results of pre-test and post-test will be collected and subjected to descriptive statistics
 47

that is percentage and frequency counts. Frequency distribution tables will be also

used to present the data statistically. The data obtained is recorded in terms of

percentages. Then the results are analyzed and compared. Prior to the post-test, 12

students from the Experimental Group will be given at least seven treatments on how

to use i-Think Maps of literary text. To test for differences between the results of the

post-test of both groups of students, t-test is computed (0.05 level of significance).

Subsequently, they are presumed correlate with the findings of the

questionnaires. The results of the t-test should be in tandem with the findings of the

questionnaires. In other words, the results obtained from the questionnaires should

support the results of the t-test, and therefore, validate the objectives of this study.
 48

CHAPTER 4

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents an analysis and interpretation of the data collected in the course

of the experiment. In particular, the chapter attempts to seek answers to the question

pertaining to the use of i-Think Maps as a reading comprehension strategy to enhance

students’ reading comprehension levels in literary texts mainly the graphic novel,

Gulliver’s Travels and to assess the validity of the hypothesis made prior to the

implementation of the experiment.

The results of the study are discussed into two sections. The first section will

focus on the quantitative data analysis obtained from the quasi-experimental research

carried out by the researcher and the second section will focus on the non

experimental research data analysis obtained from the questionnaire given to the

subjects at the end of the study.

The validation of the hypothesis is achieved through a review of the statistics

of relevant tests on reliability and validity using and validity using SPSS and an

analysis of the questions in the questionnaire given to the students in the Experimental

Group.
 49

4.2 Statistical Analysis

Under this section, the data obtained from the pre-test and post-test of both the

Experimental Group and Control Group is analysed and discussed in detail.

4.2.1 Pre-test and Post-test Scores

In this section, t-test was administered on the results of the pre-test and post-test

scores of both the Control Group and Experimental Group.

Research Question One and Two

The statistical analysis from table 4.1 to Table 4.10 is related to the first and second

research questions, i) ‘To what extent does the use of skimming skill help the students

to identify the main information in a reading text.’ and ii) ‘To what extent does the i-

Think Maps help the students to answer the reading comprehension questions.’

Table 4.1

Results of t-test for Pre-test Scores between the Control and Experimental Groups

Control Group Experimental Group

N Min SD N Min SD t P

12 14.06 2.14 12 12.49 1.90 0.544 0.463

 50

With reference to Table 4.1, the mean score of the pre-test for both the

Control Group and Experimental Group were 14.06 and 12.49 respectively. The p

value obtained showed that there was no significant difference between the scores of

the subjects taught using the i-Think Maps and those taught using the conventional

method during the pre-test stage. This also indicated that the proficiency level of both

groups of subjects were almost identical at that stage because p > 0.05.

Table 4.2
Results of t-test For Post-test Scores between the Control and Experimental Groups

Control Group Experimental Group

N Min SD N Min SD t p

12 14.77 1.90 12 16.74 1.12 4.371 0.040

However, after the seven 60-minute periods lessons, both groups of subjects

showed that they have improved on their post-test scores. With reference to Table 4.2,

the mean scores for both the Control Group and Experimental Group were 14.77 and

16.74. Both groups of subjects made an improvement in their post-test scores

compared to their pre-test scores. Subsequently, the mean score of the Experimental

Group showed an increase of 4.25 compared to the Control Group which showed an

increase of only 0.71.

The p value obtained through the t-test was 0.040. This indication showed

that there is a significant difference between the scores of the subjects for post-test of
 51

both the Control Group and Experimental Group at the 0.05 level of significance (p <

0.05). Besides that, it could be concluded that teaching reading comprehension

through skimming strategy and i-Think Maps were effective in promoting better

comprehension in the learning of the said graphic novel.

Table 4.3
Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores

Groups Pre-test Post-test Improvement Improvement

(In Mean) (In Percentages)

Experimental 12.49 16.74 4.25 100%

Control 14.06 14.77 0.71 77.14%

A comparison of pre-test and post-test scores (Table 4.3) indicated that both

the groups under the study improved their final scores. The level of improvement,

however, higher for the group which received treatment in skimming strategy and i-

Think Maps, that is the Experimental Group. This group of experimental subjects

improved initial mean score of 12.49 by a 4.25 point margin.

