Analiza C.

Cortes BSED-MATH 2A

Elaborate the following:

1. Informal logic

Informal logic is a general phrase for all of the different ways that people analyze and
assess arguments in daily life. Most people consider informal logic to be an alternative to formal
or mathematical reasoning. also referred to as critical thinking or informal logic.

2. Theorems and proofs0

● A postulate in geometry is a claim that is taken as true based on fundamental geometric

ideas. The claim that "between any two points is exactly one line" is an illustration of a
postulate. Postulates were once considered to be theories that did not need to be
supported by evidence. A mathematical assertion that both can and must be proved to
be true is known as a theorem. When you studied the Pythagorean Theorem, you first
encountered the phrase "theorem." The majority of your future geometry work will
include learning various theorems and demonstrating them are real.

● What exactly does "proving" anything entail? You have frequently been requested in the
past to "justify your answer" or "explain your reasons." This is due to the fact that it's
critical to be able to explain your reasoning to people so that, ideally, they can concur
that you must be correct. A proof is merely a formal way to support your claim. Your
objective in a proof is to use knowledge and facts that have already been established as
being true to demonstrate that a new statement must likewise be true.

● A “theorem” is just a statement of fact. A “proof” of the theorem is a logical explanation of

why the theorem is true.

3. RAA proofs

● RAA, reductio ad absurdum, is Latin for "reduction to absurdity." One of the fundamental
rules of logic is that one can NEVER derive falsity from truth. True premises together
with proper reasoning guarantees a true conclusion. As a historical matter, indirect proof
has played a major role in the development of Western thinking and mathematics.
Attempts by Reimann and Lobaschevsky to prove Euclid's parallel postulate through IP
lead to the development of non-Euclidian geometry.

● Reductio Ad Absurdum (RAA) is a proof technique that takes advantage of our newly
found ability to introduce any assumption into a proof at any time (with the proviso that
we properly discharge the assumption). You will recall that one way to demonstrate that
an argument is valid is to show that the truth of the premises is inconsistent with the
falsity of the conclusion. IP exploits this fact by allowing us to demonstrate validity by
 showing that the premises of an argument together with the negation of the conclusion
logically entail contradiction (a statement of the form p ● ~p).

4. Negation

Sometimes in mathematics it's important to determine what the opposite of a given

mathematical statement is. This is usually referred to as "negating" a statement. One thing to
keep in mind is that if a statement is true, then its negation is false (and if a statement is false,
then its negation is true)

5. Quantifiers

It's vital to know the opposite of a given mathematical statement from time to time in
mathematics. This practice is known as "negating" a statement. Remember that if a statement is
true, then its negation is also true (and if a statement is false, then its negation is also true).

6. Implication Law of excluded middle and proof by cases

The propositional formula p_¬p can be used to express the law of excluded middle. It
denotes the truth or falsity of a statement. Consider it as asserting that there isn't a middle
ground between truth and falsehood. Every claim must be either true or false.

7. Incidence geometry Models

We may use dots and dashes to to represent points and lines so that the axioms appear
to be correct statements. We view these dots and dashes as a model for the incidence
geometry.

Example 1. Consider a set {A, B, C} of three letters, which are called “points.” The
“lines” are those subsets consisting of two letters, i.e., {A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}. A “point” is
interpreted as “incident” with a “line” if it is a member of that subset. For instance, point A is lies
on lines {A, B} and {A, C}. Every two distinct lines meet at a unique point (referred to elliptic
parallel property). There are no parallel lines. It is impossible in incidence geometry to prove
that parallel lines exist.

8. Isomorphism of models

Two models of incidence geometry are said to be isomorphic if there is a one-to-one

correspondence P ↔ P between the points of the models and a one-to-one correspondence ` l
↔ l ` between the lines of the models such that P lies on l if and only if P lies on l. Such a
correspondence is called an isomorphism from one model onto the other.
Sources:

https://flexbooks.ck12.org/book/ck-12-geometry-concepts-honors/section/4.1/

https://www.thoughtco.com/informal-logic-term-1691169

http://cstl-cla.semo.edu/hhill/pl120/notes/indirect%20proof.htm

https://www.math.toronto.edu/preparing-for-calculus/3_logic/we_3_negation.html

https://study.com/learn/lesson/quantifiers-mathematical-logic-overview-examples.html