History 6Sem621History English HistoryandCul

BA621HIS-E
B.A.
THIRD YEAR SEMESTER - VI
HISTORY
History and Culture of Telangana from

Earliest Times to 1948
“We may forgo material benefits of civilization, but we cannot forgo

our right and opportunity to reap the benefits of the highest education
to the fullest extent as the education is the greatest material benefit”.
-Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD
2020
i
COURSE TEAM
Editor
Prof. V. Ramakrishna Reddy
Associate Editor
Dr. Gajula Dayakar
Writers
Prof. E. Sudha Rani (Unit 14)
Dr. Srinivasa Rao Vaddanam (Unit 13 & 15)
Dr. G. Anjaiah (Unit 6 &7)
Dr. S. Anjaiah (Unit 4,5 & 12)
Dr. C.V. Pavan Kumar (Unit 3 & 10)
Sri D. Surya Kumar ( Unit 1 & 2)
Dr. Gajula Dayakar (Unit 8, 9 & 11)
Cover Design
Sri G. Venkata Swamy
First Edition: 2020
© 2020, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, Telangana State.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the permission
in writing from the University.
The text form part of Dr. B.R, Ambedkatr Open University Programme.
Further information on Dr.B.R. Ambedkar Open University courses may be obtained from the
Director (academic), Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Road No. 46, prof. G. Ram Reddy
Marg, Jubilee Hills, Hyderbad-500033.
Web: www.braou.ac.in
Mail to: info@braou.ac.in
Lr. No.
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ii
CONTENTS
Block/ Unit Title Page
Block 1: Introduction to Telangana History 1

Unit 1 : Sources, Physical and Geographical Conditions 2
Unit 2 : Pre-History of Telangana 12
Block 2: Ancient Period 18

Unit 3 : Satavahana Age: Society, Economy and Culture 19
Unit 4 : Ikshvakas, Vakatakas, Vishnukundis and Rastrakutas: 32
Polity, Society, Economy and Culture
Unit 5 : Chalukyan Age. 49
Block 3: Medieval Period 66

Unit 6 : Kakatiya Polity, Society and Culture 67
Unit 7 : Musunuri Nayakas and Padmanayaka: Polity, 77
Society-Economy and Culture
Unit 8 : Bahamani Polity, Society-Economy and Culture 86
Unit 9 : Qutb Shahi Polity, Society-Economy and Culture 103
Block 4: Modern Period: Asaf Jahis 123

Unit 10 : Asaf Jahis: Polity, Society and Culture 124
Unit 11 : Economic Conditions under the Asaf Jahis 132
Unit 12 : Modernisation during Asaf Jahi Period 146
Block 5: Popular Movements in Telangana 156

Unit 13 : Freedom Movement in Telangana 157
Unit 14 : Tribal, Dalit, Peasant and Women’s Movements 170
Unit 15 : Integration of Hyderabad State into the Indian Union 189
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PR E FAC E
Telangana, the land of Telugu-speaking people, has always been in the forefront of
history. It has long history, spanning over Ancient, Medieval and Modern periods. Each period,
or for that matter, each dynasty that ruled over this rich tract, has left to posterity its valuable
and abiding contributions in administrative, economic, social and cultural fields. They form rich
treasure of Telugu people and as beacon lights for their onward march in the path of progress,
peace and prosperity.
This book which is meant for B.A III year Degree students of the University under
Semester system, starts by way of introducing Sources, Physical and Geographical features of
Telangana and also its Pre-history. The successive rule of Satavahanas, Ikshvakus, Vakatakas,
Vishnukunds and Chalukyas in the Ancient period, and of Kakatiyas, Musunuri Nayakas,
Padmanayakas, Bahamanis and Qutb Shahis in the Medieval period and of Asaf Jahis in the
Modern period has been dealt in a chronological and analytical manner. Special focus has been
put in bringing out the Polity, Society Economy and Culture during the reign period of each of
these dynasties. Besides these, popular movements that sprang in Telangana in the form of
Freedom Movement, Tribal, Dalit, Peasant and Women's Movements, and finally the Join Indian
Union Movement, have been portrayed, with people and their spontaneous activities always in
the forefront.
This book, in order to facilitate the students has been divided into five Blocks, and each
Block consisting of three or four Units, whose total number is kept at 15. Items like check your
progress, summary Model Examination questions and Further Readings, have all been
understanding of the developments that formed part of this Telangana History and Culture.
It is hoped that this work, contributed by renowned teachers of history, would be able
very much to satisfy the needs of the students as well as the interested readers of Telangana
history.
BLOCK - I
INTRODUCTION TO
TELANGANA HISTORY
The sources for the study or reconstruction of Telangana history are varied,
such as archaeological, numismatic, epigraphical history, foreign accounts, folk studies
and interdisciplinary studies. Each one of these has its own valuable contribution.
Many early historic sites like Satavahana site at Kondapur; numerous ruined Hindu
temples from Chalukyan period to late medieval; and mosques, tombs and palaces
representing Indo-Islamic architecture were also excavated, conserved and preserved.
Coins of Ikshvakus are found at sites in Krishna Valley or south Telangana at Phanigiri,
Nelakondapalli etc. Coins of Badami Chalukyas and other Chalukyan dynasties are
also found in abundance. Kakatiya coins tell us about the titles of the rulers and the
context. Coins of Qutbshahis tell us that Golconda was called as Mohammed Nagar
as inscribed on the coin. Kakatiya period left us with many inscriptions, helping us to
understand their times. Important among them are inscriptions at Thousand Pillar
temple, Ramappa temple, Bekkallu, Chandupatla etc. Inscription issued by Maha
Laqa Bai, a poet, musician, dancer, courtier of Second Nizam speaks of her donations
found at her Tomb complex at Moula Ali.
Stone Age is divided into Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Age), Middle Stone
Age (Mesolithic Age) and New Stone Age (Neolithic Age), which are further subdivided
based on different characteristics. Sites concentrated in Godavari Valley are Boath,
Adilabad, Utnoor, Asifabad and some sites in Karimnagar and Warangal districts
represent Upper Palaeolithic Age. Human Settlements started in Telangana,
Rayalaseema and deltaic zones of Godavari and Krishna rivers. Iron Age in Deccan
including Telangana and Andhra Pradesh overlaps and merges with the Early Historic
Phase. Dhulikatta, Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Kadambapur, Peddabankur,
Kotalingala and Kesanapally are some of the Iron age sites in Telangana. There are
hundreds of major megalithic sites in Telangana viz., Budigapalli, Kadambapur,
Peddabankur, Kaparalagudu, Alipur, Dornakal, Mangapet, Kolakonda, and Narmeta
in North Telangana. Pullur, Shivaru Venkatapur, Chagatur, Peddamarur, Chinnamarur,
Virladinne, Uppalapadu, Amrabad region, and Nagarjunakonda in South Telangana.
Hashmatpet, Maulali, Bowenpally, Lingampalli and Gurramguda etc in Hyderabad
and Rangareddy Districts.
This block is divided into two units:
Unit-1 : Sources, Physical and Geographical Conditions.

Unit-2 : Pre-History of Telangana.
1
UNIT- 1: SOURCES, PHYSICALAND GEOGRAPHICAL
CONDITIONS
Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historiography of Telangana
1.3 Divisions in Telangana history
1.4 Sources
1.4.1 Archaeological evidences
1.4.2 Numismatic evidences
1.4.3 Epigraphical evidences
1.4.4 Literary evidences
1.4.5 Foreign accounts
1.4.6 Folk studies
1.4.7 Interdisciplinary Studies
1.5 Geography of Telangana: General features
1.5.1 Telangana plateau
1.5.2 Altitude
1.5.3 Rocks
1.5.4 River basins
1.6 Soils and Rainfall:
1.7 Flora and fauna
1.8 Geography as environmental history of Telangana
1.9 Summary
1.10 Model Answers to Check your Progress
1.11 Model Examination Questions
1.12 Further Readings
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the sources for the study of Telangana history
2. Explain the geographical features of Telangana.
3. Discuss the impact of geographical features of Telangana on its society and history.
4. Analyse the River basins and its impact on economy of Telangana.
5. Describe the historiography of Telangana.
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Telangana, being one of the earliest places in the Indian subcontinent which cradled
the human civilisation, has a rich history. Whether preserved beneath the layers of earth or
above in the form of structures along with the other material evidences in the form of coins,
inscriptions, artefacts and sculptural material, they speak out ‘the history as it was’. Literary
works from early historic periods to contemporary times, provided facts and narratives, leaving
the scope for interpretations and discussion. Understanding the progression of history in Telangana
by differentiating into stages, listing out the sources and finally by correlating and interpreting
the sources will enrich the study of Telangana history.
Understanding the geography of a particular region is to contextualise various periods
of history. All the life forms on the earth cannot survive unless the material conditions in terms
of geography which we call as environment, support them. Likewise, the human evolution,
spread or distribution, development in terms of material cultures and sustenance, all depend
upon the geographical conditions of that particular region. To understand in a simple way, the
life and cultures of the people living in coastal areas differ from the life of the people of deserts.
Agricultural practices of plateaus differ from the Gangetic plains. So, Telangana which is part
of Deccan plateau has its specificities in terms of geography on which lies the progress of
history in this region.
1.2 HISTORIOGRAPHY OF TELANGANA

What is historiography? It is the study of writing history. One has to keep in mind that
interpreting or writing history often gets subjective as the ruling class or the people in command
want to portray events or development as they desire. So, Telangana history was a victim in
general as part of Indian history written with class, caste and colonial biases and specifically
was a victim of bias during the past seven decades when it was not a separate State. As a
result, Telangana history was ignored, improperly recorded and distorted. Attempts to rewrite
the history of Telangana in a proper perspective have begun along with the movement for
Statehood and are continuing. In this process, historians could bring out many sources for
rewriting of Telangana history.
1.3 DIVISIONS IN TELANGANA HISTORY

As we divide Indian history it is studied under three broader divisions -
a. Ancient history: it includes prehistory, proto-history and early history
b. Medieval History: it studies a vast period covering the history of about ten or eleven
centuries. It is subdivided into early medieval, medieval and late medieval, broadly.
c. Modern history covers the period from the Colonial era till present times, including the
Indian Independence Movement in Indian context and the Hyderabad State of Asafjahis
in Telangana context, and finally the Struggle for Separate Statehood for Telangana
and the formation of Telangana.
1.4 SOURCES
The sources for the study or reconstruction of Telangana history are varied, such as
archaeological, numismatic, epigraphical history, foreign accounts, folk studies and
interdisciplinary studies. Each one of these has its own valuable contribution. These could be
discussed in detail, as have under for better focus and understanding
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1.4.1 Archaeological evidences
History gets preserved in the layers of earth as archaeological evidences. Excavating
Telangana’s historic past has begun in 1914 with the establishment of the Archaeology Department
by Mir Osman Ali Khan, the seventh Nizam in his dominions under the stewardship of Ghulam
Yazdani. Crowning glory of this period was the excavation, conservation and preservation of
Ajanta, Ellora and many rock-cut sites in the Hyderabad State. Many early historic sites like
Satavahana site at Kondapur; numerous ruined Hindu temples from Chalukyan period to late
medieval; and mosques, tombs and palaces representing Indo-Islamic architecture were also
excavated, conserved and preserved. These efforts are being continued by the Department of
Archaeology of AP and later from 2014 under Heritage Telangana (as the Archaeology
Department is presently called). Latest excavations are going on at Phanigiri, a magnificent
Buddhist site in Suryapet district where a rare life-size stucco of Bodhisatva was found in 2019.
State Museum and Yeleswaram pavilion in Hyderabad, regional museums at Warangal,
Karimnagar, Panagal (Nalgonda), Pillalamarri (Mahabubnagar) and ASI museum at Kondapur
showcases the archaeological evidences of Telangana. Some of the important archaeological
sites are given below-
Pre-historic period: There are more than 100 identified pre-historic sites among
which about 50 are recorded in detail. Some best examples are Pandavula Gutta (Jayashankar
Bhupalapally), Mudumal (Mahabubnagar) and Akshara Loddi (Khammam).
Early Historic sites: Sites representing Satavahana, Ikshvaku, Vishnukundi and
Badami Chalukya times, are spread over entire Telangana. Best known sites are Kotilingala,
Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, Kondapur (Satavahana); Phanigiri, Vardhamanukota, Gajulabanda
(Ikshvaku), Keesaragutta, Thummalagudem, Chaitanyapuri (Vishnukundi), and Alampur (Badami
Chalukya)
Medieval: Ramappa (Jayashankar Bhupalapally), Thousand Pillar and Fort (Warangal),
Kota Gullu (Ghanpur group of temples), Golconda fort, Charminar, Qutbshahi tombs etc.
Modern: British Residency in Koti, Jubilee Hall, Raymond’s Tomb, Arts College,
Osmania Hospital, High Court, Falaknuma Palace etc.
1.4.2 Numismatic evidences

Numismatics is a most important primary material evidence for any period as it carries
the information of that period more accurately. Eminent numismatists from Telangana like Dr.
Deme Raja Reddy and others recorded history by studying the coins. Study of coins tells us the
knowledge of metallurgy of that period, language, script, religious or social symbols and context.
Kotalingala coins established the beginnings of Satavahana dynasty at Kotalingala and in north
Telangana. Apart from this site, coins of Satavahana period are found at Peddabankur, Dhulikatta,
Kondapur, and various sites presumed as Satavahana forts. Coins of Ikshvakus are found at
sites in Krishna Valley or south Telangana at Phanigiri, Nelakondapalli etc. Coins of Badami
Chalukyas and other Chalukyan dynasties are also found in abundance. Kakatiya coins tell us
about the titles of the rulers and the context. Coins of Qutbshahis tell us that Golconda was
called as Mohammed Nagar as inscribed on the coin.
1.4.3 Epigraphical evidences

Inscriptions are the records of the deeds of the rulers or some influential section of the
society of the past. Earliest inscriptions of Telangana are of early historic period written in
Prakrit language and inscribed in Brahmi script. Many fragmentary inscriptions and a few full
inscriptions of Satavahana period are found in all Buddhist sites of Telangana. Mukkatraopeta
inscription gives the first ever epigraphic, evidence of Asmaka mahajanapada. Ikshvaku
inscriptions are found in Krishna valley, and many in Phanigiri. At Tummalagudem (also called
4
as Indrapalanagaram) in Nalgonda district, sets of copper plate inscriptions of Vishnukundi
times are found which establishes Tummalagudem as the capital ofVishnukundi dynasty. In a
temple in Chaitanyapuri in Hyderabad, an inscription of Govindavarma, a Vishnukundi king
establishes the presence of a Buddhist Maha Vihara in 5th century taking the legacy of
Hyderabad to early historic period. While the inscriptions at Alampur recorded the period of
Badami Chalukyas, inscriptions at Patancheruvu, Kolanupaka, and many other sites in south
Telangana recorded Kalyani Chalukya period.
There are many important medieval inscriptions among which Kurkyala inscription of
Jinavallabha is noteworthy as it is a tri-lingual inscription and Telugu part was written in Kanda
padya. Kakatiya period left us with many inscriptions, helping us to understand their times.
Important among them are inscriptions at Thousand Pillar temple, Ramappa temple, Bekkallu,
Chandupatla etc. Coming to Qutbshahi and Asaf Jahi inscriptions, they were written in Persian
and Telugu and are found at all public places of those periods. Some Telugu inscriptions of this
period (15th C AD) are worthy of mention like the one at Tellapur in Sangareddy district which
records Telangana word for the first time.
Language and script of inscriptions found in Telangana were Prakrit and Brahmi in
early period, followed by gradual entry of Sanskrit from Ikshvaku period; Telugu in medieval
and gradual evolution of present Telugu script from early medieval to medieval and finally in
Modern in Telugu and Persian. Inscription issued by Maha Laqa Bai, a poet, musician, dancer,
courtier of Second Nizam speaks of her donations found at her Tomb complex at Moula Ali.
1.4.4 Literary evidences

Literature was the major source for writing history in the early 19th and 20th centuries
in Indian subcontinent. That is why we can see many historians are literary personalities as
they extracted history from literary works of early to medieval periods. Though literature is one
of the evidences it has to be correlated with the material evidences as there is always a possibility
of incorrectness, subjectivity, bias, exaggerations to creep in them. With this caution, literary
evidences help in writing history. First mention of the people whom we call Telugus is in Aitareya
Brahmana, a Later Rigvedic text, which has the word Andhra along with Pulinda which can be
taken as the tribal denomination of the people here. Buddhist literature is another rich source of
evidence of our past. In Suttanipata, there is mention of Bavari, the man who brought Buddhism
to this land, who was residing in Asmaka, corresponding to north Telangana. Several Jataka
stories of Buddhism and some Jaina texts like Adi Purana (composed in 9th Century) also
mention of this land in pre-Christian era.
Early literature of the Satavahana period, Brihatkatha, Gathasattasai, and Lilavati
were written in Prakrit and important as the earliest literature of this land. Since then though
many texts were produced, we lost many as they were inscribed on palm leaves. Janashraya
Chandovichhitti of Madhava Varma IV of Vishnukundi dynasty, and many texts were produced
under the patronage of Rashtrakutas and their subordinates, Vemulavada Chalukyas. Interesting
aspect of this period was that Kannada Adikavi Pampa lived in the court of Vemulavada
Chalukyas in Telangana. Kakatiya period saw a huge treasure of literature produced which
include, Prataparudriyam of Vidyanatha, NiroshtyaRamayanam of Sakalya Malla,
Madhuravijayam of Gangadevi, Jayapasenani’s gr eat wor ks Nrittaratnavali,
Sangitaratnavali, Vadyaratnavali in Sanskrit; Tikkana Somayaji’s part of Andhra
Mahabharatam, Ranganatha ramayanam by Gona Buddha Reddy, Markandeya Puranam
by Marana, Andhra Dasakumara cahritra by Ketana, Nitisara by Kakati Rudra,
Panditaradhya Charitramu by Palkuriki Somanatha, and Sumati Satakamu by Baddena etc.
Rachakonda, Padmanayaka king, Sarvagna Singabhupala’s Rasarnava Sudhkaram is acclaimed
work on music. Potana who lived during Padmanayaka rule, a native of Bammera wrote Andhra
Mahabhagavatam, Bhogini Dandakam and VirabhadraVijayam was identified a great writer
from Telangana.
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Under Qutb Shahi rulers, Telugu, Sanskrit, Persian and Urdu were patronised. Ibrahim
Quli, popular for his love and patronage for Telugu and was called as ‘Malkibharama’, was a
poet and patron of Addanki Gangadhara, the author of Tapati samvaranopakhyanam. The
founder of Hyderabad Mohammed Quli himself was an accomplished poet whose verses were
compiled into Kulliyat. Kancharla Gopanna, popularly known as Ramadasu, composed his
keertanas during Abul Hasan Tanashah period. Yayaticharitram written by Ponnaganti
Telaganarya was another famous work of this period. Kshetrayya dedicated 1500 padams to
Abdullah Qutb Shah.
Literary sources of modern period can be divided into pre-1948 and later period. Famous
works of this period came from Bhagyareddy Varma, Suravaram Pratapa Reddy, Dasharathi,
Vattikota Alwarswamy, Madapati Hanmantha Rao and others, which are different from the old
feudal period of medieval times and are related to society, politics and people of Telangana.
This is the period when the growth of such literature also contributed to the growth of press and
library movement in Telangana.
Though many literary personalities enriched literature in Telangana, post-1956 witnessed
discrimination. Jai Telangana agitation of 1969 and later the last phase of movement for Statehood
to Telangana played an important role in invigorating the dissent and protest against Andhra
ruling class through literature. While Kaloji stands as the leading light of Telangana’s poetry,
poets, lyricists, novelists like Gaddar, Goreti Venkanna, Varavara Rao, Nandini Sidhareddy,
Allam Rajaiah represented life of this land.
Literature representing the history and struggle for Telangana has entered a new phase
from the year 2000 onwards, and as a result, at least 5,000 songs were composed, a couple of
hundred poetry anthologies and a hundred stories and novels documented the modern history of
Telangana.
1.4.5 Foreign accounts