Table 4.4
Level of Improvement: Experimental and Control Groups

Experimental Group Control Group

Total no. of subjects 12 12

No. of subjects who 12 8

improved their score

Percentage of subjects 12/12 = 100% 8/12 = 66.67 %

 52

showing improvement

The level of improvement was 100 percent for the Experimental Group. In

contrast, the subjects from the Control Group who did not receive any treatment in

skimming strategy i-Think Maps also showed an improvement in their mean score by

only 0.71points. This only constituted a 66.67 percent improvement (Table 4.4).

Hence, all things being equal, the fact that the Experimental Group showed a more

marked improvement suggested that i-Think Maps could have largely contributed to

the improved scores.

Table 4.5
A Comparison of the Range of Improvement of both Experimental and Control
Groups

Improvement Range Experimental Group Control Group

No improvement 0/12 = 0% 3/12 = 25.0%

0–1 1/12 = 8.33% 6/12 = 50.0%
2–3 4/12 = 33.33% 2/12 = 16.67%
4–5 4/12 = 33.33% 1/12 = 8.33%
6 and above 3/12 = 25.0% 0/12 = 0%

With reference to Table 4.5, all the of the Experimental Group showed

improvements in their scores after the treatments. 8.33 percent improved by 0 - 1

mark, 33.33 percent improved by 2 – 3 marks, 33.33 percent improved by 4 – 5 marks

and 25.0 percent improved by 6 marks. In contrast, 25.0 percent of the subjects of the

control group showed no improvement at all. However,50.0 percent improved by 0 –

1 mark, 16.67 percent improved by 2 – 3 marks and 8.33 percent improved by 4 – 5

 53

marks. No subject in this group showed any improvement greater than the 4 – 5

marks’ range.

Likewise , it could also be said that many of the subjects of the

Experimental Group, that is 91.67 percent, improved quite substantially, that is by at

least 10 to 30 percent in their post-test scores. Conversely, only 75.0 percent of the

subjects of the Control Group improved their post-test scores. In fact, the percentage

of students who showed deterioration in their scores was quite shocking that is about

25.0 percent. In addition, there were 2 students or 16.67 of the subjects of the Control

Group who obtained the same score in both their pre-test and post-test (Table 4.6).

Table 4.6
A Comparison of the Range of Deterioration of Experimental and Control Groups

Deterioration Range Experimental Group Control Group

No change 0/12 = 0% 2/12 = 16.67%

1-2 0/12 = 0% 2/12 = 16.67%
3-4 0/12 = 0% 1/12 = 8.33%

With reference to Table 4.7 and 4.8, at the pre-experimental stage or pre-test

stage, the subjects of Control Group had scored 1 mark range above the subjects of

the Experimental Group. The mean of 14.06 put the majority of the subjects of the

Control Group within the range of 13 – 16 mark range whereas the mean of 12.49

placed the subjects of the Experimental Group in the 11 – 16 mark range. At the post

experimental stage or post-test, despite the slight improvements made by the Control

Group,its mean 14.77 still placed the group within the same mark range of 13 – 16
 54

However, the Experimental Group had made it to the 15 -19 mark range with a mean

of 16.74. This again showed that the gap between the two groups had narrowed.

Table 4.7
Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test Scores of Control Group

Range of Marks Pre-test Post-test

0-2 0 0
3–4 0 0
5–6 0 0
7–8 0 0
9 – 10 3 0
11 – 12 3 2
13 – 14 11 15
15 – 16 14 12
17 – 18 4 5
19 – 20 0 1

Table 4.8
Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test Scores of Experimental Group

Range of Marks Pre-test Post-test

0-2 0 0
3–4 0 0
5–6 0 0
7–8 1 0
9 – 10 4 0
11 – 12 10 0
13 – 14 14 0
15 – 16 6 16
17 – 18 0 18
19 – 20 0 1
 55

A study of Figure 4.1 showed that the subjects of Experimental Group had

improved its original range of scoring. The scoring range for the pre-test was 7 – 16.

Two of the subjects from this group failed their test and three of them just managed

to get 50 percent of the comprehension questions given in the test correctly. However,

in the post-test conducted 2 months later, the scoring range was 15 – 19. Both the

lower and upper limits had been raised. Likewise, majority of the students were

scoring within the mark range of 15 – 18, and there was even a student who scored a

19. This seemed to indicate a general rise in the performance of the above said

students. In addition, 54.29 percent of them were also scoring in the unprecedented

mark ranges of 17 -18 and 19 -20.

 56

Comparison of Scores of Experimental Group

Pre-test

Post-test

14

12

10

8
Series 3
Series 2
Series 1
6

0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

Figure 4.1
Comparison of Scores of Experimental Group
 57

Comparison of Scores of Control Group

Pre-test

Post-test

14

12

10

8
Series 3
Series 2
Series 1
6

0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

Figure 4.2
Comparison of Scores of Control Group
 58

On the other hand, a study of Figure 4.2 showed that the subjects in the

Control Group had also improved its original range of scoring. The scoring range for

the pre-test was 9 – 10 and it was better than the scoring range of the Experimental

Group. However, in their post-test, which was given 2 months later like the

Experimental Group, the scoring range had also increased one range that is the mark

range of 11 – 12. The majority of the subjects were still scoring within the mark range

of 13 – 16. Thus, this trend showed that most of the subjects in the Control Group had

either made a slight improvement or maintained their scores compared to the

Experimental Group.

On the whole, it can be claimed that whilst the subjects of the Control Group

were still performing better, considering that their lower limit was higher compared to

their scores during their pre-test, the subjects of the Experimental Group has narrowed

the gap.

Table 4.9
Distribution of Scores at the Pre-test Stage

Range of Marks Experimental Group Control Group

0–2 0 0
3–4 0 0
5–6 0 0
7–8 1 0
9 – 10 1 1
11 – 12 2 2
13 – 14 5 5
15 – 16 3 4
17 – 18 0 0
19 – 20 0 0
 59

With reference to Table 4.9, it could be seen that at the pre-test stage, the

subjects of the Control Group were clearly the better scoring subjects. Majority of the

subjects of this group were already in the 13 – 18 mark range whereas most of the

subjects of the experimental Group were only in the 11 – 16 mark range. Besides that,

six of the subjects of the Control Group were already in the 15 – 18 mark range

compared to only three of the subjects in the Experimental Group during this stage.

Table 4.10
Distribution of Scores at the Post-test Stage

Range of Marks Experimental Group Control Group

0–2 0 0
3–4 0 0
5–6 0 0
7–8 0 0
9 – 10 0 3
11 – 12 0 1
13 – 14 0 2
15 – 16 2 7
17 – 18 9 2
19 – 20 1 0

However, in the post-test as indicated in Table 4.10, there was a significant

increase of subjects in the experimental Group who scored within the 15 -18 mark

range compared to the Control Group which had a decline of a subject. This clearly

indicated that the Experimental Group of subjects had made significant improvement
 60

in the course of ‘treatment’ to enhance and develop their comprehension and thinking

skills compared with the Control Group of subjects.

4.2.2 Analysis of Questionnaires on Respondents’ Perception of Using i-Think

Maps in Children’s Contemporary Literature

Research Question Three

The statistical analyses from table 4.11 to 4.16 are related to the third research

question, ‘What are the students’ perceptions regarding the use of i-Think Maps? The

analyses in the tables mentioned are derived from Question 1 -7 of Section B of the

questionnaire respectively.

Table 4.11
Number of respondents who find the graphic novel, ‘Gulliver’s Travels’
difficult without i-Think Maps

Question 1 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do you find the graphic novel,

Gulliver’s Travels difficult 10 83.33 2 16.67
without i-Think Maps?
 61

In Table 4.11, it can be seen that 10 or 83.33 percent of the respondents in the

Experimental Group found the graphic novel, Gulliver’s Travels difficult without i-

Think Maps, while 2 or 16.67 percent of the respondents did not find it so.

Table 4.12
Number of respondents who underline or make notes while reading the
graphic novel, ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ when there are no i-Think Maps

Question 2 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do you underline or make notes

While you read the graphic 9 75.0 3 25.0
novel, Gulliver’s Travels when
there are no i-Think Maps?

Similarly, the statistical analysis in the table 4.12 revealed that 9 or 75.0

percent of the respondents resorted to underlining or making short notes from the

graphic novel when there were no i-Think Maps, while 3 or 25.0 percent of them did

not do so.
 62

Table 4.13
Number of respondents who find reading texts of a graphic novel
with i-Think Maps interesting

Question 3 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do you find the reading texts of a

graphic novel with i-Think Maps 10 83.33 2 16.67
interesting?