First record of Telangana in foreign accounts dates back to 3 rd C.B.C’s work of
Megasthenes’s Indica, which mentions about 30 Satavahana forts. Later, though there are
some indications of Buddhist travellers to this land, not much record is available. Kakatiya court
received Marcopolo, who described Rudrama’s capabilities and other socio-economic aspects
of those times. Trader-travellers from Arabia, Persia, Italy and Portugal visited Golconda and
documented information on Qutb Shahi kingdom.
1.4.6 Folk studies

Though not much work has been done in the field of folk literature, history of some
heroes and heroines of medieval period are preserved by people in the form of folk literature
which is oral tradition. History of tribal heroines Sammakka-Sarakka, Sarvai Papadu who rose
from an ordinary toddy tapper to a leader challenging the Moghal authority at Golconda, and an
innocent justice-seeking Gond tribal Kumram Bheem’s armed struggle against Nizam all are
now revisited through folk studies.
1.4.7 Natural Sciences interdisciplinary studies

Some extinct forms of like Dinosaurs, flora and fauna of the past which are found in
the Godavari valley are studied with the help of Palaeo-zoology, Palaeo-Botany and Geology.
Recently, the Archaeology Department of Telangana in association with Centre for Cellular
and Molecular Biology (CCMB) found the age and Genetic Marker of some bones found in
megalithic burials in Telangana. This helps to date the specific burial in particular and megalithic
period in general.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - I
Note: (a) Space is given below for writing your answer.
(b) Compare your answer with the once given at the end of this unit.
1. Which inscription mentioned the Asmaka mahajanapada.
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. Which source mentioned about Bavari
.................................................................................................... ..............................
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1.5 GEOGRAPHY OF TELANGANA : GENERAL FEATURES

Telangana occupies a strategic place in the geography of India as it connects the
North India above Vindhyas with Southern peninsula with coordinates between 15o 50’ N to 19o
51’ N latitude and 77o 15’ E to 81o19’ E longitude. As a part of Deccan plateau, it possesses
some common characteristics of Deccan plateau and also specific characteristics and called as
Eastern Deccan plateau. The geographical area of the State comprising of 1,12,077 Sq. Kms,
extending to a north-south length of about 770 km, and an east-west width of about 515 km.
Telangana State is divided into 33 administrative districts and stands as the 12th largest State in
India in terms of area corresponding to 3.4% of the total area of India. Telangana plateau is
part of Deccan plateau which can be studied in terms of altitude, types of rocks and river
basins.
1.5.1 Telangana plateau

Different sub-regions of the plateau are identified with different names. To name a
few, Bhainsa-Nirmal Plateau, Bhongir-Ramannapet plateau, Devarakonda plateau, Nalgonda-
Miryalaguda plateau, Suryapet-Huzurnagar plateau etc. are part of Telangana plateau. Average
height of this region lies between 500 to 600 feet above MSL. The rock formations are
characterised by hills and hillocks with different names at sub-regions, to Nirmal hillocks and
Satmala hill tract extending the parts of such as Boath, Normal, Utnoor and Khanapur areas;
Rakhi hills in Karimnagar, Kanagal or Kandikal hillocks in Mahbubabad and Kothagudem,
Sirnapalli series in Nizamabad.
1.5.2 Altitude
The State can be divided into three categories based on the altitude above the Mean
Sea Level (MSL).
a. Region having altitude of above 600 mts above MSL. Mainly located in the western
part of Telangana comprising of Hyderabad, Rangareddy, part of Medak and part of
Mahbubnagar
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b. Region having altitude of above 300 mts to 600 MSL. Broadly covers the western part
of Telangana comprising Rangareddy, Mahabubnagar, Nizamabad, and Warangal
Districts. In the North faulting has preserved a belt of Gondwanas along with the lower
Godavari and on the South lies the Krishna and Tungabhadra valleys.
c. Region having altitude below 300 MSL. Large area covering the districts on the two
sides of Godavari, viz., Adilabad, Karimnagar and Khammam and the districts of
Warangal and Nalgonda fall under this category.
1.5.3 Rocks
Geologically, the plateau is chiefly composed of ancient precambrian gneiss. Its nearly
fully eroded peneplain (a vast featureless, undulating plain with the last stage of deposition
process) is marked by almost completely graded valleys, and monadnocks (isolated hill of
bedrock standing conspicuously above the general level of the surrounding area commonly
consisting of quartzite or less jointed massive volcanic rocks) that range from hill groups to tors
and arrangements of massive boulders. Telangana plateau is made of vast sheets of massive
granite rock, which effectively traps rainwater. Under the thin surface layer of soil is the
impervious gray granite bedrock.
Part of the Nallamala Range of hills, which are a section of the Eastern Ghats, fall
in Nalgonda and Mahbubnagar districts of the State in the Krishna Valley. The rocks of the
Nallamala ranges are part of Kadapa system which is a series some 20,000 ft. thick.The primary
rocks are Quartzite overlaid with an irregular slaty formation and some sandstone. These rocks
are among the oldest in the world and have been formed as a result of large scale volcanic
activity hundreds of millions of years ago. The foldings in the rocks explain the volcanic forces
during the time of their formation.
Hyderabad is blessed with a unique landscape and spectacular rock formations which
are about 2,500 million years old; and are among the oldest and hardest rocks in the world.
1.5.4 River basins

The Godavari and Pranahita rivers in the North and Krishna and Tungabhadra in the
South form the natural boundaries for Telangana. The plateau is drained by the Godavari River
taking a southeasterly course; by the Krishna River, which divides the peneplain into two regions.
Godavari basin: Being the longest river of South India, it has largest basin in which
Telangana has a major part. Godavari enters into the State at Kandakurthy in Nizamabad
District, called as Triveni Sangamam as the other two rivers, Manjira, Haridra meet Godavari.
Entire north Telangana falls under Godavari basin as the river and its tributaries flow in this
region. With the completion of Kaleshwaram project, the north and south Telangana are linked
in a very big way in terms of irrigation and environmental aspects. Pranahita, Indravati,
Taliperu, Sabari, Manjira, Manair, Kinnerasani are the tributaries of Godavari.
Krishna Piedmont: Krishna river enters into Telangana at Siddheshwaram in
Mahbubnagar district. Nalgonda, Mahabubnagar, Gadwal-Jogulamba and Nagarkurnool districts
of south Telangana form part of Krishna valley. Forests in Nallamala range are probably one of
the largest stretches of undisturbed forest in South India. Tributaries of Krishna are Bhima,
Dindi, Peddavagu, Musi, Paleru and Munneru which enriched the land in South Telangana.
Apart from these two major rivers and their tributaries, many rivulets and huge tanks constructed
since early historic periods to late medieval period are forming the network of riverine ecosystem
of Telangana.
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1.6 SOILS AND RAINFALL
Telangana contains various soil types they are red sandy loams (chalka), red loamy
sands (dubba), lateritic soils, salt affected soils, alluvial soils, shallow to medium black soils and
very deep black cotton soils. These soil types are favourable for the cultivation of a variety food
crops, commercial crops and fruits, such as paddy, maize, cereals, millets, sugarcane, cotton,
mangoes, oranges and flower crops.
The Southwest monsoon brings rain to Telangana, and the rainy season begins from
the second quarter of June. The annual rainfall is between 900 and 1500 mm in northern
Telangana and 700 to 900 mm in southern Telangana.
1.7 FLORA AND FAUNA

The plant and animal life of Telangana is typically a plateau based with a diverse
nature. The vegetation found is largely of dry deciduous type with a mixture of teak, and
species of the genera Terminalia, Pterocarpus, Anogeissus etc. Animal life has a diversity
which includes tiger, panther, wolf, wild dog, hyena, sloth bear, gaur, black buck, chinkara,
chowsingha, nilgai, cheetal, sambar and a number of birds including Indian roller and a variety
of reptiles in rural landscape and forests.
1.8 GEOGRAPHY AS ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF

TELANGANA
If we study geography in an isolated manner without looking at the life forms including
the humans, it makes no sense in the study of history. As we study the human history as a
narration of the progress made from a pre-historic stage to present day, it is the correlation
between the human beings and the environs which played a major role, which is clearly evident
in each phase of our history.
As discussed in the sources, the evidences of plant forms and living beings which we
call as flora and fauna is recorded on the earth, rocks and dried up surfaces in the river valleys
in the form of fossils which is studied under paleobotany and paleozoology. Finding of a dinosaur
fossil named as Kotasaurus yamanpallensis in Mancherial district prove the antiquity of the
land and makes this region a rich garden of fossils.
Geological formations of Telangana formed the finest and suitable conditionality for
the human evolution in the early part of pre-history. The rocky hillocks and river basins created
conducive environment for the most part of pre-history. The coarse-grained quartzite (Krishna,
Tungabhadra valley), chert and chalcedony (lower Godavari valley) and fossil wood (forests of
Eturunagaram in Warangal district) provided them raw material for making tools of chopper-
chopping technique in the lower Paleolithic age some 3 lakh years ago, different materials like
chert, agate, chalcedony, quartz, bones, fossil wood etc., provided them raw material for a
variety of tools.
Iron found in abundance in Telangana ushered a new stage in the human evolution as
Iron age dating back to 1000 BC. This also corresponded to Megalithic age which is a
characteristic of Deccan and especially Telangana. As the surroundings are full of rocks and
boulders, burial culture developed expressing in different types of burials.
Knowledge of Iron and interaction with the Neolithic cultures developed earlier in
northern counterpart has helped Telangana to develop agriculture, settled life in janapadas
and finally giving birth to a mahajanapada during 6th. BC. All the above mentioned geographical
conditions and availability of raw materials helped present day Telangana to distinguish itself as
the only Mahajanapada below Vindhyas known as Asmaka.
9
Carrying the geographical specificities from early history, history is unfolded into
medieval period, as we could see the main mode of sustenance, i.e., agriculture is characterised
by the crops of a varied nature including paddy to semi-arid crops like maize.
In terms of architecture, as one school of thought opine that Buddhist stupa is a
continuation and extension of a megalithic burial which is largely a Deccan specific. Hill forts
(giridurgas) and fortifications made of stones in the late medieval period, all correspond to the
geographical characters of Telangana.
Rivers, tributaries and rivulets along with tanks provided a network of drainage system
for irrigation, transport and gave birth to big villages and towns in their basins.
Religious structures, starting from Buddhist viharas to later Brahmanical temples, all
sprung up either depending on the river ecosystem or as hillock-based abods.
Finally, in terms of polity, the geographical conditions gave rise to cultures and systems
as we could see the earliest empire of Deccan in the form of Satavahanas who rose from the
banks of Godavari at Kotalingala. Ikshvakus rising in Krishna Valley, Vishnukundis from Amrabad
ranges of Nallamala to become the lords of a big region between Godavari and Krishna, Vakataka
rule in the north and parts of south Telangana as a contiguity of Pravara-Wardha valley, Badami
Chalukya origin lying in Krishna-Tungabhadra doab and expanding to major part of Deccan
which was inherited by Rashtrakutas all point out to the geographical uniformity or influence.
Kakatiyas to Asaf Jahis represented Telangana identity politically as they are deeply entrenched
into the land and the sky of Telangana.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - II

1. The Godavari River entered into Telangana State at
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. The River Krishna entered into Telangana State at
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
1.9. SUMMARY
Every society leaves its past in the form of various evidences. Various types of evidences
as discussed above are the tools to record, and re-write Telangana history. It is the duty of the
historian to assess, evaluate and use the evidence in the service of writing of history. Studying
history by contextualising in geography or geology makes sense as humans cannot survive and
progress without proper conducive material conditions. In this background, the rocks, soils,
rivers and other forms of nature and environment nurture civilisations with the human effort
which is symbiotic. This is the environmental history of Telangana, as we call it today traversing
the paths of pre-history, Asmaka Mahajanapada, early to late medieval periods and finally
into the 21st century as a State in India.
10
1.10 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check your progress answers - I
1. Mukkatraopeta.
2. Suttanipata
Check your progress answers - II

1. Kadanakurthy in Nizamabad district.
2. Siddheswaram in Mahaboobnagar district.
1.11 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

I. Answer the following Questions in about 30 lines.
1. Explain the sources of Telangana history.
2. Discuss the environmental conditions in Telangana.
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines.

1. Bring out the salient features of river basins in Telangana.
2. Describe the rock formation in Telangana.
1.12 FURTHER READINGS

1. Chandramouli, N : Rock Art of South India
2. Telugu Akademi : Telangana History-Culture, Hyderabad.
3. Murthy, M L K, (ed.) : Pre- and Proto History of Andhra Pradesh up to 500
BC.
4. Krishna Sastry, VV : The Proto and Early Historic Cultures of Andhra
Pradesh.
5. Thakur Raja Ram Singh : Some unique discoveries in Stone Age Archaeology
in Telingana region
6. Thakur Raja Ram Singh : Living conditions of Paleolithic man in Godavari
valley from Basar to Bhadrachalam
11
UNIT - 2: PRE - HISTORY OF TELANGANA
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources
2.3 Stages of Human evolution
2.4 Ages in pre -history
2.4.1 Palaeolithic age
2.4.2 Mesolithic Age
2.4.3 Neolithic Age
2.4.4 Bronze age
2.4.5 Iron Age
2.4.6 Megalithic Culture
2.5 Rock Art
2.6 Summary
2.7 Model Answers to Check your Progress
2.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the first stage of human history in Telangana.
2. Explain Paleolithic to Neolithic tool making and changing mode of subsistence.
3. Discuss development of human knowledge from stone tool to metal.
4. Anlyse cult of burial – megalithic cultures.
5. Describe earliest form of artistic expression through Rock Art.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Prehistory is the period in history where archaeological remains are the only evidences
to reconstruct the history of that part of historical period. Stone and metal tools, bones, skeletal
remains, burials, rock art (paintings on the walls of the caves and stones) etc., are the
archaeological tools of prehistory through which historians, anthropologists reconstruct the life
of the human beings who lived in that time-frame of history.
2.2 SOURCES OF PRE - HISTORY

• In India, first stone tool (a ground or polished stone axe) was found by Meadows Taylor
at Lingasagur in 1842.
• Robert Bruce Foote, pioneer of Indian Prehistory, discovered first paleolith at Pallavaram
near Madras in 1863. He, along with his son Henry, excavated in Billa Surgam caves
near Betamcherla in Kurnool district in 1884. These excavations established the antiquity
of human life in South India.
12
• The Department of Archaeology of Hyderabad State was established in 1914, by Mir
Osman Ali Khan, the seventh Nizam. Thus begun the explorations, excavations and
studies in archaeology in Hyderabad State. ‘Antiquarian remains in Hyderabad State’
published by this Department in 1953, mentions about 118 sites as protected areas
including prehistoric sites.
• In Telangana, part of United Andhra Pradesh, some pre historic sites were found during
the salvage Archaeological excavations in Nagarjuna Sagar valley. Excavations done
in these submerging areas like Yeleswaram yielded many evidences of prehistoric times.
• Thakur Raja Ram Singh, an archaeologist by choice and advocate by profession, did
yeoman service to Archaeology of Telangana. He explored the entire Godavari valley
in Telangana part and found many pre-historic and early historic sites.
• Skeletal remains of dinosaur fossil named as Kotasaurus yamanpallensis belonging to
Lower Jurassic age dating back to 160 million years, was collected from Yamanpalli in
the Mancherial district of Telangana. This fossil is fourteen metres in length and over
five metres in height and presently at display in the Dinosaurium at Birla Centre at
Hyderabad. This is the evidence of antiquity of life in Deccan.
2.3 STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

• Homo habilis: Earliest member of human genus, 2.3 to 1.7 million years ago
• Homo erectus: lived during 1.9 or 1.7 to 2.5 lakh years ago
• Homo sapien neanderthalensis: 2 lakh years to 40,000 years ago
• Homo sapiens: 40,000 to present day
2.4 AGES IN PRE - HISTORY

Prehistory is divided according to the ‘Three Age System’ which is applied to the sites
world wide. Stone Age is divided into Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Age), Middle Stone Age
(Mesolithic Age) and New Stone Age (Neolithic Age), which are further subdivided based on
different characteristics. Though there is a general periodisation applicable world wide, it differs
to some extent in different areas.
2.4.1 Palaeolithic Age or Old Stone Age

This is the oldest period corresponding to geologically Pleistocene period, which yielded
animal bones and stone tools. This age is of longer duration represented by many gradual
changes, which are further divided into three ages.The basis of subsistence was hunting and
food gathering.
Lower Palaeolithic Age: (3,00,000 – BC 1,30,000 years)

• Human evolution, early humans.
• Tools of this age are represented with tools of chopper-chopping technique. Tools included
hand axes, cleavers, picks, discoids, chopping tools and a variety of scrapers. Raw
material used was coarse-grained quartzite (Krishna, Tungabhadra and Penneru), chert
and chalcedony (lower Godavari valley) and fossil wood (forests of Eturunagaram in
Warangal district).
• Sites are concentrated in Lower Godavari Valley, Ramagundam, Godavarikhani, Sirpur,
and Vemanapalli in North Telangana.
13
Middle Palaeolithic Age: (BC 1,30,000 – BC 50,000 to 20,000 years)
• Flake-tools like scrapers, borers and awls were dominant.
• Evolution of modern humans occurred during middle and upper Palaeolithic Age.
• Tools of this period are found in Godavari and Krishna basins in Telangana.
Upper Palaeolithic Age: (BC 40,000 – BC 10,000 years)