Likewise, in Table 4.13 and Table 4.14, 10 or 83.33 percent of them found

reading texts of a graphic novel with i-Think Maps interesting and more meaningful,

while 2 or 16.67 percent of them found otherwise.

Table 4.14
Number of respondents who find reading texts of a graphic novel
with i-Think Maps more meaningful

Question 4 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do you find the reading texts of a

graphic novel with i-Think Maps 10 83.33 2 16.67
more meaningful?
 63

Table 4.15
Number of respondents who find reading texts of a graphic novel
with i-Think Maps easier to understand and remember

Question 5 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do you find the reading texts of a

graphic novel with i-Think Maps 12 100 0 0
easier to understand and remember?

In addition, Table 4.15 showed a noteworthy feature that is all the respondents

or 100 percent of them found the reading texts of a graphic novel with i-Think Maps

easier to understand and remember.

Table 4.16
Number of respondents who find i-Think Maps help to improve their
understanding of the reading texts

Question 6 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do you find the reading texts of a

graphic novel with i-Think Maps 12 100 0 0
easier to understand and remember?
 64

Furthermore, Table 4.16 and table 4.17 clearly show that 12 or 100 percent of

them also mentioned that i-Think Maps helped them to improve their understandings

of the reading texts besides saving their time in looking for the required information.

Table 4.17
Number of respondents who find i-Think Maps save their time
In looking for the required information

Question 7 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do i-Think Maps save your time in

looking for the required information? 12 100 0 0

Research Question Three

The statistical analyses from Table 4.18 to Table 4.22 are related to the

following research question, ‘Does the i-Think Maps technique employed in the study

help students to develop and enhance their thinking skills? The analyses in the tables

mentioned are derived from Question 8 – 12 of section B of the questionnaire

respectively.

Table 4.18
Number of respondents who find i-Think Maps them
to develop their thinking skills
 65

Question 8 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do i-Think Maps help you to

develop your thinking skills? 12 100 0 0

The statistical analysis in Table 4.18 showed 12 respondents (100 percent)

found i-Think Maps helped them to develop their thinking skills.

Table 4.19
Number of respondents who find the tasks and activities using
i-Think Maps challenging

Question 9 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do you find the tasks and activities

using i-Think Maps challenging? 10 83.33 2 16.67
 66

In the Table 4.19, the analysis showed 10 respondents (83.33 percent) found

the tasks and activities using i-Think Maps challenging, while 2 respondents (16.67

percent) did not found them challenging.

Table 4.20
Number of respondents who find the tasks and activities using
i-Think Maps require them to think critically

Question 10 Frequency

Yes % No %

Do the tasks and activities using

i-Think Maps require you to think 11 91.67 1 8.33
critically?

Likewise, the analysis in Table 4.20 revealed that 11 respondents (91.67

percent) found that the tasks and activities using i-Think Maps required them to think

critically, while only 1 respondents (8.33 percent) found otherwise.

 67

Table 4.21
Number of respondents who say their teacher encourages to reach
their own interpretation of the text

Question 11 Frequency

Yes % No %

Does your teacher encourage you to

reach your own interpretation of the 12 100 0 0
text rather than relying on a ‘correct’
or standard one when you draw your
i-Think Maps?

In addition, Table 4.21 shows 12 respondents (100 percent) agreed that their

teacher encouraged them to reach their own interpretation of the text rather than relied

on a ‘correct’ or standard one when drawing their i-Think Maps.

Table 4.22
Number of respondents who say their teacher involves them in the drawing of
the i-Think Maps during literature lessons.

Question 12 Frequency

Yes % No %

Does your teacher involve you in the

drawing of the i-Think Maps 12 100 0 0
during the literature lessons?
 68

Lastly, Table 4.22 showed that all the respondents (100 percent)

wholeheartedly agreed that their teacher involved them in the drawing of the i-Think

Maps during the literature lessons.

4.2.3 Administration of t-test

A t-test at 0.05 percent level of significance on the means of the pre-test and post-test

of experimental group was conducted. The yielded p value of 0.040, a significant

value, indicated that the null hypothesis could be rejected. Whilst it must be

acknowledged that the sample size of 12 was not large enough for any finite

conclusions to be made, statistics suggested that the independent variable of the

teaching strategy of i-Think Maps had made a significant impact on the dependent

variable in the form of exam scores.