• Blades tool culture, bone tool culture and rock art are the characteristics of this period.
• Humans evolved as Homo sapiens, which is the sub- species to which we all belong.
• Tools included hand axes, cleavers, picks, discoids, chopping tools and a variety of
scrapers.
• Sites concentrated in Godavari Valley are Boath, Adilabad, Utnoor, Asifabad and some
sites in Karimnagar and Warangal districts represent this period.
2.4.2 Mesolithic Age or Middle Stone Age (BC 10,000 – BC 3,000)

• It is the transitionary stage to the Neolithic Period.
• This stage was intermediary from hunting, food gathering stage agriculture of Neolithic
period.
• Tools are microliths made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate, quart and crystal.
2.4.3 Neolithic Age (BC 3,000 – BC 1,500)

• Stone axes finished by grinding and polishing are called as neoliths which are the main
characteristic of this period.
• Subsistence was dominated by agriculture and stock-breeding
• Gordon Childe termed this age as ‘Neolithic Revolution’. This is also known as agricultural
revolution.
• Important features of this period are:
(a) Domestication of animals and plats
(b) Use of polished stone axes and stone blades
(c) Settled village life
(d) Pottery production (first by hand and later wheel-made)
(e) Use of copper/ bronze tools in the later stages
• Human Settlements started in Telangana, Rayalaseema and deltaic zones of Godavari
and Krishna rivers
• Knowledge and usage of metals in this stage is a big leap in this period which led to
human civilisation
2.4.4 Bronze age (BC 3,000 – BC 1,000)

• Smelting- first metal to be smelted is copper
2.4.5 Iron Age (BC 1,000 to present age)

• This period also corresponds to a period known as Proto-historic period because in this
period script and formation of smaller kingdoms called as Janapadas usage has begun.
Iron Age in Deccan also corresponds to Megalithic Age.
14
• Iron Age in Deccan including Telangana and Andhra Pradesh overlaps and merges
with the Early Historic Phase. Dhulikatta, Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Kadambapur,
Peddabankur, Kotalingala and Kesanapally are some of the Iron age sites in Telangana.
2.4.6 Megalithic period: (BC 1,500- BC 300)

The South Indian Megalithic period represents the iron- using culture, wheel-turned
pottery and elaborate tombs. Because the knowledge of use of Iron in Telangana has begun in
this age, Iron Age also correspond to this age. Megalith word corresponds to burial practice
unlike the other names associated with the type of stone tools. ‘Mega’ means big and ‘lith’ is
stone. People in this period built different types of burials with stones which are huge in size.
Practice of burial is associated with the ‘Cult of the dead’ which is based on the life after death.
The dead were kept in coffin or stone pit and big stones were arranged in a pattern. They also
buried many items and pet animals along with the dead as found in many Megalithic burials in
Telangana. In local parlance, they are called as Rakshasa gullu. Megalithic burials are of 4
types.
1. Pit Burials or Cairns
2. Cist Burials
3. Dolmens
4. Rock-cut burials
There are hundreds of major megalithic sites in Telangana:
North Telangana- Budigapalli, Kadambapur, Peddabankur, Kaparalagudu, Alipur,
Dornakal, Mangapet, Kolakonda, Narmeta
South Telangana -Pullur, Shivaru Venkatapur, Chagatur, Peddamarur, Chinnamarur,
Virladinne, Uppalapadu, Amrabad region, and Nagarjunakonda
Hyderabad and Rangareddy Districts Hashmatpet, Maulali, Bowenpally, Lingampalli
and Gurramguda

1. Upper Paleolithic Age sites are located in
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. In Telangana Iron Age sites were
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
15
2.5 ROCK ART
First creative expression of the prehistoric humans is rock art. They did it as part of
their struggle for life with the nature and surroundings. Rock art is the term used to define
prehistoric art in the form of paintings, bruisings and engravings on the rock surfaces of caves,
rock shelters and rock boulders.Paintings and pictographs are done by applying natural colours
on the rock to depict symbols, motifs and figures. If the rock is chiselled with the help of stone
or metal to depict a motif, symbol or figure, they are known as petroglyphs, peckings, bruising
or engraving. Paintings, and petroglyphs Rock art in Telangana spans from prehistoric phase to
early historic period. Archaeologists classified the period of the rock art site based on depicted
images. Motifs related to fauna relate to Mesolithic, humped bulls to Neolithic-Chalcolithic and
petroglyphs with the circle-with-trident symbol and geometric designs are assumed to be of
Megalithic period.
• Sanganonipalli (near Makhtal in Mahbubnagar district): Mesolithic period- paintings
of huge deer figures, tortoise, human figures and other animals, all in red colour
• Dupadugattu (near Kodangal, Mahbubnagar district): Mesolithic & Neolithic period,
humped bulls, deer and geometric motifs in red
• Mudumal (near Makhtal, Mahbubnagar district): Megalithic, animal figures, humped
cattle, engraving of mother goddess etc in red
• Dongalagattu (near Kalwakurthy, Mahbubnagar district): Mesolithic – animal and
human figures
• Edthanur (Sangareddy district): Mesolithic & Neolithic period
• Wargal (Medak district): Megalithic and historic period, bruisings of humped bulls,
human with weapons, and geometric symbols
• Kokapet (Rangareddy): Mesolithic and megalithic paintings of deer herd, geometric
symbols and human figures in red
• Pandavulagattu(Jayashankar Bhupalapally district): Mesolithic period to late medieval
period (Kakatiya) – humped cattle, fish, human figures with weapons, horse riders,
epic stories in red, white, yellow, blue, green and brown
• Ramachandrapuram (Khammam district): Megalithic and early historic, painted
engravings of hand figures, animals, female vulvas, geometric symbols and motifs,
paintings of anthromorphs, geometric symbols and floral motifs in red.

1. In Mahaboobnagar District Mesolithic period paintings were found in
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. Megalithic and early historic paintings found in Khammam District in
.................................................................................................... ..............................
..................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
16
2.6 SUMMARY
The Department of Archaeology of Hyderabad State was established in 1914, by Mir
Osman Ali Khan, the seventh Nizam. Thus begun the explorations and excavations studies in
Archaeology in Hyderabad State. ‘Antiquarian Remains in Hyderabad State’ published by this
Department in 1953, mentions about 118 sites as protected areas including prehistoric sites.
Upper Palaeolithic Sites that are concentrated in Godavari Valley are Boath, Adilabad, Utnoor,
Asifabad and some sites in Karimnagar and Warangal districts. Iron Age in Deccan including
Telangana and Andhra Pradesh overlaps and merges with the Early Historic Phase. Dhulikatta,
Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Kadambapur, Peddabankur, Kotalingala and Kesanapally are
some of the Iron age sites in Telangana.

1. Sites that are concentrated in Godavari Valley are Boath, Adilabad, Utnoor, Asifabad
and some sites in Karimnagar and Warangal districts.
2. Dhulikatta, Yeleswaram, Nagarjunakonda, Kadambapur, Peddabankur, Kotalingala and
Kesanapally are some of the Iron age sites in Telangana.
1. Sanganonipalli near Makthal.
2. Ramachandrapuram in Khammam district.

1. Explain the Pre-historic ages in Telangana
2. Discuss the Megalithic age culture in Telangana.
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines.

1. Analyse the Neolithic age sites in Telangana.
2. Describe the Rock art culture in Telangana.

1. Chandramouli, N : Rock Art of South India
2. Murthy M L K,(Ed.) : Pre- and Proto- historic Andhra Pradesh
up to 500 BC
3. Krishna Sastry, VV : The Proto and Early Historic Cultures of Andhra
Pradesh
4. Krishna Sastry, VV : The Science of Antiquity, Essays in Archaeology and
History
5. Thakur Raja Ram Singh : Some unique discoveries in Stone Age Archaeology
in Telangana region
17
BLOCK - II
ANCIENT PERIOD
Satavahanas were the first empire builders in South India. Their kingdom was
established on the ruins of the Mauryan empire. They ruled over Dakshinapatha for about
250 years. the Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised Malwa, Kutch, Surashtra, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh and Southern plains of the Gangetic valley. During the peak of its rule, it
even extended up to Karnataka and Tamilnadu. The dynasty had different capital cities at
different times, including Pratishthana (Paithan) Amaravati (Dharanikota) and Kotilingala.
Historians consider Satavahana period as the beginning of art in Deccan region.
The Ikshvakus, Vakatakas, Vishnukunds and Rashtrakutas, ruled different parts

of Telangana. The rulers from these families improved agriculture and irrigation, facilitated
trade and commerce and played a crucial role in the spread of several monuments belonging
to Buddhist, Jaina, Saivite and Vaishnavite faiths. They also encouraged higher education
and promoted the development of language and literature.
The Badami Chalukyas ruled the Deccan region from the middle of sixth to the
middle of eighth century C.E. Though their capital Badami or Vatapi was situated in
Karnataka, they nonetheless controlled some parts of Telangana region through governors,
the rastrapatis and vishayapatis. when the Badami Chalukyan power was in decline,
religious and cultural two important Chalukyan families viz., Vemulavada Chalukyas and
Mudigonda Chalukyas emerged in Telangana with Vemulavada and Koravi (or) Mudigonda
as their head quarters, respectively. They were contemporary to the Rashtrakutas of
Malkhed and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. An important aspect of these two minor
Chalukyan families was that they often took sides with the Vengi Chalukyas and
Rashtrakutas in their conflict over the control of fertile tracts of the Krishna - Godavari
Doab. After the fall of Rashtrakuta rule in Telangana, in its place Chalukyas of Kalyani
emerged and ruled for more than 200 years i.e. 11th & 12th centuries. In the history of
Telangana, the different Chalukyan brothers adorned long rule for six centuries from the
6th to 12th centuries of Christian Era.
This block is divided into three units:

Unit – 3 : Satavahana Age: Society, Economy and Culture.
Unit – 4 : Ikshvakas, Vakatakas, Vishnukundis and Rastrakutas: Polity, Society,
Economy and Culture.
Unit – 5 : Chalukyan Age.
18
UNIT - 3: SATAVAHANAAGE: SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND
CULTURE
Contents
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sources
3.2.1 Archaeological Sources
3.2.2 Literary Sources
3.3 Origin and Chronology
3.4 Political Achievements
3.4.1 The Early Satavahanas
3.4.2 The Later Satavahanas
3.5 Administrative Features
3.6 Social Conditions
3.7 Economic Conditions
3.8 Cultural Conditions
3.8.1 Literary Developments
3.8.2 Art and Architecture
3.8.3 Religious Developments
3.9 Summary
3.10 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
3.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the sources and political achievements of the Satavahana rulers
2. Explain the administrative system of the Satavahanas
3. Discuss the socio-economic conditions of the Satavahana Period.
4. Analyse the cultural contribution of the Satavahana rulers.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Satavahanas were the first empire builders in South India. Their kingdom was established
on the ruins of the Mauryan empire. They ruled over Dakshinapatha for about 250 years.
During their rule, whole Deccan was united and provided a stable rule for a long period. The
rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and
the development of new style of architecture. They formed a cultural bridge and also played a
vital role in developing the trade between the North and Southern India. Historians consider
Satavahana period as the beginning of art in Deccan region.
19
Geographically, the Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised Malwa, Kutch, Surashtra,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Southern plains of the Gangetic valley. During the peak of its
rule, it even extended up to Karnataka and Tamilnadu. The dynasty had different capital cities
at different times, including Pratishthana (Paithan) Amaravati (Dharanikota) and Kotilingala.
Broadly, the chronology of the Satavanahana rule is considered to be from 1st century BCE to
third century CE.
3.2 SOURCES
The history of Satavahanas is known to us through archaeological and literary sources.
3.2.1 Archaeological Sources

Archaeological sources consist of mainly inscriptions and coins. A large number of
inscriptions were found in Western Ghats at Nasik, Kanheri, Naneghat, etc. They are in Prakrit
language and Brahmi script. About twenty four stone inscriptions are issued directly by the
Satavahana kings and their family members which are scattered all over the Deccan. Among
the royal inscriptions, Naneghat Inscription of Naganika (wife of Satkarni-I),Nasik Prasasti of
Gautami Balasri and the Karle cave inscription of Vashishtiputra Pulumayi II are significant.
These provide substantial information regarding the contributions of this family. Apart from the
Satavahana inscriptions, Ashokan 13 th Rock edict also speaks about Andhrabrityas
(Satavahanas). The conflict between Satavahana and Kalinga rulers over Godavari basin is
recorded in Hatigumpha inscription, issued by contemporary Kalinga ruler, Kharavela. Another
important inscription was the Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman, the Saka ruler. It also refers
to Saka-Satavahana conflict.
Coins
The Satavahanas left behind a plethora of coins of various denominations and types.
The coins are largely made of metals like copper, lead, bronze, silver and tin. It can be observed
that, the large issue of coins from time to time necessitated not only the vastness of empire and
new conquests, but also great expansion of trade, both internal and foreign. There are hoards of
coins discovered at places like Tarahala and Jogalthembi in Western Deccan and at Kotilingala
village in Karimnagar district which bear the names of Simuka and other Satavahana kings. A
hoard of Roman coins were found at Nustulapur in Karimnagar district which throws light on
maritime trade activity between Satavahanas and Roman empire.
Photo Captions (Left to Right)

Coins of Gautamiputrasatakarni and Yagnasri Satakarni
Coin of Nahapana, restruck by the Gautamiputra Satakarni
Ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi
20
Monuments
A walled town was traced out in the excavations conducted in Dhulikatta or
Dhulikota(means mud fort) which refers to Satavahana period. V.V.Krishna Sastry believed
that this walled town might be one of the 30 fortified towns of Andhras mentioned by
Megastanese. Scluptures on various Stupas and cave architecture also throw light on the
conditions of the Satavahana period.
3.2.2 Literary Sources

The age of Satavahanas marks the beginning of the historical period in Telangana.
Literary sources include the works of native and foreign writers.
Aitareya Brahmana was the earliest reference to the Andhras, which refers, to them
as tribals along with some other tribes viz., Pulindas, Sabaras, Pundras and Mutibas. Mahabharata
also talks about that, Kauravas gained the support of Andhras. The Puranas like the Mastya
and Vayu provide a long list of thirty kings, known as ‘Andhrabhrityas’. The early Jaina sutra
literature and the Buddist works like Jatakas, Pitakas, Mahavasthu etc.,are giving references
to the Andhras.
The Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa, Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva, Harsha
Charitra of Bana also give some account of the Satavahana kings. The Gathasaptasati of
Satavahana king Hala, Brihatkatha of Gunadhya, Lilavathi of Kutuhala and Kamasutra of
Vatsyana are very useful to know about the socio-cultural history of this period. Acharya
Nagarjuna, the great Mahayana philosopher and contemporary to Yagnasri Satakarni, compiled
the works like Prajnaparamitha, Suhrulleka, Rasaratnakara etc. These works also furnish
valuable information about the conditions of the last Satavahan rulers.
Coming to the foreign accounts, Indica of Megasthanese refers to the Andhras as
powerful people with 30 walled towns and has given particulars of their military strength. The
same is also confirmed by Pliny in his work. Arrain, another Greek writer, referring to Indica,
mentioned that Andhras were divided into a number of tribal kingdoms. The Periplus of
Erythrean Sea of an anonymous Greek sailor describes the conflict between the Sakas and
Satavahanas for the supremacy of maritime trade in the west coast.
3.3 ORIGIN AND CHRONOLOGY

The place of origin and chronology of the Satavahanas is a matter of debate among the
historians. The information provided by various sources is not sufficient to reconstruct the
dynasty’s history with absolute certainity. As a result, there are multiple theories about the
Satavahana origin and chronology. Historians like E.J.Rapson, Dr.Vincent Smith and Sir
R.G.Bhandarkar opined that the Satavahanas and Andhras both were the same, as the Puranic
list of Andhras has close relationship with that of Satavahana inscriptions. Historians like Vincent
Smith opined that Krishna-Godavari region of the Deccan in general, and the places either
Srikakulam or Dhanyakataka refer to the early rise place of Satavahanas. After the death of
Ashoka, the Andhras asserted their independence and extended their empire towards Western
Deccan.This view was accepted by most of the historians like E.J.Rapson, R.G.Bhandarkar,
L.D.Barnett and Maremanda Rama Rao. It is important to note that Satavahana-kota/
Satanikota of Kurnool District is the only village in the present Andhra Pradesh State which
resembles the nomenclature of the Satavahanas.
The above view was challenged by the historians like P.T.Srinivas Iyyangar and H.C.Ray
chaudhari. They argued that Maharastra was the original home of the Satavahanas and
Prastistana or modern Paithan in the Aurangabad District was the early capital. The earliest
inscriptions issued by the Satavahana rulers are found in Maharastra. Meanwhile in no inscription
Satavahanas are called Andhras. They concluded that, the later Satavahana rulers who lost
their power in Maharastra moved eastwards and conquered Andhradesa.
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These views were challenged by V.S.Sukthankar who argued that Bellary district of
Karnataka was the original home of the Satavahanas. He based his argument upon the names
mentioned in the inscriptions of Pulomavi-III, the last ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. But, this
argument was opposed by the historians, as some of the names like Satavahanakota or Satanikota
also exist in Kurnool District of Andhrapradesh.
Some of the historians like P.V. Parabrahma Sastry, D.Raja Reddy, V.V.Krishna Sastri
and Thakur Rajaram Singh opined that, the Satavahanas rule begins in the Deccan with its
capital at Kotilingala of present Karimnagar district in Telangana State. It was one of the thirty
fortified towns of Satavahanas that were mentioned by Megasthanes. The recent archaeological
excavations at Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, and Kotilingala have thrown ample light on history of
the Satavahanas in the region. Further, Karimnagar region is marked by a number of early
historical sites almost in every alternate village. It is likely that Karimnagar might have been the
nucleus of political activity of Satavahana kingdom.
There are two widely divergent opinions of scholars about the chronology of
Satavahanas. Some taking the initial year of Satavahanas to be 3rd century B.C., and others
point to the 1st century B.C. The first view taken on the basis of Puranas, which yields a date
in the 3rd century B.C. for their begining. The second view is held because the Puranas mention
the Andhras as successors of the Kanvas, which indicate the rise of the Andhras in 28 B.C.
Various explanations are given for each view by different scholars, and confirmations are
sought in epigraphic and numismatic sources.
3.4 POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS

The Satavahana dynasty has a glorious history of political achievements. The political
history of the Satavahanas is divided into two phases, viz.,one of the early Satavahanas and the
other of the later Satavahanas. The rulers till Gautamiputra Satakarni are called the early
Satavahanas, and those who ruled after Gautamiputra Satakarni till the last ruler are referred to
as later Satavahanas. According to Puranas, the total 30 kings of Satavahana dynasty ruled
nearly 250 years approximately i.e.,from 221 BCE to 220 CE. But, the most accepted or
agreed period is 250 years, running from 1st Century BCE to 225 CE.
3.4.1 The Early Satavahanas
Simuka
The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. According to the Puranas, he is
said to have killed Susarman , the last Kanva ruler and established the dynasty. He made
Dhanakataka as his capital first, but later shifted to Pratishthanapura (Paithan in Aurangabad
district of Maharashtra), and Kotilingala in Karimnagar district, due to their strategic location.
However, the rulers of this family for a long time eulogised themselves as ‘Dhanakataka
swamins’ (Lords of Dhanakataka). The Naneghat inscription portrays the figure of Simuka
and the recently discovered coins at Kotilingala bear the name ‘Chimuka’ which has been
ascribed to Simuka. He ruled for twenty three years.
Kanha
Simuka was succeeded by his younger brother Krishna (also known as Kanha in the
inscriptions). At the time of Srimukha’s death, his son Satakarni-I was a minor and thereby
Kanha acted as his guardian to safeguard the kingdom. He ruled nearly for eighteen years. He
was the first to issue inscriptions in Satavahana dynasty. His Nasik cave inscription refers to
the construction of a cave for Buddhists.
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Satakarni-I
Krishna was succeeded by Satakarni-I, the son of Simuka. He married Naganika
,daughter of the Maharathi Tranakayiro Kalalaya, who is powerful in Southern Maharastra.
This marital alliance helped Satakarni to expand his kingdom. He conquered western Malwa,
Narmada valley and southern part of Vidarbha. All his greatness was described after his death
in the Naneghat inscription issued by his wife Naganika. He performed two aswamedha
sacrifices, one rajasuyaga and donated thousands of cows, Karshapanas and land to brahamins.
This shows his faith in Vedic religion. He has ruled for 18 years.
Satakarni-II
The next important ruler of the family was Satakarni II. He was the sixth ruler of the
dynasty and ruled for 56 years. He extended the boundaries of his kingdom from the Vindhyas
upto the river Ganges in the north. His coins were found in Telangana, Northern Maharashtra,
Malwa and Madhya Pradesh.According to the Yugapurana, after driving the Sakas out of
Kalinga, he then advanced to Pataliputra and annexed it. After Satakarni, there were eight
kings about whom not much is known. However, though weak, these rulers managed to hold
the realm of the Satavahana power.
Pulomavi-I
The glory of the Satavahana regime was renewed from the time of Pulomavi-I. He
continued the legacy of the Satavahanas. Scholars believe that he killed Susarma of Kanva
dynasty and occupied Magadha. |For the first time in the history of India, a south Indian king
invaded on Pataliputra, the iconic capital of Ancient India. This incident laid the foundation for
an independent imperial regime of the Satavahanas. He was succeeded by weak rulers who
were driven away from Maharashtra to Andhra by the Saka-Pahlava king, Nahapana.
Kuntala Satakarni
Kuntala Satakarni ruled for a short period. His rule was memorable as Sanskrit replaced
Prakrit as the official language of the empire. He was mentioned in the literary works of Kavya
Mimamsa of Rajasekhara and Kamasutra of Vatsayana. Gunadhya and Sarvavarma, who
wrote Brihatkatha and Katantra vyakarana, were also poets of his reign.
Hala
Hala was the 17 th ruler of the dynasty. He was a great poet. He composed
Gathasapthasati in Prakrit. His love with Lilavati, a princess from SriLanka was described in
Prakrit work Lilavati by Kutuhala. He patronised the poets and became known as Kavivatsala.
3.4.2 Later Satavahanas
Gautamiputra Satakarni (106-130 C.E)

Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest king not only of all the Satavahanas, but also
of the entire early South Indian kings. He was the 23rd ruler of the dynasty. He ruled for a
period of twenty four years. His greatness and achievements were recorded in the Nasik
Prasasti. It was issued by his mother Gautami Balasri during the 19th regnal year of his son and
successor, Pulomavi II. When Gautamiputra Satakarni came to power, Satavahana kingdom
was limited only to the places east of Pratisttapura in Andhradesa. He conquered the neighbouring
kingdoms viz., Assaka(Telangana), Asika, Mulaka(Aurangabad district of Maharastra) and
Vidarbha(Berar of Maharastra).
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The next unique victory was on the Saka ruler Nahapana of Kshaharata family.
It was known from a large number of copper and silver coins of Nahapana found at Jogalthambi
which were restruck by Gautamiputra Satakarni. Later, he conquered Anupa, Aparantha,
Saurashtra, Kukura and Avanthi, which were all part of Satavahana kingdom once upon a time.
Due to all these historic victories, the empire of Gautamiputra Satakarni extended from Rajasthan
in North India to Vyjayanthi in Karnataka and Kadalur in Tamilnadu.The Nasik inscription
describes his as Tri Samudra thoya peetha vahana (one whose horses drank the water of the
three oceans)which suggests the fact that his armies had touched the Bay of Bengal, the
Arabian sea and Indian ocean. It is also known from the Nasik inscription, that he was described
as kshatriya darpamana mardana, kshaharata vamsa niravasesaka (Nirmulaka)(destroyer
of the Khsaharatha family), Agama Nilaya and Ekabrahamana, shows that he upheld the
Vedic dharma. He was described as having performed asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices.
The next illustrious king of the family was Gautamiputra Satakarni. He was the twenty
third ruler who ascended the throne in 62 CE. The Nasik and Karle grants mention that he
regained the lost territories of Maharashtra region from the successors of Nahapana. The
Nasik inscription issued by his mother Gautamibalasri, gives a long eulogy about the achievements
of Gautamiputra Satakarni. This inscription speaks Gautamiputra as ‘king of kings’ and ruler of
Assika, Asmaka, Mulaka, Surashtra, Kukura, Aparanta, Anupa, Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti. It
also styled her son Gautamiputra Satakarni as “Kshaharata vamsa niravasesaka” (Nirmulaka)
(Destroyer of the Kshaharata family). He was also referred to as the protector of
varnasramadhrama and considered as an abode of learning. He was compared with the epic
and Puranic heroes like Rama, Arjuna, Bhima, Nahusa, Yayati, etc. Among the Satavahana
kings, he was considered as an invincible conqueror and a righteous administrator who provided
to his subjects peace, prosperity and happiness. For all his acts, he was given the epithets
Satavahanakula-Yasa-Puthapanakara, Ekabrahmana, Agama Nilaya, Kshatriya
Darpamana and Trisamudratoyapithavahana, etc. He was described as having performed
asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices.
Pulomavi-II (130-154 C.E)

Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son, Pulomavi II. He was also known
as Vasisthiputra Pulomavi. He ruled for twenty four years. Nasik, Karle, Amaravati and
Dharanikota inscriptions refer to his reign. He assumed the title dakshinapathapati or ‘the
Lord of the Deccan’, which shows that he ruled a vast kingdom. During his time, the Satavahana
kingdom had to confront with the ride of the Saka chieftain Chastana who occupied Malwa and
founded an independent kingdom at Ujjain. Consequently, he was forced to shift the capital
from Prathisthana to Dhanyakataka (Amaravati). During his time, the rule of the Satavahanas
started declining. Vasisthiputra Pulomavi-II was succeeded by Sivasri Satakarni who ruled for
a very short period. As per the Junagarh inscription, Rudradaman, the Saka ruler of Saurashtra
defeated Sivasri Satakarni twice.
Yagnasri Satakarni (165-194 C.E)

Yagnasri Satakarni was the 26th ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. He was
considered to be the last great known king of the Satavahanas. He took advantage of a civil
war in the Saka kingdom between Jivadama and Rudradama and invaded Ujjain. He controlled
the greater part of western and central Deccan. It is known by the discovery of some of his
coins with his image and name. He also issued silver coins with a ship having two masts, found
on the Coromandel coast which indicate his love for navigation and flourishing international
trade during his time. He was a staunch supporter of Buddhism. He patronised the famous
Mahayana Buddhist scholar Acharya Nagarjuna. According to Tibetan and Chinese historians,
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he had constructed a mahachaitya at Sriparvata (Nagarjunakonda) in honour of his guru,
Nagarjuna. The glorious reign of this ruler came to an end in 194 CE. After him three rulers
Vijaya Satakarni, Chandasri and Pulomavi IV ruled for nearly seventeen years without any
significant event. Gradually, the Satavahana family passed away into oblivion. In their place
had emerged the Chutus in the western Deccan, the Abhiras in the Nasik area and the Ikshvakus
in the Telangana-Andhra regions. Thereby, the Satavahana rule came to an end in the early
times of the 3rd Century A.D.

1. Who was the founder of Satavahana dynasty?
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2. Who composed Gathasapthasati?
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3.5 ADMINISTRATIVE FEATURES

The Satavahana coins, inscriptions and literature are the rich sources of our knowledge
about their administrative system.
The administration of the Satavahanas was simple and was carried on the lines of the
Mauryan administration. But, they added some features according to the local needs. The kings
enjoyed supreme authority in administration. Succession to the throne was hereditary. The king
took simple titles like raja or maharaja. The king was assisted by a number of ministers of
different levels. Among the ministers, Visvasa amatya held top position, as he was consulted
by the king on all important matters. The Rajamatyas were constituted next to the Visvasa
amatya in the advisory body of the king.
The Mahamatras (incharges of Departments), Bhandagarika (superintendent of
stores), Heranika(Treasurer ), Mahasenapati (commander of forces),
Mahataraka(Chamberlain) and Nibandhakara (incharge of drafting State records) were
some of the officials of higher levels to assist the king in the smooth functioning of the government.
Other officials are Prathiharas and Dutas (Messengers), Ganapaka(Accountant), Lekhaka
(officer incharge of registering documents) and Pattikapalaka(Director of Archives). There
was also a special official called ‘Uparakshita’ who was charged with the duty of building
caves etc. for the monks. Sons of the kings were trained with necessary skills in the art of
warfare and peace. An important practice of the Satavahana kings was to undertake royal
tours to keep in touch with the public opinion and to improve the efficiency in administration.
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The Satavahana empire was divided into a number of provinces called aharas, for the
sake of administrative convenience. Govardhana(Nasik), Sopara, Mamala(Pune) etc., were
some of the well known Aharas. These were governed by the princes of royal blood or officers
called amatyas and other subordinate chieftains like the maharathis and mahabhojas. They
are empowered to issue inscriptions, coins and land grants. Satakarni II married Naganika, who
was a daughter of Tranakayiro of the maharathi family. According to the Nasik inscription,
amatyas were subject to frequent transfers. The village was the smallest and basic administrative
unit. It was under the control of gramani or gramika. It appears that there was considerable
autonomy in managing the affairs of the villages and towns.
Apart from the central and provincial administration, epigraphical evidence reveal the
existence of several towns like, Sopara. Broach, Kanheri, Paithan, Kotilingala in the Satavahana
kingdom. These cities were administered by nigama sabha - an assembly of citizens. This
kind of nigama sabha was mentioned in Bhattiprolu inscription. This was the forum through
which the citizens of the town acted and voiced their grievances and feelings.
Land revenue was the chief source of income to the State. The State levied two types
of taxes known as rajabhoga and deyameya. The State collected 1/6th of the land’s produce
as revenue. Beside land revenue, taxes levied on roads, ports, professions, mines and markets
also formed as source of income to the State. The military administration of the Satavahanas
was also quite efficient. Their army consisted of foot soldiers, cavalry and elephants. The
Satavahanas continued the judicial system of Mauryan rulers. King was the highest authority.
But, he always honoured the laws recommended by judicial experts. Civil and criminal cases
were dealt separately.
Although the Satavahanas followed patrirchy, some of the later Satavahana king’s
names bore the traces of matriarchal lineage. But these metronymic titles had nothing to do
with any practice of tracing descent through the matriarchal line. The Satavahanas king, like
the Mauryan emperors, under took tours. These tours enabled the kings to know the problems
of the people.
3.6 SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Glimpse of the social life of the Satavahana period could be analysed from some
literary works like Gathasaptasati of Hala, Brithathkatha of Gunadhya, and Lilavati of
Kutuhala. The sculptures of Amaravati, Bhattiprolu and Nagarjunakonda also gives us some
information. During this period, traditional four-fold caste system, consisting of brahmins,
kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras was prevalent. Brahmins occupied a high and honoured position;
mostly they were engaged in performing of religious rituals and occupying administrative positions.
Kshatriyas were prominently occupied in the governance of the State; the vaisyas looking
after mercantile and maritime activity and the sudras taking up agricultural operations and
crafts. Inscriptions of the Satavahana period have mentioned some crafts such as Halika
(agriculturist),Gadhika(those who prepared perfumes),Kolikas(weavers), Tilapisaka (engaged
in the extraction of gingerly oil), Kamara(blacksmith), Kularika(potters), Udayantrika (skilled
persons in irrigation), Dhannuka (grain merchants) and Vasakara(bamboo workers).
The unit of the society was the family. The traditional joint family system was in vogue
during this period. The eldest male member of the family was called gruhapati. In the family,
the male members were given importance over the female members. But, in some instances
like donating land grants, women also acted independently. The society under Satavahanas was
patriarchal system.
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Women were also occupied an important position in the society. This is clear from the
fact that Satavahana rulers used metronymics, ie., the names of their mothers preceding their
names like Gautamiputra, Vasisthiputra etc. Women also participated in the administration. The
widow of Gautamiputra Satakarni looked after the administration of the State as the guardian
of her sons. Naganika, the wife of Satakarni II, played a significant role in the cultural activities
of the State. Whenever any gifts were made, they were made jointly by the male and female
members. Inscriptions from Amaravathi, Nasik and other places bear testimony to this. Inter-
caste marriages were prevalent. In addition to this, marriages with foreigners were also permitted
and they were accepted within the Hindu society. Satavahana rulers themselves had entered
into matrimonial alliances with the Sakas. Even widows were respected in the society. The
attitude of the people in general, was liberal and progressive. Thus, the Satavahana society was
free from many narrow attitudes which were found in the social set up of the North.
Regarding the dress and ornaments worn by the people of the Satavahana age, the
figures carved on the Amaravati rails and the Karle Chaitya cave depict scanty dress and
profuse ornaments. Women wore a twisted cloth below the waist in two or three tiers with a
knot at the right and the ends hanging from it. Men had a loin cloth, part of which was sometimes
thrown over their shoulders. They also put on a head dress of twisted cloth. Ear-rings, bangles,
bracelets and necklaces were worn both by men and women. Almost all women adorned their
legs with anklets. Wheat, rice and millets formed the staple food of the people. The life of the
village people was simple. Music and dance have developed. Musical instruments like veena,
mridangam, venu, pataha and sankha were used. Dice-playing, bullock competitions and
cock fights remained as pastime activities of the people of those days.
3.7 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

The prosperity of the Satavahana kingdom depended upon agriculture, industry and
trade. Land revenue was the chief source of income to the State. The State levied two types of
taxes known as rajabhoga and deyameya. The State collected 1/6th of the land’s produce as
revenue. The State encouraged land grants to brahmins and other needy people. The king had
his own private landed property called rajakheta. The Nasik inscription refers to odayantrakas
which might refer to a guild of wage-workers or water machines. These were used to draw
water from wells and tanks. Some times, buffaloes and donkeys were also used for drawing
ploughs. Beside land revenue, taxes levied on roads, ports, professions, mines and markets also
formed as source of income to the State.
Industries and commerce occupied a place of importance in the State’s economy.
Gathasaptasati describes the list of village professional groups. These groups formed into a
sreni (guild) viz., Kularikas or potters, Odayantrikas or makers of hydraulic engines,
Tilapisakas or oil pressers, Dhannikas or corn dealers, Kolikas or weavers, and Vasakaras
or bamboo workers. The head of each guild or Sreni was known as sresti. The guilds promoted
the trade or crafts in many ways. They provided banking facilities to the people. They received
cash deposits as well as endowments of land. The interest or income was utilised as per the
wishes of the donors or depositors.
Agriculture and industry stimulated the growth of internal and external trade. Paithan,
Tagara, Junnar, Nasik, Amaravati, Vijayapura, Kudura, Dhanyakataka, Dhulikatta, Peddabankur,
Kondapur, and Kotilingala were important inland commercial centres. Satavahanas maintained
trade contacts with the Roman empire. Muslin, spices and medical herbs were the chief exports.
In return, wine, copper,tin, lead, coral, topaz, gold and silver were imported. Balance of trade
was in favour of India. Barukachcha was the most important port on the west, followed by
Sopara and Kalyan. On the eastern side, Ghantasala, Guduru and Arikamedu were the important
ports.
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The caravan and river boats were the chief means of transport for external trade.
Barter of goods was the order of the day. However, coins of lead, potin, copper and silver were
struck by the Satavahana kings. A silver coin known as karshapana was commonly used in
that age. The gold coin of the age was known as suvarna. Gold was freely mined in the
Satavahana kingdom. Satavahanas also maintained good commercial relation with Southeast
Asia. As a result of the contacts, Buddhism flourished in that region.
3.8 CULTURAL CONDITIONS

Satavahanas contributed a great deal in the field of art, literature, and religion.
3.8.1 Literary Development

In the Deccan region, Aryanisation brought a change in the field of learning and
education. During Satavahana period, Prakrit and Sanskrit languages were prevalent. In the
early period, almost all the documents and inscriptions of the Satavahanas were recorded in
Prakrit.
The Satavahana period witnessed some of the outstanding literary works. Gunadhya
wrote Brihatkatha in local Paisachi Prakrit. He was the first poet from Telangana who hailed
from Medak District. It was the earliest collection which deals with the adventures of a hero,
Naravahanadatta. The original work is lost. Its stories were later retold in works like
Kathasaritsagara. The Satavahana king compiled the work Gathasaptasati in Prakrit language.
It consists of 700 erotic verses. Rural life and local traditions are described in this work. Some
pure Telugu words are also traced in this book. The marriage of Hala formed the theme of
another Prakrit work, called Lilavati-Parinaya by Kuntahala. Hala’s minister Sarvavarman
wrote a Sanskrit grammar work, by name Katantra.
It should be noted that Sanskrit was also developed in the later phase of Satavahana
period. Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman is written in Sanskrit. The famous Mahayana
Buddhist philosopher, Acharya Nagarjuna wrote Pragnaparamita Sastra, Madhyamika Sutra
and Ratnavali, etc. in Sanskrit language. He was a contemporary of Satavahana ruler, Yagnasri
Satakarni.

The Satavahanas started a new chapter in the history of Deccan architecture. The
monuments raised under the patronage of the Satavahanas are distributed throughout the length
and breath of Western Deccan and Telangana. They can be divided into two categories - (i)
Rock-cut architecture of Western Deccan and brick-built structures of Eastern Deccan. The
rock cut architecture of the Satavahana period consists primarily of Buddhist monuments.
They are the stupas, viharas and chaityas. The Karle Chaitya is regarded as the most famous
of this style.
Karle Chaitya Amaravati Stupa
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Coming to the brick –built stupa structures, they are found at Amaravati(Andhra
Pradesh), Phanigiri (Nalgonda), Nelakondapalli (Khammam), Kotilingala (Karimnagar),
Dhulikatta, Peddabankur, Kadambapur, Kondapur (Medak), Nagarjunakonda etc. The stupas
of Telangana are of the same style as the stupa at Sanchi. The Buddhist stupa constructed at
Amaravati was the largest in South India. Marble was used in the construction of this stupa.
Symbolic representations of the Buddha as well as human figures appear in the sculptures of
these stupas. It is important to note that one of the schools of Indian art is named after Amaravati.
They are the specimens to study the art and life of the Satavahana period.
The Satavahanas also patronised the art of painting. The best example of Satavahana
paintings are found at Ajanta caves which number nine and ten are classical examples of their
contribution. The mastery over perfect human anatomy, judicious balance in composition, creating
an illusion in depth, and modeling are some of the characteristics of Ajanta paintings. It can be
concluded that, Satavahanas worked for the cause of promoting fine arts.
3.8.3 Religious Developments

The Satavahanas are known for their policy of religious tolerance. The Satavahana
period witnessed the progress of Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism. They respected Jain,
Buddhist and Hindu scholars and philosophers. Early Satavahana rulers were the followers of
the Vedic religion and worked for the cause of its development. The inscriptions of Satavahana
kings also mentioned the performance of various Vedic sacrifices and pleasing brahmans by
rich gifts, including villages, cattle, gold vessels, and thousands of karshapanas (Naneghat
inscription). The Nasik epigraph refers to different Hindu Gods and Goddess. In Gathasaptasati’s
begning and end, recited the glory of Pasupati and Gowri. Gautamiputra Satakarni adorned the
titles such as aagama nilaya and ekbrahmana. All these show the patronage of brahmanical
religion by the Satavahana rulers.
Jainism could not make headway in Telangana during this time. But, recent discoveries
are providing information that Seethalanadha, the tenth Jain Tirthankara hails from
Bhadrachalam in Khammam district of Telangana State. His grandson propagated Jainism in
Andhradesa. Buddhism was able to receive strong foothold in Telangana, not because of the
Satavahana kings, but mainly because of the support it received from gahapatis, kamaras and
vanijas and their women folk. The Bavari story in Suttanipada and Kathavastusagaram
refers to the spread of Buddhism in Andhradesa. Nagarjunakonda, Phanigiri (Nalgonda district),
Kotilingala, Dhulikatta, Peddabankur (Karimnagar district), Kondapur (Medak) of Telangana
were the popular Buddhist centres of Telangana during this period. The Prajnaparamita literature,
which formed the basis of Mahayanism, was produced in the viharas of the Krishna valley by
Acharya Nagarjuna.

1. What is Nigama Sabha?
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2. What are the important literary works of Satavahana Period?
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3.9 SUMMARY
Satavahana’s were the first solid and strong dynasty of South India. The Satavaha
empire at its peak included not only Telangana and Andhrapradesh, but also parts of Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. The Satavahanas are referred to
as Andhras in the Puranas, who were stated to be 30 in number. They were the first native
Indian rulers to issue their own coins with the portraits of the rulers. Goutamiputra Satakarni
was the most prominent ruler of the Satavahana dynasty. He is called as rajrano, i.e., “king of
kings.” As the successors of Yagnasri Satakarni were very weak, the feudatories declared
independence and established their rule. Satavahana administration was carried on the lines of
Mauryan administration. The period of the Satavahanas witnessed free will of women and
development of agriculture. Free trade was able to establish the quality of Indian products in
the global markets. The Satavahanas are known for their policy of religious tolerance. Buddhism,
Brahmanism and Jainism flourished during their tenure. Satavahanas contributed a great deal in
the field of art, literature and culture.

Check Your Progress Answers - I
1. Simuka was the founder of Satavahana dynasty.
2. Hala, the 17th ruler of the Satavahana dynasty composed Gathasapthasati in Prakrit
Check Your Progress Answers - II

1. During the period of Satavahanas, cities were administered by nigama sabha - an
assembly of citizens. This kind of nigama sabha was mentioned in Bhattiprolu inscription.
2. Gathasapthasati, Lilavathi, Katantra vyakarana, Kamasutra,Sruhullekha etc.

I. Answer the following questions in about 30 lines each.
1. Explain the Satavahana Administrative system ?
2. Discuss the Economic and Social conditions of the Satavahana period.
3. Write about the cultural contribution of the Satavahanas.
II. Answer the following questions in about 15 lines each.

1. Write a note on Satakarni-I rule
2. Discuss the greatness of Goutamiputra Satakarni
3. Explain the contribution of Acharya Nagarjuna to culture.
4. Analyse the literature and development of art and architecture in Satavahana period
30
1. Satyanarayana : A Study of the History and
Culture of the Andhras
2. Hanumantha Rao, B.S.L : The Age of Satavahanas
3. Sharma, R.S. : Ancient India
4. Raghunatha Rao, B.S.L : History and Culture of
Andhra Pradesh
5. Nilakanta Sastry, K.A. : History of South India
6. Majumdar, R.C, Raychaudhari,H.C, Datta, K.K, : An Advanced History of
India, Vol.I.
31
UNIT - 4: IKSHVAKUS, VAKATAKAS, VISHNUKUNDS
AND RASHTRAKUTAS: POLITY, ECONOMY -
SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Political Developments
4.2.1 Ikshvakus
4.2.2 Vakatakas
4.2.2.1 Pravarapura – Nandivardhana Branch
4.2.2.2 Vatsagulma Branch
4.2.3 Vishnukunds
4.2.4 Rashtrakutas
4.3 Administration
4.3.1 Local Administration
4.3.2 Army Organisation
4.3.3 Judicial Administration
4.3.4 Revenue Administration
4.4 Economy
4.4.1 Types of Land
4.4.2 Irrigation and Crops
4.4.3 Taxes
4.4.4 Trade and Commerce
4.5 Society
4.6 Religion
4.6.1 Buddhism
4.6.2 Jainism
4.6.3 Saivism
4.6.4 Vaishnavism
4.7 Language Literature and Education
4.8 Art and Architecture
4.9 Summary
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4.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the Ikshvaku rule and their contribution to Telangana.
2. Explain the Vakataka and Vishnukundi rule and their influence on Telangana.
3. Discuss the Rashtrakuta rule and their influence on Telangana culture and society.
4. Describe the administrative and socio-economic conditions of Telangana during 220-
973 CE.
5. Analyse the growth and impact of cultural development in Telangana during 220-973
CE.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The period from 220-973 CE as an intermediary phase between the rule of two major
dynasties in Telangana, viz., the Satavahanas and the Chalukyas. This period of around five
and half centuries was marked by the rise and fall of many ruling families in the region. These
include the Ikshvakus, Vakatakas, Vishnukunds and Rashtrakutas who had their marked impact
on the polity, economy, society, religion and cultural life of the Telangana people. Inscriptions,
coins, literary works and structures of art and architecture of the period not only serve as
sources of information, but also stand as cultural monuments.
4.2 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Each of the dynasties had its power centre and plans of expanding from and around it.
These ran had in glove with these of the sovereign power. They futher marked the ups and
downs in the fortunes of a ruling family.
4.2.1 Ikshvakus
Immediately after the fall of the Satavahana empire by 220 CE, the Telangana region
came under the rule of the Ikshvakus. They succeeded in carving out small principality in the
central Deccan. Regarding the origin of the Ikshvakus, while some scholars linked their
relationship with the renowned, Ikshvaku dynasty of Ayodhya, others based on the Puranas,
considered them to be one of the clans among the Andhras, viz., Sriparvatiya Andhras. Sriparvata
was the ancient name of the Nallamalur Range, which later came to be associated with
Nagarjunakonda. The Ikshvakus chose Vijayapuri situated in the valley of Nagarjunakonda
hills as their capital.
The earliest known king of this family was Vasisthiputra Sri Santamula (also known as
Chantamula)-I (220-233 CE) who came to power after the collapse of the Satavahana rule in
the central Deccan. Soon after coming to powers Santamula performed asvamedha (horse
sacrifice), vajapeya and other Vedic sacrifices to indicate his independent status. To further
consolidate his position, he married the daughters of influential commanders of the Satavahana
army. He also established matrimonial alliances with Pugiya and Dhanaka families by marrying
his sister santans to the Mahasenapati Maharkandhesri and Mahatalavara of the Pugiya
family of Guntur region and his daughter Adavi Sanusri to Visakhanaga of the Dhanaka family,
who held the rank of Mahasenapati and Mahadandanayaka.
Sri Santamula’s successors consider him to be a great man of piety and a renowned
donor of gold, cows and lands to Brahmans. He was a follower of Vedic religion and his
inscriptions also speak of his tolerance and respect towards Buddhism despite his being a
follower of the Vedic religion.
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Santamula-I was succeeded by his son Madhariputra Virapurushadatta (233-253 CE).
He was the greatest ruler in the dynasty. He strengthened his position by marrying Mahadevi
Rudrabhattarika, daughter of the contemporary Saka king’ Rudrasena of Ujjain. He also entered
into matrimonial alliance with the royal house of Chutu Satakarni family of Banavasi when his
daughter, Kodabalisri was married to a prince of that family. Thus, through these marriage
alliances he was able to achieve political stability to the kingdom. Virapurushadatta was a lover
of peace. Hence, though initially he followed Vedic religion, his records speak that subsequently,
he changed over to Duddhism. He made liberal donations to Buddhist viharas and mahachaityas.
Most of the Nagarjunakonda epigraphs record the donation of royal women of the Ikshvaku
family to the great monastery lying in the capital Vijaypuri. Owing to this, Vijayapuri became a
world-famous Buddhist centre during his reign and attracted bhikkus and bhikkhinis from
various countries.
Virapurushadatta was succeeded to the throne by his son Ehuvala Santamula-II (253-
277 CE). Many inscriptions of this ruler were found at Nagarjunakonda. Unlike his father,
Ehuvala Santamula favoured and followed the Vedic religion. During his time many temples
were built for Lord Siva and other Puranic deities. But, at the same time, he respected and
patronised Buddhism also. An inscription dating the 11th regnal year of this king mentions that
he had faced an invasion, probably from the ruler of the early Pallava dynsty, but was rescued
‘by the grace of Lord Kartikeya’, when his armies defeated the Pallavas under the leadership
of his commander-in-chief, Elisri.
Another important ruler of this family was Rudrapurushadatta who succeeded his
father Ehuvala and ruled for 18 years (283-301 CE). An important inscription found at
Nagarjunakonda mentions that this king constructed a chaya stambha (memorial pillar) in
memory of his mother.
Soon after the death of Rudrapurushadatta, independent rule of the Ikshvakus in
Telangana appears to have ended, when they were overthrown by the Pallavas who occupied
the Krishna-Guntur region and occupied Vijayapuri by the end of the third century CE.
4.2.2 Vakatakas
Vakatakas have a special place among the dynasties who reled in the Deccan from the
middle of third century to the middle of sixth century C.E. They happened to be the most
importand dynasty that influenced the Deccan culture. After the fall of Satavahana empire,
independence was declared by the Abhiras in the area near Nasik in Maharashtra and by the
Vakatakas in the Eastern Berar. The latter had been the feudatories under the Stavahanas
before they declared themselves independent.
Vakatakas had matrimonial alliances with the Guptas and nagas in the north, Vishnukunds
in eastern Deccan and Kadambas in the western Deccan. Vakataka Empire extended from
Arabian Sea in the west to Chhattisgarh in the east and from Malwa, Gujrat, Bundelkhand and
Bagelkhand in the north to the banks of Tungabhadra River in the south. The territories comprising
Nanded and Aurangabad districts of Maharashtra and some Telangana Districts such as Adilabad
have been ruled by the Vatsagulma branch of the Vakatakas. Vidarbha and Bagelkhand areas
became the key political center of the Vakataks. As per the early inscriptions of the Vakatakas,
‘Purika Pattanam’ and ‘Chanaka’ served as their capitals in the beginning. Later ‘Pravarapura’
(Paunar) near Wardha became their capital. Vakatakas reigned for a long period of three
centuries from 250-560 C.E., providing political stability in the Deccan and Central Indian
areas, and law and order was ensured. Being liberal in the matter of religion, the Vakataka
rulers patronised education, literature and arts.
34
Sources
Vakataka inscriptions are in Sanskrit language and in Brahmi script. Majority of them
happen to be land grants. They provide details of the land grants that have been made to the
ascetics, temples, Brahmins and officials. From these, dynastic history of the rulers, land grant
details, donors, details of land grant villages etc., could be learnt. Genealogy of donees, their
place of habitation and their scholarship details also used to be mentioned in to these land
grants. In addition coins, material remains, literary work also form part in the source material.
Political Developments
According to the puranas and XVI cave inscription of Ajantha, Vindhyasakti was
mentioned as the founder of the Vakataka dynasty. They were the rulers of Vindhya region.
Hence, its founder was called as Vindhyasakti. He ruled over the Nagpur and Berar region
(Vindhya region) as feudatory of the Satavahanas between 250-270 C.E.
After the death of his father, Vindhyasakti, Pravasena-I succeeded to the throne and
ruled between 270-330 C.E., i.e. for sixty years. He was the real founder of the Vakataka
empire. It include northern Maharashra, Berar, Madhya Pradesh, South kosala and Telangana
areas. Pravarasena was a follower of vedic religion. He has performed Vedic rites like Vajapeya,
Athiratra and Agnistoma. He has performed four Asvamedha sacrifices. In this connection,
he gave grants to brahmins on a large scale.
After Pravarasena-I, Vakataka kingdom was divided into two branches under his
successors and sons.
4.2.2.1 Pravarapura - Nandivardhana branch

After Pravarasena, his grandson (son of Goutamiputra), Rudrasen-I came to the throne
in the year 330 C.E. and ruled upto 355 C.E. He ruled with Pravarapura (Paunar) in Wardha
District and Nandivardhanam in Nagpur District as capital. Vakataka ruler had maintained
good relations with the Guptas.
Rudrasena was succeeded by his son, Prithvisena-I (355-380 C.E.) During this period
Chandragupta-II, the Gupta ruler, defeated the Saka Kshatrapas (Malwa) with the help of
Rudrasena-II. In order to strengthen their bonds of friendship, Chandragupta-II married his
daughter Prabhavati Gupta with Rudrasena-II, crown prince. Prithvisena shifted his capital to
Nandivardhana near Nagpur.
Prithvisena was succeeded by his son Rudrasena-II (380-385 C.E.). He died within a
short period of four or five years. He, unlike his ancestors, did not embrace Saivism and under
the influence of his wife, Prabhavati Gupta, he adopted Vaishnavism. During the time of
Chandragupta-II, Gupta dominance over Vakataka kingdom has increased. The latter became
like a feudatory State of the Guptas.
Subsequently with the cooperation Gupta rulers, Pravarapua - Nandivardhana branch
rulers ruled the Vindhya region upto 480 C.E. Thereafter it became part of Vatsagulma branch
of Vakatakas.
4.2.2.2 Vatsagulma branch