4.3 Results of the Statistical Analysis

Whilst there is adequate statistical evidence to suggest that the independent variable

of i-Think Maps had fundamentally contributed to the improved score of the

Experimental Group in the post-test, we cannot disregard the possibility that other

factors could have played a contributing role in the improved scores. These factors

include the successful implementation of other reading strategies in the formal

curriculum and sufficient handouts and notes on the various elements of the literature

text, thereby making the required comprehension task more accessible and familiar. It

can be argued, however that if these other variables had played a significant roles in

escalating the scores of the Experimental Group, they would also have enabled
 69

members of the Control Group to improve their scores likewise, too. But this was not

the case.

In fact, statistics showed very clearly that in many modes of measurement,

subjects in the Experimental Group had managed to narrow its disparity with

members of the Control Group. These disparities could be seen from

1. The improvement in the mean scores of the Experimental Group compared

to the mean scores of the Control Group that is 4.25 for the Experimental

Group compared to 0.71 for the Control Group.

2. The number of subjects who improved on their score is higher in the

Experimental Group compared to the Control Group (100 percent to77.14

percent).

3. The Experimental Group raised their upper limits of its original range of

scoring by 2 mark ranges compared to the Control Group which managed

to raise its upper limit by only a mark range.

4. The t-test administered on the post-test scores of the Experimental Group

and Control Group yielded a significant p value of 0.040, an indication of a

significant difference between the means of both the groups. It also

showed that the independent variable (i-Think Maps) had made a

significant impact on the target group.

However, it is important to note that although majority of the subjects from

both the Experimental Group and Control Group were in the mark range of 13 – 18,

the number of subjects who performed better that is in the 15 – 18 mark range were

from the Experimental Group. This indicated that to some extent, i-Think Maps had
 70

made an impact on the Experimental Group. In other words, the practice of drawing i-

Think Maps was responsible for the improvement of the post-test scores.

On the whole, the statistical evidence seemed to indicate that i-Think Maps are

effective as a teaching and learning tool for enhancing reading comprehension in

literature among students. Subsequently, it also helped to develop and enhance their

thinking skills.

4.4 Summary

The researcher provided descriptive analyses on the results of the pre-test and post-

test scores from the experimental research before presenting the findings from the

questionnaires. Then, the quantitative data of the pre-test and post-test from both the

Experimental Group and Control Group were analysed in tabular forms and SPSS as

it yielded higher validity. The interpretation and implications from the results would

be discussed at length in the following chapter.

 71

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 An Overview of the Study

The purpose of this study was to carry out an experimental study to find out the

effectiveness of i-Think Maps in enhancing comprehension in literary text that is the

graphic novel in the English language Class. For this purpose, twenty-four students

from an urban school were selected for the study.

The said study was conducted over a course of eight weeks. In those eight

weeks, two comprehension tests (pre-test and post-test) were administered and seven

lessons were carried out to two groups of students called the Experimental Group and

Control Group. The Control Group was taught using the conventional method of

teaching reading comprehension, mainly discussion of the passages and explanations

of difficult words by the researcher. On the other, the Experimental Group was taught

the instructional strategy of using i-Think Maps in comprehension by the researcher.

The researcher applied the teaching strategy of using i-Think Maps in his literature

lessons to help enhance the comprehension of the students.

After the lessons, the researcher gave a post-test to both groups of subjects and

then compared the scores of the post-test to the pre-test which was given before the

researcher taught the graphic novel. If there is a significant difference from the pre-
 72

test after the treatment using i-Think Maps, the said treatment is then considered to be

an effective teaching strategy to promote better comprehension in literature.

On top of that, the researcher would also evaluate if the i-Think Maps

technique employed in the study help to develop and enhance their thinking skills.

This data was collected through the questionnaires given out by the researcher at the

end of the study to evaluate the usefulness of i-Think Maps as an instructional

strategy. This chapter also discusses certain implications of the study for instructional

methodology.

5.2 Conclusions

The results of the study are favourable to the research questions stated at the

beginning of the study. With reference to my first research questions, To what extent

does the use of skimming skill help the students to identify the main information in a

reading text, it was found that there was a significant difference in the scores of the

pre-test and post-test after the implementation of the treatment.