Basim Copper Plate inscriptions and Ajanta inscriptions which are found in 1939, provide
information about the Vatsagulma branch. Sarvasena, the younger brother of Pravarasena was
the founder of this branch. Basim (Vatsagulma) located in the Akola District in Vidarbha (Berar)
redion, was made his capital. He has conquered the area that lay from the Sahyadri mountains
to river Godavari and ruled over it. Sarvasena was succeeded by his son, Vindhyasena or
Vindyasakti who ruled between 355-400 C.E.
35
After Vindyasena, his son Pravarasena-II, ascended the throne and ruled between
400-415 C.E. After his death, his eight-year old son Devasena came to the throne. He ruled
between 450-475 C.E. But, he has entrusted the administration of his kingdom to his able
minister, Hastibhoja. Swamiladeva, an official of Devasena has built a water source ‘Sudarsana’
near Basim.
After Devasena, his son Harisena became the ruler and ruled the kingdom between
475-500 C.E. He happened to be the greatest ruler among all those of the Vatsagulma branch.
During his period, the name and fame of the Vakataka kingdom have reached the highest point.
In Ajanta inscriptions, the names of Ghurjara (Gujarat), Malwa, south Kosala (Chhatisghad),
Kalinga, Asmaka (Telangana) and Kuntala (Southern Maharashtra) Kingdoms which he
conquered are there. His empire extended from Malwa in the north to Kuntala in the south and
from Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east. In India, no other contemporary
kingdom has such huge expanse of territory. Without annexing the conquered kingdoms in his
empire, he permitted them to carry on independent rule on the condition that they should pay
yearly tribute to him. He earned name not only as a conqueroe but also as an administrator.
Varahadeva, son of Hastibhoja was his minister. He got cut 16th cave at Ajanta. His inscription
has become the main source for knowing about the Vatsafulma branch.
After Harisena, Vakataka kingdom became weak. Though one or two of his heirs
ruled after him, their names are not known. Rushika or Asika (Asmaka) region (Karimnagar,
Adilabad and Nizamabad Districts) was reuled by Vishnukunds as the feudatories of the
Vakatakas. Though Harisena emerged victorious in the struggle between the two branches of
the Vakatakas, the authorit of the Vakataka kingdom has become weak by that time. There are
sources to tell that, taking advantage of these conditions, Govinda Varma, the Vishnukund ruler,
asserting independence resorted to espansion of his kingdom. At this time only, Kadambas from
Karnataka, Kalachuri kings from northern Maharashtra and Nala dynasty rulers from Bastar
made raids and occupied several parts. Thus ended the Vakataka rule.
4.2.3 Vishnukunds
Another important family that ruled over the Telangana region from 4th to 6th centuries
was the Vishnukunds. Archaeological and epigraphical data found at Keesarangutta (Ranga
Reddy distirct), Yelleshwaram (Nalgonda district), Gollathagudi and Gummadam (Mahabubnagar
District), Nelakodaplly (Khammam district), Tellakunta (Karimnagar district) and Tummalagudem
(Nalgonda district) and roughly 2000 coins belonging to this family found at different sites
provide us information about their history.
Some scholars opined that the Vishnukunds belonged to the Sriparvatiya region which
has been identified as the Rishika country located in the southern part of Telangana in the
present day districts of Mahbubnagar and Nalgonda.
The earliest known king of the Vishnukund family was Indravarma-I, who asserted
himself as an independent ruler in the last quarter of the 4th century. He was succeeded by
Madhavavarma-I. In the epigraphs both these rulers were mentioned with the title of ‘maharaja’,
indicating their independent status. On the basis of a copper plate inscription found at
Tummalagudem, it is believed that their capital was Indrapura, which can be identified with the
modern Indrapalagutta in Ramannapet Taluk of Nalgonda district.
The Vishnukunds emerged as an important power under Govindavarma-I (398-440
C.E.) who succeeded his father, Madhavarma-I. With the help of the erstwhile Vakataka ruler,
Govindavarma-I followed a policy of expansion by conducting aggressive wars into the territories
of the neighbouring chiefs. He also made matrimonial alliances with the neighbouring chiefs.
Inscriptions describe him not only as a conqueror, but also as a righteous ruler (parma
dharmika). He was at first a Buddhist, but was subsequently converted to Saivism. He donated
36
liberally to the Buddhist monks, the Brahmans and the needy. His chief queen , a daughter of
Prithvimula, gat a vihara constructed for the Buddhist sangham at Indrapura.
Govindavarma-I passed away in the year 440. He was succeeded by his son
Madhavavarma-II(440-495 CE). He took full advantage of the situation in the central Deccan
and extended his kingdom as far as the banks of Godavari by annihilating the Salankayana
power and annexed Vengi. He then turned his attention to the south and occupied the area
south of the Krishna up to the Gundlakamma. In the north, he conquered Pistapura area and
penetrated as far as Srikakulam. As a mark of his newly acquired sovereignty, he performed
eleven asvamedhas, several agnistomas and hiranya garbha. He had the title ‘janasaranya’
(shelter to the people). It shows that he was a very popular ruler and was loved by his subjects.
He was not only well-known for his valour and religious patronage but was equally praised for
his good administration and dispensation of equal justice to all people. It is said that on one
occasion he did not even hesitate to inflict capital punishment even on his own son. Thus, he
enhanced the prestige of the Vishnukunds in the central and eastern Deccan.
Vikramendravarma-I, who succeeded his father Madhavrma-II in 510, was not strong
enough to provide stability to the vast kingdom he inherited. Madhavavarma-II’s grand son,
Indrabhattarakavarma ruled from 525-555 CE. In the meanwhile, Madhavarma-III who was
put up as the governor of Guntur region asserted independence. He joined in the expedition of
Vakatakas against Trikutas and Malayas. He invaded even Vengi and occupied a large part of
that region.
The most interesting period in the rule of the Vishnukunds begins with the rise of
Indrabhattarakavarma-II who was the son of Vikramenohavarma. He was an able ruler who
reasserted his authority in the Guntur region. The inscriptional records unanimously credit him
with repeated victories in innumerable battles. At first, he curbed rebellious chiefs comprising a
confederacy of the Gangas, the Prithvimulas (Durjayas) and the Ramakasyapas. His charters
show that he extended his dominion at least as far as Srikakulam. To add to this, the emergence
of this ruler coincided with the final disappearance of the Vakataka kingdom. This provided him
with an opportunity to move to the west and occupy Vidarbha. But, in one of his repeated
campaigns, Indrabhattarakavarma-II was defeated in a battle with the Maukhari ruler,
Isanavarma and was killed in a battle, in 555.
The deceased ruler was succeeded by his sixteen year-old son, Vikramendravarma-
II. The Tummalagudem set II plates recount that in the 11th year of his reign, the young ruler
faced an invasion by the Pallava ruler, Simhavarman, and repulsed it with the assistance rendered
by his subordinates. The inscriptional records are unanimous in portraying him as a virtuous
ruler, ‘uttasraayd’ (a repository of all that is good). Though a Saivite by faith, he patronised the
Buddhist vihara at Indrapura. He died when he was only 30 years old.
Vikramendravarman-II died issueless. He was succeeded by Madhavavarma-IV, a
prince of the collateral branch of the Vishnukunds. He was the last ruler of this family. Soon
after coming to power, Madhavavarma vanquished his rivals and revived the glory of the
Vishnukund kingdom. He enhanced the prestige of the family and the kingdom by performing
asvamedha and other Vedic sacrifices. He assumed the additional title of janasraya. He is
credited with having authored a book on prosody known as Janasraya Chando vichitti.
In 612, Madhava varma-IV conquered Kalinga and led his armies as far as Jeypore.
But his unbounded ambition led him to disaster, resulting in his death. In the succeeding civil
war for supremacy, a warrior belonging to the Durjaya family asserted and prochlaimed himself
as the ruler. It was after defeating this Durjaya ruler, that Pulakesir-II, the Chalukyan ruler
gained foothold in the Telangana – Andhra region. Thus, the Chalukyan family gradually expanded
their territorial control from their earlier home in the Sripatvata region to the Vengi country in
the east.
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4.2.4 Rashtrakutas
Rashtrakutas occupied the most prominent place in the history of South India. Remaining
as feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami, they, after the decline of the BadamiChalukyas,
established an independent and vast empire. Many destricts of Telangana used to be under the
rule of the Rashtrakutas. Manyakheta in Karnataka region remained as their capital.
Political Developments
Independent Rashrakuta kingdom was established by Dantidurga who ruled between
748-758 C.E. He was the son of Indraraja-II. He was highly courageous and of keen
temperament. Dantidurga has defeated Kirtivarma-II (753 A.D.), BadminChalukyan king and
established independent Rashtrakuta kingdom. Greater part of Telangana used to be in their
empire.
After Dantidurga, Krishna-I ruledRashtrakuta kingdom between 758-772 C.E. He has
carried conquests that were started by Dantidurga. He has occupied Southern Konkan and
sent crown Prince Govinda-II to Vengi. The latter has defeated VengiChalukyan ruler
Vishnuvardhana-IV, and occupied some territory. During the time of Krishna-I, rivalry started
between the VengiChalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Krishna had the titles of ‘Subhattunga’
and ‘Akalavarshudu’. He was also a great patron of art. He has built the Kailasanadha
temple (Rock-cut) at Ellora. The construction of this temple nearly went on for hundred years.
It has received recognition as world heritage site.
After Krishna-I, Govinda-II ruled between 772-780 A.D.
Dhruva killed his brother Govinda-II, ascended the throne in 780 and ruled upto 792
C.E. He Gangavadi, Vengi and Malwa. He has also defeated the Eastern Chalukyan ruler,
Vishnuvardhana-IV and married his daughter Seelamahadevi. He had great courage and
capacity. Not only Dakshinapatha or South India, he has conquered North India and made the
rulers there, as his feudatories. He was the first Rashtrakuta ruler who entered into tripartite
wars. Tripartite wars took place between Pala, Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties. He has
defeated Pratihara Kanauj ruler, Vatsaraja and as a mark of his victory, he adopted ‘Ganga-
Yamuna torana’ as his kingdom’s emblem.
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Rashtrakuta kingdom which remained a local kingdom was extended to North India
and create a special place for the Rashtrkutas in the history of India.
After Dhruva, his son Govinda-III, assumed power and ruled between 793-814 C.E.
He was the greatest among the Rashtrakutas. He has fought wars with Pallava, Western
Ganga, GhurjaraPratihara and Pala kings and achieved success. He has defeated Pratihara
King, Nagabhata-II. He has spent his entire life time in waging wars only. His conquests
extended to Chitrakuta, Ujjaini, Bengal, Kalapriya and Ganga-Yamuna coastal plain. The ruler
of Simhala country became his friend. Broach ruler, Sribhavana also maintained good relations
with him. When Govinda was in Northern expedition, Pallava, Pandya, Kerala and Ganga kings
have formed themselves into a confederacy against him. Knowing this, he made lightning
attacks on them and by 802 A.D. this confederacy was broken. In this way, Govinda-III became
famous as a great warrior, commander-in-chief and statesman among the Rashtrakuta emperors.
During his period, the name and fame of the Rashtrakutas has reached highest level.
After Govinda-III, his only son Amoghavarsha has ruled between 814-880 C.E.
Amoghavarsha’s reign was filled with rebellions, internal conflicts and wars. He has defeated
the Vengi king, Gunaga Vijayaditya. In South Indian politics, through marriage alliances, he has
strengthened his relations with some royal dynasties. In the South, Gangavadi king, Nitidurga
39
declared his independence. Amoghavarsha defeated him and with political foresight gave back
his kingdom to the latter and he gave his daughter Chandrabbalachhen, in marriage to the
Ganga king’s son Butuga. Another daughter of him Renuka (Revaka) Nirmadi (Sankha) was
given in marriage to the Pallava king, Nandi Varma. He gave his sister in marriage to the Vengi
Crown Prince Vishnuvardhana-VII. Eastern Chalukyan ruler, Gunaga Vijayaditya a became
his feudatory. Not only in political and military fields, but also in religious and literacy fields,
Amoghavarsha’s contribution has been great.
He was a great poet. He has written ‘Kavirajamarga’ the first ‘alankara’ work. He
also wrote another work, ‘Prasnottara Ratnamalika’. He had the title ‘Kaviraja’. Jain poets
of his period, Mahavira Acharya and Saktyana wrote respectively ‘Ganitasara sangraha’
and ‘Amoghavritti’
Amoghavarsha built Manyakheta (Malkhed) city and made it his capital. Arab traveler,
Suleman describing the activities of Amoghavarsha, has praised him as one of the four great
emperors in the world. In order to put a stop to the famine and pestilence in his kingdom,
Amoghavarsha has offered his left hand finger as a sacrifice to Mahalakshmi goddess at
Kolhapur. Amoghavarsha adopted Jainism. He has observed ‘Sallekhanavrata’ and died.
After Amoghavarsha, his son, Krishna-II, became the king in 880 and ruled upto 914
C.E. From his time onwards, the decline of the Rashtrakutas has stared. Continuous wars were
fought with Pratihara, Kalinga, Ganga and Magadha kingdoms. Ghurjaraprathihara king,
Mihirabhoja, swooped on Rashtrakuta kingdom.
Easten Chalukya king Gunaga Vijayaditya has invaded Rashtrakuta kingdom and put
Kiranapura, Achalapura and Chakrakuta cities to destruction. He clashed with Chola king,
Parantaka and got defeated. Krishna-II gave his daughter in marriage to Chola king, Aditya-I.
The reign of Krishna-II, who has faced defeats in many wars, has shaken the very foundations
of the Rashtrakuta Empire.
Among the Rashtrkutas, last ruler was Karkaraja-II (972-973 A.D.). During his time,
feudatories became independent. Under these circumstances Chalukya, Tailapa, the ruler of
Tondavadi and a feudatory, has defeated Karkaraja, killed him and occupied Manyakheta. With
this, the rule of the Rashtrakutas has disappeared permanently. Tailapa-II has established the
rule of the Kalyani Chalukyan dynasty.

1. Who was the founder of Ikshvaku dynasty?
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2. Who were the rulers that considered as Telangana rulers?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
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4.3 ADMINISTRATION
Between 220-973 C.E. Telangana area was under the rule of Ikshvaku, Vakataka,
Vishnukund and Rashtrakuta rulers. During this period the administration was not uniform but
underwent significant changes from time to time. The administration under the Ikshvakus and
Vishnukunds was largely based on the lines of Satavahanas. The king was the head and supreme
authority of the kingdom. He administered the kingdom according to the rules laid down in the
Dharmasastras and Brahmanical laws. The kingship was herediteary. King’s authority consisted
of seven items viz., king, minister, kingdom, treasury, army, friend and fort. The king’s court
which was full of ostentation and splendor, remained as the symbol of king’s power and
supremacy. Feudatories, foreign ambassadors, poets, doctors, astrologers, higher civil, military
and government officials and representatives of the sreni’s or guilds used to attend the king’s
court.
In the administration of the kingdom, ministers used to assist the king. The important
among the ministers are Mahamantri (Prime Minister), Finance Minister, head of the Treasury,
Law Minister, Commander-in-chief, purohitaI and yuvaraja or uparja. These posts were
generally held by men of trust and character and Brahmins. They held them hereditary. Inscriptions
have mentioned the posts of ‘Mahamatya’ and ‘Mahasandhivigrahaka’. Kings, officials
who were appointed at different places in the kingdom used to be called as ‘Rajasthaneeya’.
During this period some parts of the kingdom’s territories were under the direct rule of
the emperor and few other territories were used to be under the rule of the feudatories. These
feudatories used to obey the orders of the emperor/king, pay tribute and as per the agreement,
used to supply the armies to the king at the time of his need. In addition to landed feudatories,
kings made land grants to Brahmins, officials and even to temples, which let to rise and growth
of feudalism in society.
4.3.1 Local administration

The king divided the kingdom into Rashtra, Vishaya and bhuktis consisting of 50-70
villages. These were headed by rashtrapati, the vishayapati and bhogapati. The rashtrapati
was incharge of military and civil administration, often enjoying the status of a Vassal. The
vishayapati was a replica of the rashtrapati in the vishaya. The bhogapatis carried on revenue
administration in cooperation with village head-man called Gramapati. These were all appointed
by the king only. The governing head of a town was Nagarapati. For villages generally headed
by Gramapatis and village assemblies. These village assemblies called with different names
based on its people. Each village revenue records maintened by village karanam / accountant
or patwari. He was assisted by Talari in collection of land revenue in the village. These village
officials were made responsible to trace out the theft cases and handing-over the stolen goods
to the real owners.
4.3.2 Army organisation

During this period rulers maintained huge army consisted of infantry, elephantry, cavalry
and chariots. Amongst the four, infantry was majority forces kept at the protection of capital
city. In-addition to the kings army, feudatories are also supplied the armies to the king at the
time of his need. Soldiers belonging to all Varnas are seen. For soldiers who died in war,
government used to give relief or pension. For maintenance of local law and order, they maintained
police staff called Dandaposikulu.

The king remained as the main judicial head. Judicial administration was carried through
the ‘Dharmasena’ that belonged to the Grama Sabha. Activities against the king and monarchy
used to be examined personally by the king. Other disputes were settled through his ministers,
41
officials or through his special appointees and punishments were awarded based on intensity of
the crime.
4.3.4 Revenue Administration

Land tax was the main source of income to the kingdom. Besides this, a tax known as
‘Pedenala tax’ a tax levied for army maintenance used to be collected. ‘Sandhi Vigraha’ tax
was imposed for the defence of the kingdom. From the native and foreign merchants; heavy
duties used to be collected in the form of transit duties and market duties etc. As the monarchical
form of government began taking roots, the tax burden on the people began to increase.
Out of the income that was received in the form of taxes, it is learnt that three parts of
it was allotted to army maintenance, one part as reserve fund and 1/12th share for charities,
palace and maintenance of the kingdom were utilized. On an average 15% was felt to the
Kudivaram, local village officers for the use of the people. Besides this 8 1/3% from Melavaram
used to be given by the Central government for people’s welfare activities.
4.4 ECONOMY
When the Ikshvakus came to power in the 3rd century, the Telangana region was
facing a grave economic crisis. Trade with the Roman world steadily declined and this affected
the local industry in and around Vijayapuri, the capital of Ikshvakus. This forced the kings to
encourage agriculture as the source of state revenue by gifting several hundreds of thousands
of ploughs, bovine cattle and gold to brahmans.
Essential crafts such as weaving, carpentry, smithy and potter continued, but they
were catering only to the local needs than move to markets. Consequently, trade routes fell into
disuse. Towns were deserted and ruined. After the Ikshvakus, references to nigamas, srenis,
vanijas or settis and their gifts to religious institutions disappeared from the contemporary
records. Money economy also declined. The Ikshvaku coins appeared small in size and far less
in number. The Vishnukunds issued iron coins with a thin coating of copper. The Vishnukund
kings made large scale land donations to brahmans as a measure to expand agriculture. New
areas in the interior of Telangana region were integrated into the main stream agrarian economy.
From the time of Rashtrakuta rule, the process of donating land grants to brahmanas
in different villages increased greatly. Some of the land grants given to brahmanas were tax-
free grants. These are called agrahara villages. From the ninth century onwards, temples also
received lands. These are known as devadana villages. Land was measured in the form of
small measurements such as maruthlu or matter, nivartana, khandugas, rajamana or
rachamana (royal measure), etc.
4.4.1 Types of Land - Crops

Inscriptions of Telangana during this period mention various types of lands such as
kariya nela (black land), neeru nela or paniya kshetra, pannasa or wet land, rajyabhumi
or royal land, pudonta or puvina tonta (flower garden). Kariya nela or black soil is suitable
for the growth of crops like cotton, oil seeds, sugarcane and rice. This type of land is found
normally along the rivarian tracts of the Godavari and the Krishna rivers in the districts of
Medak, Karimanagar, Nizamabad, Warangal, Adilabad and Khammam. Pudonta or garden
lands generally comprised the red soils which are less productive.
4.4.2 Irrigation
In the absence of adequate rainfall and water sources and the presence of predominately
red and black soils which are not very productive, agrarian expansion was made possible by
42
artificial irrigation which acquired great importance in the Telangana region. As perennial rivers
were few and major irrigation works and canal systems were rare, water had to be stored in
tanks at convenient points. Artificial reservoirs were constructed by damming smaller streams
and lakes were enlarged by closing their outlets. In the inscriptions, these reservoirs were
referred to as kere, tataka, samudram and kunta meaning tanks. During the Ikshvaku and
Vishnukund rule in Telangana, several tanks were dug at the initiative of the rulers, local chiefs
and officials. Construction of tanks was considered to be one of the seven means of attaining
merit.
4.4.3 Taxes
The peasantry had to pay a great variety of taxes. These include land tax which was
levied on the gross yield and it was normally 1/6 of produce was collected. Other taxes like
cesses for the use of water from a tank or canal owned by the state, taxes on livestock and
house tax, marriage tax and a number of other lives were collected. Taxes were paid in kind
and also in the form of coins such as drammas and aruvana.

Land donations to temples and expansion of agriculture and improved irrigation facilities
resulted in the revival of trade and commerce by 9th century CE. Trading groups like steshtis,
picked up momentum with temple becoming the major consumer of agrarian products. This
process of the increasing agrarian activity and the emergence of temples in the later period
witnessed the emergence of urban commercial centres at places like Vijayapuri, Alampur,
Manyakanta etc, and trading guids like ayyavoli-500, ubhayanadesis and nakarams.
4.5 SOCIETY
An important feature of society up to the 7th century in Telangana was that the cast
system retained considerable flexibility and mobility because of the influence of Duddhism.
Many tribal people and foreign invaders like the Sakas got integrated into the brahmanical
social order either through religions like Buddhism, Saivism or Bhagavatism. Only the Brahmans
functioned as a separate caste and were honoured by the rulers. The ruling groups like the
Vishnukunds and Vakatakas were not pure kshatriyas but combined in themselves the glory
and splendor of the Brahman and kshatriy (brahma kshatra tejobhrtam). The trading groups
were grouped as Vaisyas and the rest as Sudras.
From about the 7th century many social groups were mentioned in the inscriptions.
Important administrative groups were mahamandaleswara, mahasamantadhipati, mahajans,
gavundas, perggade, nal gavunda, senabova (a village accountant), eddate (warrior class),
etc. Brahmans proficient in Vedic and Puranic texts and brahmana administrators occupied
key positions in administration. Some brahmans were employed as temple priests. In the Jaina
temples, sthanadhipatis were appointed to look after temple administration. Merchant groups
like Chandra sreshtis, artisans like vaddepanivaru (stone cutters) started receiving social
visibility.
Royal women from the Ikshvaku and Vishnukund period onwards enjoyed considerable
economic freedom. They made liberal donations to the Buddhist monasteries.
During this period Sudras mainly took up the occupation of agriculture, agricultural
labour and military service. Because of the increased difference between Sudras and Chandalas,
Sudras have gained higher status ‘Rattadi’ or ‘Reddi’, ‘Vellala’ and ‘Kapu’ has been major
sudra classes.
43
Another development that deserved to be noticed was that the emergence of landed
farmer class in Karnataka due to land granting system and due to bringing new lands under
cultivation to enhance the production of food grains to meet the need of society. Another
notable feature of this period was the emergence of new craft class viz., ‘Panchanamvaru’ in
Andhra and ‘Edangai’ in Tamilnadu deserves to be noted significantly. These new craft classes
and landed farmer class patronized the emerging new religious movements such as virasaivism,
Aaaradhya saivism and srivaishnavam.
4.6 RELIGION
Varied religions faiths, such as Buddhism, Jainism, Saivism and Vaishnuvism have
flowrished during the period. R.oyal patronage has been extended to all them at one time or the
other.
4.6.1 Buddhism
During the Ikshvaku period, Buddhism was the height of its glory in Telangana. More
than the kings of this family, it were the royal ladies who lavishly patronised the Duddhist
sanghas. They believed that Buddha was Lord Supreme (Bhagavan) fulfilling the desires of
the devotees for health, longevity and victory. As a result, many viharas, chaityas and stupas
were constructed at places like Nagarjunakonda. Nelakondapalli (Khammam). Anupu and
Nandikonda (Nalgonda). These places functioned as important centres of Theravada and
Mahayana sects of Buddhism. The Aparasaila sect of Mahyana held the prominent position at
Sriparvata and their mahacatiya and mahavihara occupied the central position at Sriparvata
valley attracting large number of Buddhists from across the country.
Buddhism which dominated the early hidtorical period began to lose its impact by the
7th century. The Buddha got incorporated into the Hindu pantheon by the 9th century and was
considered to be the ninth incarnation of Vishnu.
4.6.2 Jainism
The other non-Vedic religion was Jainism. Though Buddhism declined Jainism continued
to receive royal patronage, during the time of the Rashtrkutas. The growing popularity of
Saivism in the Rashtrakuta period resulted in Jaina-Saivite conflicts. Consequently, Jainism had
to give way to this Puranic faith.
4.6.3 Saivism
When Buddhism and Jainism were becoming popular in the early historical times,
attempts were made by the brahmans to strengthen the brahmanical religion based on Puranic
theism. At Vijayapuri there was a yagasala, as well as innumerable temples dedicated to
different deities like Pushpabhadra (Siva), Manasena, Astabhuja (Visnu) and Hariti (Sakti).
At Manchikallu, near Vijayapuri, sprang up the temples of Nageswaraswamy, Halampraswamy,
Jivashivaswamy, etc. Thus, Vijyapuri also became a Siva-Visnu-Sakti kshetra rivalling the
Budhist kshetra of Sriparvata in its vicinity.
During the Vishnukund times, Saivism and Vaishnavism made steady progress, but
temple building activity lost much of earlier tempo. Most of the ruling failies like the Vishukunds
and the early Rashtrakutas, in order to gain recognition and social status performed Vedic
rituals. For instance, Madhavavarma, the Vishnukud king, performed thousand agnistomas,
eleven asvamedhas along with the rituals of hiranyagarbha, rajasuya, paundarika,
bahusuvarna, etc.
44
It was during Vishnukunds period that Srisailam emerged as an important Saivite centre
along with its four main gateways, which include Tripurantakam (east), Siddhavatam (south),
Umamaheswaram (north) and Alampur (west). Siva is worshipped along with Mahasena and
Ganapati.
4.6.4 Vaishnavism
Along with Saivism, Vaishnavism also progressed in Telangana at Burugugadda, Maktala,
Lingagiri, which became renowned seats of Vaishnavism. Madhavavarma of Vishnukund family
invoked Sriparvataswamy and compared himself to ‘Kesava in prowess’. The avatara concepts
became popular among the Vaishnavites. Buddha also got incormporated as one of the avataras
of Vishnu. In two of the sculptures at Alampur, Buddha was shown as seated in the middle in
yogamudra with the avataras all around.
Puranic theism replaced Vedic Brahmanism emerged as a temple-centred and ritual-
oriented cult with bhakti or devotion as its base. As a result, temple building activity gained
momentum from the 9th century onwards.
4.7 LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND EDUCATION

Political and religious conditions of the period also influenced the developments in
language and literature. For instance, though the Ikshvakus like the Satavahanas, initially
patronised Prakrit as their language, however, they had to gradually replace Prakrit with Sanskrit
particularly in the inscriptions.
During the Ikshvaku period, higher learning was encouraged. Sriparvata
(Nagarjunakonda) had emerged as one of the leading educational centers for Buddhist learning.
Udyotana (8th century CE) mentions in his Prakrit work, Kuvalayamala that the great monastery
at Vijayapuri attracted larger number of students from various countries. Acharya Nagarjuna
propounded the madhyamika philosophy from Nagarjunakonda.
The declining importance of Buddhism from the 5th-6th centuries onwards resulted in
the gradual displacement of Prakrit with Sanskrit. The promotion of brahmanical religion by
the Vishnukund kings and encouragement of Vedic studies resulted in the establishment of
several ghatikas. Ghatikas are attached to the temples, where the fourteen branches of Vedic
learning like the Vedas, Vedangas, Puranas, Itihasas, Dharmasastras, etc. were imparted.
Even the Rashtrakuta Emperors showed lot of interest in the development of education.
For this purpose they and rich people used to donate the lands and rich people used to donate
the lands to the brahmins and temples. Those areas became the centres of Sanskrit education
and Vedic learning.
Important works that produced during this period were ‘Janassaya Chando Vichitti’
produced by the Vishnukund rulers. Another work written by Rashtrakita ruler Amoghavasha
was ‘Kaviraja Marga’ the first alankara work. He also wrote another work ‘Prasanottara
Rathnamalika’ etc produced.
4.8 ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Monuments and sculptures exhibit man’s inner creativity. They are the representations
not only of his thoughts, but also the society at large. Most of the surviving monuments built
during this period are religious structures belonging to Buddhist, Jain, Saivite and Vaishnavite
faiths.
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The Ikshvakus were great patrons of art. The kings and queens of this family contributed
immensely for the progress of Buddhism by constructing stupas, viharas and chaityas at
Nagarjunakonda, Vijayapuri, Nandikonda and Nelakondapalli. They adopted Mathura, Amaravati
and Kushana style in their architecture and sculptures.
An important feature of Buddhist monuments belonging to this period are richly carved
stupas. In the centre of the Stupa was placed the Buddha who was represented sometimes in
human form and sometimes as a symbol, as found at Nagarjunakonda. The casing slabs of the
stupa have the sculptures of the stories from Jatakas like the Chhaddanta Jataka, the Sasa
Jataka, etc., which narrate the life of Buddha.
The chaitya is apsidal in plan and is approached by a flight of steps starting with a
‘moon-stone’. The viharas or monasteries are the places where monks stayed. These are
composed of a number of cells or rooms. The approach to these cells was by small steps with
‘moon-stones’ and low flanking makara balustrades.
Apart from Buddhist monuments, there also existed few monuments belonging to
brahmanical religion. The brahmanical monuments are both structural and rock-cut. From
the 10th regnal year of Ehuvala Chantamula, several temples came up in and around Vijayapuri.
The chaityala served as a model for the temple. The earliest temples were either circular
(vrttayatana) or apsidal (salayatana or gajaprastha). The Pushpabhandra temple set pattern
for temple architecture which generally consisted of sanctum (garbhagriha), vestibule
(antarala), pillared hall (mantapa) and flagstaff (dhwaja sthambha).
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Vishnukunds are famous for the construction of Cave Temples at Undavalli in Guntur
distirct, at Bhairavunikonda in Nellore district and at Mogalirajapuram in Vijayawada. This was
followed by the Pallavas, Chalukyas and Rastrakutas.
Form the 7th century, the early Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna-I, built the famous rock-cut
Saivite cave temple at Ellora, popularly known as Kailasanatha temple.

1. The great Buddhist Monastery was built at
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
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2. Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was built by
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4.9 SUMMARY
To sum up, it can be viewed that the period from 3rd century CE to 8th century CE, was
in fact a crucial period of transformation in polity, society, economy, religion, art and architecture
and language. During this period several ruling families like the Ikshvakus, Vakatakas,
Vishnukunds and Rashtrakutas, ruled different parts of Telangana. The rulers from these families
improved agriculture and irrigation, facilitated trade and commerce and played a crucial role in
the spread of several monuments belonging to Buddhist, Jaina, Saivite and Vaishnavite faiths.
They also encouraged higher education and promoted the development of language and literature.
47
Check your progress Answers - I
1. Sri Santamula
2. Vishnukunds
Check your progress Answers - II

1. Nagarjunakonda
2. Krishna-I

1. Trace the rise and fall of Vishnukund dynasty.
2. Examine the conditions of different religious faiths during 220-973 C.E.
3. Examine the development of literature, art and architecture during 220-973 C.E.
4. What are the achievements of Rashtrakuta rulers.

1. Trace the salient features of the economy during the Ikshvaku, Vakataka, Vishnukund
and Rashtrakuta rule.
2. Analyse the social conditions during 220-973 C.E.
3. Briefly write about Vakatakas and their contribution to Telangana.

1. Rama Rao,M : Ikshavakus of Vijayapuri, Tirupati, 1967.
2. Satyanarayana,K : A Study of History and Culture of the Andhras.
Vol-I, Delhi.1975.
3. Sankaranarayanam,S : The Vishnukundis and their times. Agam Prakashan,
Delhi, 1977.
4. Telugu Akademi, Hyderabad : Telangana History – Culture, 2016.
5. Yazdani,G : The Early History of Deccan. Vol-I, Oxford,1960.
48
UNIT - 5: CHALUKYAN AGE
Contents
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Chalukyas of Badami (543-752 CE)
5.3 Rashtrakutas (752-973 CE)
5.3.1 Vemulavada Chalukyas (750 – 973 CE)
5.3.2 Mudigonda Chalukyas (850 – 1200 CE)
5.4 Kalyani Chalukyas (973 – 1189 CE)
5.4.1 Kanduru Chodas (1040 – 1290 CE)
5.5 Administration in Chalukyan Age
5.5.2 Economic Conditions
5.5.2.1 Taxes
5.5.2.2 Trade and Commerce
5.5.3 Social Conditions
5.5.4 Religious Conditions
5.5.4.1 Buddhism
5.5.4.2 Jainism
5.5.4.3 Saivism
5.5.4.4 Vaishnavism
5.6 Summary
5.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the Badami Chalukyan Rule and their achievements.
2. Explain the Administrative system of Chalukyan Age.
3. Discuss the Social – economic and religious conditions of Chalukyan Age.
4. Describe the Literary Development under Chalukyas.
5. Analyse the Development of Art and Architecture under Chalukyas.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The political vacuum created after the decline of the Vishnukunds in Telangana was
filled in by the Chalukyas of Badami and later by the Rashtrakutas. Their presence in Telangana
can be attested from the availability of inscriptional sources. The Badami Chalukyas ruled the
Deccan region from the middle of sixth to the middle of eighth century C.E. Though their
capital Badami or Vatapi was situated in Karnataka, they nonetheless controlled some parts of
49
Telangana region through governors, the rastrapatis and vishayapatis. Similarly, the Rastrakutas
who succeeded the Badami Chalukyas also exercised their control over parts of Telangana
region between the eighth and tenth centuries, by evolving a systematic administrative system.
Thus, both these major ruling families though belonging to the region outside Telangana, were
instrumental in evolving an organised administrative, economic, social and structure in Telangana.
Around the time when the Badami Chalukyan power was in decline, religious and
cultural two important Chalukyan families viz., Vemulavada Chalukyas and Mudigonda
Chalukyas emerged in Telangana with Vemulavada and Koravi (or) Mudigonda as their head
quarters, respectively. They were contemporary to the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and the Eastern
Chalukyas of Vengi. An important aspect of these two minor Chalukyan families was that they
often took sides with the Vengi Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in their conflict over the control of
fertile tracts of the Krishna – Godavari Doab. While the Vemulavada Chalukyas supported the
Rashtrakutas, the rulers of Mudigonda defended the rulers of Vengi in the Telangana front.
Their military prowess and strategic location helped their overlords to became emperors and on
some occasions, Chalukyan Age it was practically their support that decided the fate of either
Malkhed or Vengi.
After the fall of Rashtrakuta rule in Telangana, in its place Chalukyas of Kalyani
emerged and ruled for more than 200 years i.e. 11th & 12th centuries. During the Western
Chalukyan or Kalyani Chalukyan period, their subordinate or feudatory rulers emerged, such as
Kandur Chodas ruled from Orugallu as foundations of Chalukyas of Kalyani. Thus, in the
history of Telangana, the different Chalukyan brothers adorned long rule for six centuries from
the 6th to 12th centuries of Christian Era. Hence, this period was rightly called as the Chalukyan
Age.
5.2 CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI (543-752 CE)

Tummeyanoor inscription of Pulakesi-II is referring to some parts of Kurnool and
Mahaboobnagar districts which called as ‘Chalukya Vishaya’. Historians believed that this
Chalukyan Vishaya happened to be a native place of Chalukyas.
The founder of independent Chalukyan dynasty was Pulakesi-I (535 – 566 CE). His
father was Ranaraga and grandfather was Jayasimha Vallabha, who were feudatories of
Vishnukunds and Kadambas. Pulakesi-I took out Chalukyan authority from feudatory level and
revised it to the status of an independent kingdom. He occupied Vatapi or Badami and built a
strong fort there (543 CE) and made it his capital. The inscriptions found at Badami (543 CE)
and another at Yeleshwaram inform about his victories, performance of his asvamedha sacrifice
and extension of his kingdom upto Nalgonda district. Among the Chalukyan rulers, he was the
first who assumed the title of ‘maharaja’. His descendents ruled for around 200 years – between
543 – 752 CE. Among them, Pulakesi-II (609 – 642 CE) was the greatest ruler. His Aihole
inscription states that he defeated Land of North India, Harshavardhana and established his
claim as one of the great rulers of South India. Thus, he brought entire Telugu lands even some
Tamil lands by defeating these rulers. During the Pulakesi-II period, many Karnataka people,
as army generals and as Governors were appointed in the Telangana and Andhra area. One
such was his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana, who in 624 CE, was appointed as Governor over
Vengi, and became the founder of the ruler of Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. His descendents
ruled over this more than four centuries. It is significant that Badami Chalukyan rulers influenced
political, social, economic, administrative and cultural spheres of Telangana through directly or
indirectly through their feudatories. One such feudatory rulers were Chalukyas of Vemulavada
of Karimnagar who form an important one. The Badami Chalukyan Empire map showing its
importance.
50
Badami Chalukyan Kingdom
5.3 RASHTRAKUTAS (752 – 973 CE)

Rashtrakutas occupied the most prominent place as the feudatories of the Chalukyas
of Badami, they after the decline of the Badami Chalukyans, established an independent and
vast empire. Many districts of Telangana used to be under the rule of the Rastrakutas.
Manyakheta in Karnataka region remained as their capital. They ruled the areas of Karnataka,
Maharastra and Telangana for more than 200 years, as an Imperial rulers. The greatest rulers
of Rashtrakutas are its founder Dantidurga, followed by Krishna-I, Dhruva Raja, Govinda-III,
Amoghavarsha and Krishna-II are important. Under these rulers the polity, Socio – economic
and cultural spheres of Telangana was effected directly and indirectly through their feudatory
rulers such as Chalukyas of Vemulavada and Chalukyas of Mudigonda emerged in the Telangana
region.
5.3.1 Vemulavada Chalukyas (750 – 973 CE)