With reference to the data presented in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 in Chapter 4, it

could be seen that the mean score of the Experimental Group has increased from

12.49 (pre-test) to 16.74 (post-test). The mean difference of 4.25 is very significant

and it indicates that there was a difference in the scores of the Experimental Group

compared to the Control Group. This also meant that the scores of the Experimental

Group showed a significant difference after receiving lessons and exercises on using

i-Think Maps in reading comprehension on literary text.

A study of Figures 4.1 and 4.2 together with Table 4.9 and 4.10 has provided

an affirmative answer to the second research question, To what extent does i-Think
 73

Maps help the students to answer the reading comprehension questions. It can be seen

that the subjects of the Experimental group had narrowed their gap in getting better

scores after using i-Think Maps. Subsequently, there was also a significant increase in

the number of subjects from the Experimental Group who scored within the 15 – 18

mark range in the post-test. Thus, this clearly indicates that the Experimental Group

had made significant improvement in the course of ‘treatment’.

In addition to the above data, the statistical analysis from table 4.11 to Table

4.17 clearly indicates that majority of the subjects in the Experimental Group found i-

Think Maps, an effective teaching strategy to promote better reading comprehension.

They mention that i-Think Maps helped them to improve their understanding of the

reading texts besides saving their time. Many also mentioned that it is easier to

remember what they have read using i-Think Maps. The t-test administered on the

pre-test and post-test scores of the Experimental Group also yielded a significant p

value of 0.040 which proved that the independent variable had made a significant

impact on the target group. Hence, confirming the effectiveness of i-Think Maps as a

teaching strategy in elevating the understanding of the reading text, the graphic novel

Gulliver’s Travels.

The answer to the third research question, ‘What are the students’ perceptions

regarding the use of i-Think Maps?’ could be seen from the statistical analysis in

Table 4.18 to table 4.22. Majority of the respondents found that i-Think Maps helped

them to develop their thinking skills, besides being challenging, and requiring them to

think critically. They also stated that by drawing the i-Think Maps on their own with

the teacher’s encouragement, they learnt to reach their own interpretation. Their own

involvement in the drawing of the i-Think Maps certainly helped them to understand

the literature text better.

 74

Consequently, because the comprehension questions were structured in such a

way that required students to think, the improved performance made by the students

in the post-test, therefore, correlates directly to the improvement made by the students

in their thinking skills. Thus, the above research question is answered affirmatively.

5.3 Presentation of Findings

This study was conducted on a small scale and was limited in scope. The sample size

was small, and the period of three months in which the experiment was implemented

was too short for the strategy of i-Think Maps to be introduced, taught absorbed and

utilized to the maximum. The graphic novel used in the experiment was also limited

in stylistic variety. Thus, even though statistical evidence indicated that the

Experimental Group had shown substantial improvement in their mean score, more

research needs to be done to further confirm the validity of the effectiveness of i-

Think Maps in reading comprehension. The scope study should be wider. Firstly, the

sample size must be large enough for more accuracy in statistical analysis. Next, the

time frame must be extended to allow more time to monitor the progress of the

Experimental Group. On top of that, i-Think Maps can be found in many forms,

depending on the nature of the literary text. Thus, a longer time frame must be taken

into consideration because most students needed the time to familiarize themselves to

a variety of literary texts differing in content, style and length.

In spite of the limitations in scope, this study has yielded certain interesting

insights. Firstly, the literary text used in the study contained many complex structures,

metaphorical expressions and other comprehension skills which are linguistic in

nature, and i-Think Maps have proven to be an essential tool to aid the learners in
 75

overcoming these barriers of comprehension. Secondly, in the process of drawing-

Think Maps, the learners were obliged to analyse cohesive devices so as to study the

relationships between ideas. With teachers’ guidance to ensure that these cohesive

devices are correctly interpreted and to ease in the unscrambling of complex

structures, text understanding is enhanced. Furthermore, i-Think Maps are

fundamentally summaries presented in visual forms and they contain short precise

important ideas and details. All these are favourable to comprehension because the

information given in any literary texts can be processed immediately, quickly and

easily which indirectly promotes better retention of ideas (Buzan, 1991).

Thirdly, i-Think Maps also help the students to develop and enhance their

thinking skills. These are necessary skills that will help the young students to survive

in our present modern and challenging world. Hence, it is pertinent that i-Think Maps

should be incorporated in the learning and teaching process of an individual to ensure

survival and success in any future undertakings.

5.4 Implications of the Study

This research has shown several implications in relation to the importance of using i-

Think Maps in literary text and these implications can broadly be categorized in two

areas that are to the teachers and the learners…

5.4.1 Implications for the Teacher

This study has highlighted the importance of using i-Think Maps in literary texts.

They have been proven to be effective instructional strategy in enhancing students’

 76

comprehension of the literary text, the graphic novel. In this study, i-Think Maps were

used as a tool to help the students have a better grasp of the novel’s content and

organization. To a large extent, the strategy was useful in that it not only helped the

students achieved a basic literal understanding of the graphic novel, it also enabled

them to perceive the development of ideas in the novel and recognize that each

element of the novel was connected to another and most of the times, they combined

and formed the framework or mechanism of the graphic novel.

i-Think Maps are essentially visual in nature. They serve as a point of contrast

to the massive and forbidding density of words characteristic of texts. The space

between the boxes in i-Think Maps can, I feel, psychologically relieve the any reader

especially those who are weak from some amount of stress. The reader thus feels less

threatened and will be able to comprehend any text with more ease. Ultimately,

because the statements in i-Think Maps are necessarily brief and to the point, they are

easier to process. Instead of having to trudge through the whole text again to recall

main ideas and supporting details, the reader can, at one glance garner the whole

argument from the i-Think Maps. Besides that, most readers have difficulties

retaining what they have read, so the i-Think Maps can rectify this shortcoming. He or

she does not have to struggle through the text again to recall any text information. So,

as a prelude to written comprehension tasks, i-Think Maps once again serve as a

helpful tool to all kinds of readers regardless of their levels of proficiency.

In addition, i-Think Maps are used in the reading classroom as they allow the

teacher to communicate to the readers especially the weaker ones, the ideational

structure of a given text. Thus, in accordance to the objective of using i-Think Maps

in this study, the readers now have a clearer overview of the content so that they can

perform the required tasks with ease. However, from my experiences with teaching i-
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Think Maps to my students, I would like to caution some first-time practitioners that

some students either initially love the strategy or find it little difficult. Hence, it is

advisable that you should encourage your students to try out this strategy first before

they reject it as a way to study. On top of that, you can also encourage your students

to try out this strategy by beginning with some structured practice on easy interesting

materials. Provide them with the initial structure by asking them to complete a circle

map or bubble map in small groups or pairs. By doing so, these students would be

able to foresee the usefulness of i-Think Maps to enhance their comprehension.

Therefore, all teachers should try to incorporate i-Think Maps in their reading lessons,

reap the benefits of this study.

5.4.2 Implications for the Learners

This study has some bearing on the learners. Most learners have great difficulty

organizing and synthesizing ideas from sources, whether articles, journals, novels or

books (Moje, 1996; Simpson & Nist,2001). Usually, these learners may inadvertently

resort to copying what they have read and listing these “borrowed ideas” without

thinking about overall patterns or generalizations. Thus, this study may be the key to

many of the problems faced by learners in schools. It has highlighted the effectiveness

of i-Think Maps as an instructional strategy in enhancing comprehension of a literary

text. It also provides the learners with an alternative conduit which they can develop

and utilize to enhance their comprehension in any reading texts. Apart from that, this

study also features the importance of i-Think Maps as a medium that helps the

learners to learn to ask appropriate questions about the subject matter and answer

them by representing them in a spatial format. I-Think Maps are also seen as powerful
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learning tools because they help learners make their implicit mental constructions

explicit and build new mental links modelled on their own or others’ representations.

In addition, they develop the learners’ thinking skills and these thinking habits will

serve the learners in all areas of study for the rest of their lives. Thus, it is with utmost

importance that i-Think Maps should be incorporated in the reading texts of the

learners during the teaching of reading to learners.

Subsequently, the study also helps the learners to identify their ways of

learning. Just as different tasks require different approaches to study, learners too vary

in their ways of learning. Some learners have distinct preferences. For example, some

approach learning in a linear way; they want to know exactly what is expected and

study very systematically, often preferring a traditional outlining approach for taking

notes. However, other learners need to see things more visually and holistically; they

often respond well to i-Think Maps and like recursive reading and writing that goes

with it. Therefore, all learners should be exposed and given the opportunity to try a

variety of approaches to study reading and be responsible to find those that are best

suited to them and then utilize them to achieve their personal objectives. Lastly, the

effectiveness of i-Think Maps will promote positive reading habits and the love for

literary texts can be inculcated.

5.5 Recommendations for Future Research

Given the findings of this study, further researches on this topic can be conducted in

the following areas. First, of all, the samples of this study were confined to the Malay-

majority students in one school only and in one state, that is Wilayah Persekutuan.

Further researches can be conducted with a state or national sample to include

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students from various ethnic groups throughout the state or from various states in the

country. This would certainly improve the reliability of the researches. Sincereliability

is concerned with the sample size, the larger the sample the greater the probability

that the test as a whole is reliable (Heaton, 1988).

Secondly, this research only focuses on the use of i-Think Maps in graphic

novel for primary school. Therefore, any future researches should focus on other

literary texts such as short stories, poems, linear and non-linear texts. This will also

help to determine the effectiveness of i-Think Maps in elevating the learners’

understanding of the various types of literary texts.

Thirdly, our education departments could conduct more methodology courses

for in-service literature teachers. These courses should include approaches in teaching

literature creatively in second language classes. Steps should also be taken to reduce

the workload of English Literature teachers. They should be given fewer English

classes to teach so as to encourage and motivate them to prepare their literature

lessons and teach creatively. This can also enable them to do action research and write

articles for publication or presentation at seminars and conferences. Apart from that,

intensive and continuous literature courses should be conducted at national, state and

district levels to familiarize literature teachers with the various pedagogical

approaches such as using video clips, taped dialogues, e-mail responses and journal

writing. All these will enable them to teach literature creatively.

Furthermore, workshops on the approaches to teaching literature creatively

should be conducted for those who have not attended such courses or received any

training on teaching literature. These courses could provide opportunities for them to

be exposed to the various approaches on how to teach literature besides learning how

to teach literature correctly and creatively. It will also create awareness towards the
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importance of teaching literary texts among teachers and educators. Subsequently,

these workshops will provide the teachers and educators with a platform for

exchanging and sharing ideas and knowledge on teaching literature creatively.

In addition, this study has been rather global and exploratory. So, in depth

studies with the aim of identifying specific types of i-Think Maps that could be used

to teach certain genres of literature could be made. For example, bubble maps could

be used to write about characters and also to compare and contrast two different

characters. Flow maps and tree maps could be used for the purposes of telling a story

or a plot in a literary text. Thus, if studies focusing on this conception could be carried

out, it would definitely give a clearer picture of the different attributes and facilitate

remedial measures if any shortcomings are detected.

Lastly, teachers’ training colleges and institutions of higher learning should

play a more concerted role in the selection of English teachers to teach the subjects

effectively in second language classes. They should ensure that those selected have a

genuine interest and right mental attitude towards the teaching and learning of the

subject concerned. The lecturers and educators from these colleges and institutions

should also work together with the curriculum planners. This is essential to facilitate

any change in syllabus design and ensure effective implementation of the subject

concerned that is literature. Preparation of well-planned literature modules could also

be done at this stage to provide specific and clear objectives in order to teach

literature creatively.

5.6 Closing
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The learning of literature involves the stimulation of the mind and emotions in order

to excel in it. Our minds and emotions are naturally vulnerable towards various

factors around us. Therefore, the learning of literature is also influenced by these

factors. In order to achieve a better performance and also to realize our country’s

Vision 2020, students of all ages should be exposed to interesting literature classes,

suitable literary texts and not forgetting effective instructional strategy such as i-

Think Maps.

In all, the merits of i-Thinks Maps outweigh the limitations. To a large extent

the use of i-Think Maps in literary text can be effectively used to enhance

comprehension between the reader and the text. In this study, most of the subjects

from the Experimental Group managed to improve their scores and also the quality of

their grades. In spite of the limitations in scope, this study confirms what has been

proven by previous studies (Armbruster & Anderson, 1982; Alvermann & Van

Arnam, 1984, Chung Han Teck, 1991) that is strategies that involve visual text

representations benefit all types of readers. In conclusion, i-Think Maps can be

considered as a reliable tool in bridging the gap between the reader and the text,

developing and enhancing comprehension besides promoting better thinking skills.

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REFERENCES

Armbruster, B.B. (1991). Using literature in the content areas. The Reading Teacher,
45.

Bahagian Pendidikan Guru. (1995). Kemahiran Berfikir Secara Kritis dan Kreatif:
Alat-alat Berfikir. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page
1. Pre-test on And Something Weird Happened 83
2. Passage