The Chalukyan lineage at Vemulavada or Lemulavada (presently in Karimnagar district)
first came into political prominence during the first half of the eighth century CE. These Chalukyas
were in the service of Pulakesi-II, who, impressed by the valour of Satyasraya Ranavikrama,
the earliest known member of this family, gave him Sapadalaksha territory (Sapadalaksha
means a kingdom of one lakh twenty five thousand rupees yielding villages territory) corresponding
to the present day Karimnagar and Nizamabad districts of Telangana and to administer it with
Bodhan as centre. The successors of Ranavikrama, viz., Prithvipati and Rajaditya Prithvikrama
supported the Badami rulers.
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After the decline of the Badami Chalukyas, the Vemulavada Chalukyas owed their
allegiance to the Rashtrakutas, and remained as subordinate rulers with semi – independent
status for a span of two centuries of their rule.
The history of this family is known to us from the Kollipara, Kuravagattu, Parbhani
and Vemulavada inscriptions. Pampa’s ‘Vikramarjuna Vijayam’ also furnish is details about
the genealogy of this family.
The political history of the first four rulers of this branch, up to Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla,
is not clear. Vinayadity Yuddhamalla is described as a great conqueror. Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla-
I (750 – 775 CE) was the real founder and the first celebrated king of this family. He ruled over
the Sapadalaksha country which got identified with the areas covered by the Karimnagar and
Nizamabad districts of Telangana. He assisted the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga, in overthrowing
the Badami Chalukyan power, and in return acquired his position as the ruler of Podana (modern
Bodhan) area.
Yuddhamalla was succeeded by his son, Arikesari-I (775 – 800 CE) and became the
sixth ruler of this dynasty. The Kollipara copper plate inscriptions of this king speak the of him
as a learned prince, proficient in grammar, gajatantra (treatise on elephantry) logic, archery
and medicine. In the conflicts that ensued between the Rashtrakutas and the Eastern Chalukyas,
Arikesari-I helped the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva in conquering the Chalukyan rulers of Vengi
and Trikalinga. During his reign the Vemulavada Chalukyan kingdom extended upto Srisailam
and Yelesvaram regions.
Arikesari-I was succeeded by his son, Narshimha-I and the latter by his son,
Yuddhamalla-II. But, no significant developments have taken place during fifty years rule period.
The most distinguished ruler of the Vemulavada Chalukyan family was the ninth king, Baddega
(850 – 895 CE). He was described as the ‘hero of forty two battles’ and called with an epithet
Solada ganda. Baddega captured Chalukya Bhima-I, the Eastern Chalukyan king, in the war
that took place near the water fort of Kunala (Kolleru) in the Vengi area. Baddega’s political
influence was felt as far as Bastar where the ancient Chakrakuta mandala was situated. He
has constructed a temple on his name known as Baddegeswara, which has now become famous
as Bhimeswara Temple.
After Baddega, his son Yuddhamalla-II (895- 915 CE) succeeded to the throne, but his
reign details are not available. After him, his son Narasimha-II (915-930 CE) succeeded to the
throne. Narsimha was a powerful warrior and bagged a number of victories for his Rashtrakuta
master, Indra-III. He conquered the Latas, reduced Malwa and defeated the Gurjara king,
Mahipala. He led his armies as far as the river Ganges. To commemorate his victories in these
campaigns, Narsimha-II erected a stone pillar at Kala Priya, on the bank of river Yamuna. His
achievements were cherished by his successors in their inscriptions. Pampa’s ‘Vikramajuna
Vijayam’ also gives a graphic account of his achievements. Impressed by the valour of Narsimha-
II, Indra-III gave his sister Jakavva in marriage to him. Thus, the prestige of the Vemulavada
Chalukyan family rose to great heights in the Deccan during Narsimha-II’s time.
Narsimha-II was succeeded by his son, the most illustrious king, Arikesari-II (930-955
CE). He was known as a great scholar, warrior, an administrator, a great builder and a patron
of letters. It was under his patronage that the Kannada poet Pampa wrote ‘Vikramarjuna
Vijayam’, a master piece in Kannada literature. The Adityagiham in Vumulavada was built
during his regime. Arikesari married Revakanirmadi, the daughter of the Rashtrakuta King,
Indra-III and Lokambika another Rashtrakuta prince. Arikesari played an important role in the
internal affairs of the Rashtrakuta family. He was responsible for the accession of Amoghavarsha-
III, by defeating his brother Govinda-IV.
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Arikesari had two sons, viz., Vegaraju and Baddiga-II from Revakanirmadi and
Lokambika, the Rashtrakuta princesses respectively. After the death of Arikesari-II, his eldest
son, Vegaraju has assumed royal authority and ruled between 955-960 CE with Gangadhara
town as his capital. He was also the feudatory of Rashtrakuta King Krishna-III. He patronised
Somadevasuri, the author of ‘Yasatilaka Champu’.
After Vegaraju, who had no children, his younger brother Beddaga-II (Bhadradeva)
came to the throne ruled between (960-965 CE). After Beddega-II, his son Arikesari-III assumed
authority (965-973 CE). He was the last king of Vemulavada Chalukya dynasty. By 973 CE
Rashtrakuta rule replaced by Kalyani Chalukyan rule with Tailapa-II as king. Along with
Rashtrakutas, Vemulavada Chalukya rule also came to an end in 973 CE.
Vemulavada Chalukyas ruled in Karimnagar and Nizamabad districts as though it was
golden age. Many Hindu and Jain temples were built in these areas. During their periods,
Rajarajeswara temple, and Baddigeswara (Bhimeswara) temple became famous. The role
played by Vemulavada Chalukyan in Telangana was remarkable.
5.3.2 Mudigonda Chalukyas (850 – 1200 CE)

Mudigonda Chalukyas ruled the areas around Mudigonda and Koravi, corresponding
to the present parts of Khammam and Warangal districts of Telangana. The history of this
family is known to us from the Mogalcheruvu inscription, Krivvaka inscription of Kusumayudha
and Viriyalasarigudoor inscription as there were no dates in these inscriptions, and as the
information in there was not proper or adequate, there was no opportunity to know about their
history.
The Mudigonda Chalukyas had their capital at Mudigonda after which they were called
as Mudigonda Chalukyas. Their kingdom bordered the Vengi and Malkhed empires. It covered
much of the forest area along the river Godavari in the Khammam, Warangal and Krishna
districts and commanded all the entry points into the Vengi kingdom.
The Mudigonda Chalukyas remained the feudatories of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
and held the responsibility of protecting the North – western borders of the Chalukyas of Vengi.
They emerged on the political scene during the period of Chalukya Bhima-I of Vengi. Since
their neighbours, the Vemulavada Chalukyas were not only related but also loyal vassals of the
Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas of Mudigonda for survival, aligned with the Vengi power, ensuring
the political equilibrium in the strategic zone. They adopted the Vengi Chalukyan seal which
represents varahalanchana, amkusa, cresent, sankha, makaratorana, a couple of fly –
whisks, and empty throne and umbrella.
They early history of this family is not clearly known. The Mogalcheruvu inscription
refers to Kokkiraja and Ranamarda as two brothers who occupied the area pertaining to the
present district of Khammam and established their rule with their capital at Mudigonduru.
Kokkiraja was a valorous king who ruled the kingdom with the help of his brother Ranamarda.
Ranamarda was an outstanding warrior and Mogalcheruvula inscription describes him as a
veritable Rama on the battle field. It was under him that the Mudigonda Chalukyas extended
their authority over the areas of Manchikonda Vishaya and Kondapalli. As a royal insignia,
Ranamarda bore Kanthika necklace named ‘Ranamarda Kanthiya’ which was esteemed as
Kuladhana, a traditional sacred heirloom and worshiped as a ‘Kuladevata’ by the successors
of this line.
Ranamarda was succeeded by his son Kusumayudha-I. he was described as
‘Ranamardanvaya Kulatilaka’. He rendered loyal services to Chalukya Bhima-I of the Vengi
Chalukyan line. During the reign of Chalukya Bhima-I, the Rashtrakutas along with their
subordinates, the Vemulavada Chalukyas, intruded into Vengi country. But had to suffer defeat
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at the hands of Kusumayudha-I who showed dauntless courage and remarkable bravery in
restoring the Vengi kingdom to Chalukya Bhima-I. It was for this act that also upon his request,
granted a village by name Kukiparru to a brahmana named Potamayya. Thus, Kusumayudha
(or) Kusumaditya-I (870-895 CE) gained importance during this period. Thereafter, his successors
ruled Mudigonda kingdom upto 1200 CE.
Gonagaiah (895 – 910 CE): Kusumayudha had two sons, Gonagaiah and Niravadya.
Out of regard to Gunaga Vijayaditya famous Vengi Chalukyan ruler, Kusumayudha named one
of his son’s as ‘Gonagaiah’. He was also called as Karigonaga (black Gonaga). After
Kusumayudha, Gonagaiah ascended the throne, and ruled between 895 – 910 CE. There after,
the internal conflicts that arose in Vengi after Chalukya Bhima, Gonagaiah has lost the affection
of the Vengi Chalukyas. Taking advantage of these developments, his brother, Niravadya removed
Gonagaiah and himself ascended the Mudigonda Chalukyan throne and ruled between 910 –
935 CE. This information is given by Koravi inscription. Having lost the kingdom, Gonagaiah
has sought the help of Arikesari-II (930 – 955 CE). With the help of Arikesari-II, Gonagaiah
and his eldest son, Beddaga ruled some years Chennur province of Adilabad district as the sub
ordinate (or) Samanta of Arikesari-II of Chalukyas of Vemulavada. Later with the help of
Arikesari-II, Gongaiah has dethroned his brother Nirabadya, and acquired the Mudigonda kingdom
back and put his second son, Kusumayuda-II on the throne of Mudigonda (935 – 960 CE). In
the later period upto 1200 CE the descendents of Gonagaiah only have ruled over Mudigonda
Kingdom.
In the meanwhile, political conditions have changed in Vengi kingdom and Rashtrakuta
kingdom. In Vengi kingdom, Jatachoda Bhima local feudatory ruler declared his independence
by ousting the Vengi Chalukyas at Vengi and in Rashtrakuta kingdom by removing the Rashtrakuta
ruler, Kanka-II, Tailpa-II became the ruler of Kalyani Chalukyan in the year 973 CE and ruled
upto 910 CE. Later his successors ruled upto 1189 CE. Thereafter, ‘the Kakatiya chiefs have
emerged as subordinates of Kalyani Chalukyas and in course of time, the Kakatiya kingdom
became powerful, and fought with the Mudigonda Chalukyas, and finally by the period of
Kakatiya Ganapathideva, the Mudigonda kingdom became a part of Kakatiya kingdom.
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5.4 KALYANI CHALUKYAS (973 – 1189)
The Kalyani Chalukyas also known as Western Chalukyas claim their descent from
the main line of the Chalukyas of Badami. After the decline of the Badami Chalukyas the
scions of this family remained in obscurity for about two centuries. They served as vessels
under the Rashtrakutas. The earliest member of this family Tailapa-I was a subordinate under
Rashtrakuta Krishna-II. He was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya-IV. Both these early
rulers consolidated their position chiefly by marriage alliances with the Chedis and the
Rashtrakutas.
In 973 CE, Tailapa-II (973 – 997 CE), the son and successor of Vikramadity-IV, finding
an opportune time, overthrew the Rashtrakuta suzerainty and established an independent kingdom
with Manyakheta as the initial capital. It was from his time onwards that the Western Chalukyan
influence in Telangana was largely felt. This is known from the discovery of several stone
inscriptions found in Karimnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Mahaboobnagar and Warangal districts.
Most of these inscriptions were bilingual containing both Sanskrit and Kannada versions.
Tailapa-II was succeeded by his son, Satyasraya (997 – 1008 CE). He was known for
piercing towards the enemy at the battle. His chief queen Devakabbe lived in Choppadandi in
Karimnagar district and constructed Divakesvaralayam temple. Satyasraya was succeeded by
Vikramaditya-V (1008 – 1018 CE) who, in turn, was succeeded by Jagadekamalla Jayasimha-
II (1018 – 1042 CE). Many inscriptions pertaining to his reign were found in Telangana. Most
of the inscriptions grants were given for the construction of temples.
After the death of Jayasimha-II, his son Trailokyamalla Somesvara came to power in
1042 and ruled upto 1068 AD. He shifted the capital from Manyakheta (Malkhed) to Kalyani in
Karnataka. It was during his period that the Kakatiyas came to prominence. Impressed by the
services rendered by Prolaraja-I. Somesvara presented him with Anumakonda Vishaya to rule.
The greatest among the later Chalukyan rulers was Tribhuvanamalla-VI (1076 – 1126
AD) or Vikramaditya-VI. During his period, Potlakere (Patancheruvu in Hyderabad) and
Kollipake (Kulpak or Konlanpak in Nalgonda) were used as military camps. The roads from
Hyderabad to Sanigaram assumed great importance for the movement of military. Sanigaram,
in fact, served as a military camp for the Western Chalukyan armies. The Extensive Empire of
Kalyani Chalukyas showing its importance.
Kalyani Chalukya Kingdom
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The Polavasa chiefs who ruled over Polas region in Karimnagar district came into
political prominence during the reign of Vikramaditya-VI. Four important rulers of this family,
viz., Medaraja-I, Jaggadeva-I, Medaraja-II and Mantrakuta Gundaraja ruled this region for
nearly 60 years. During their rule, they constructed temples like Paulasthesvara temple at
Polas and Vikramala Jinalaya and made liberal donations. During the same period, the most
important subordinate Southern Telangana rulers of Chalukyan period happened to be Kanduru
Chodas.
5.4.1 Kanduru Chodas (1040 – 1290 CE)

Kanduru Chodas are most important rulers who ruled Southern Telangana regions
such as Nalgonda, Mahaboobnagar districts totally, Nelakondapalli region of Khammam district
and upto Kondapallinadu of Krishna district form 1040 – 1290 CE, i.e. around 250 years. Their
capital towns such as Panagallu, Kolanipaka are located in Nalgonda district, and Kanduru,
Koduru, Vardhamanapuram are located in Mahaboobnagar district.
The ancestors of Kanduru Chodas belonged to the famous Choda (or) Chola dynasty
of Karikala Choda (or) Chola ruling over the Aruvaseema. The Aruvaseema to the regions
South of Krishna river such as Atmakur, Markapuram, Dornala of Kurnool district and North of
river Krishna, such as Mahaboobnagar, Nalgonda and Khammam etc. In the course of the
period, they lost Southern territories from their control and established themselves as subordinates
of Kalyani Chalukyas, and sometimes independent and sometimes as subordinates of Kakatiyas.
Who ruled the Telangana for more than 250 years.
The first ruler and the founder of this dynasty was Aruva Bhimadevachoda who ruled
Nalgonda mandalam or Aruvamandalam with the capital at Panagallu town. He ruled between
1040 – 1050 CE. He was succeeded by his son, Aruva Tondaya-I who ruled between 1050 –
1065 CE with Panagallu capital and brought Sirikonda Nelakondapalli, Rachakonda, Bhuvanagiri,
and Devarkonda areas under his control. He strengthened Vadapalli sea port and ensured ship
transportation to Eastern towns through Krishna river for the purpose of trade and commerce.
After Tondaya, his son Bhimadeva Choda-II ascended the Panagallu throne in 1065 CE and
ruled upto 1077 CE as third ruler of this dynasty. He expanded the kingdom. He supported
Kalyani Chalukyan ruler Vikramaditya-VI in his wars, and received Kolanpaka 7000, Kanduru
Nadu 1100 villages as a reward to rule under his control.
From this time onwards, their capital was shifted to Kandur Nadu. Hence, the
Aruvachoda rulers have came to be known as Kanduru Chodas.
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Bhimadeva Choda-II was blessed with four sons. Among them, the eldest son Tondaya
Choda-II ascended the throne of Kandurunadu, as a fourth ruler of this dynasty and ruled
between 1077 – 1098 CE. i.e., 20 years, expanded the kingdom and brought many areas under
his control. They consisted of hill forts, land forts, water forts such as Vadapalli and forest fort
in the form of Mannnuru. Some of these were put under the administrative control of
Mahasamantas, Samantas, Mandalikas and Army Generals, who were carrying royal orders
with obedience. Thereafter, Tondaya Choda-II, two sons succeeded to the throne. They being
Kondaya Chodudu and Mallikarjuna Chodudu, both ruled in combination between 1089 – 1101
CE, as fifth and sixth rulers of this dynasty. Altogether seventeen rulers of this dynasty ruled
the kingdom.
5.4.1.1 Assesment of the Kanduru Chodas

Though Kanduru chodas and Kakatiyas were emerged as subordinates of Chalukyas
of Kalyani. When Kakatiyas were ruling limited area of Anumakonda and Sabhi mandalam
(Karimnagar) of Telangana. But, at the same time Kanduri Chodas were ruling over the vast
areas of Southern Telangana regions such as Mahaboobnagar, Nalgonda, Khammam and some
parts of Krishna district etc. and stood far – ahead in Telangana. When the Chalukyas of
Kalyani power was disintegrating in Telangana, the Kanduri Chodas under Udayanachoda
Maharaju and his son Bhimadeva Chodudu became independent rulers in Telangana and followed
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the administrative system of Chalukyas of Kalyani rulers. The most important feature of
Kandurichodas is that both the brothers were ruling in combination at the same time without
any successive struggle is an important and novel one. Such a system we could not trace out
anywhere. It reveals that they were given utmost importance for the wellbeing of the people.
From the reign of Kakatiya Rudradeva, the Kanduri Chodas became subordinates of Kakatiyas
became part of Kakatiyas kingdom.
Thus, Kanduru chodas were ruled over vast areas of Southern Telangana regions for
more than 250 years and built many temples, tanks, canals for the welfare of people. The
Temples that were built during this period traced out at Panagallu (Nalgonda) namely Pachala
Someswara and Chaya Someswara, Kandur, Vardhamana puram – Shiva Temples are important.
Pachala Someswaram of Panagallu

For the promotion of agriculture they built many tanqs and canals such as
Udayasamudram (in Panagallu), Tanq of Peddadevulapalli, Nameli anicut (Bridge), Tank of
Akaram, Peruru Ahalya river Anicut (Bridge), Vemla Konda canal, Gokaram canal – Tank,
Akkenipelli big or king canal, and Tank of Shaligouraram etc. were standing even today.
The later Chalukyan hegemony in Telangana came to an end with the decline of the
family under Taila-III and Someswara-IV. In the Deccan after these rulers, we witness the rise
of three major ruling families, viz., the Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Yadavas or Senuvas of
Devagiri and Hoyasalas of Dwarasamudra.
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1. Who was the founder of Independent Chalukyan Dynasty?
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2. Bhimeswara Temple Constructed by
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5.5 ADMINISTRATION IN CHALUKYAN AGE

Between CE 6th to 12th Century, Telangana area was under the rule of Chalukyas of
Badami, Vemulavada, Mudigonda, Kalyani etc. During this period, they made land grants to
Brahmans and even to Government employees, instead of cash payments which, in turn led to
the rise of feudalism. Further, the rulers were depending in their administration on the assistance
of feudalities which also increased the growth of feudalism.
Under such circumstances, kingship was hereditary. The king was all in all. King’s
authority consisted of seven items king, minister, kingdom, treasury, army, friend and fort. In
running the administration of the kingdom, the king was assisted by the Yuvaraja or some
times, appoint brothers or the sons of brothers are appointed as Yuvaraja. Yuvaraja was also
called as Uparaja.
For helping the emperor in administration, the council of ministers was there. In it, the
minister, commander – in – chief, treasurer, purohit and Yuvaraja used to advise the king in
administration. It is being learnt that these posts were generally held by men of trusted character
and Brahmins who were well – versed in dharmasastras. They held them hereditarily. During
the Chalukyan times, these posts were gradually held by the sudras also. It is also learnt that
there were eighteen tirthas who were heading the departments as superintendents. It could be
said that bahattara (72) niyogadhipaties who are found in the Kakatiya inscriptions might
have been the descendants of the tirthas of Chalukyan times.
The local administration of Chalukyas in Telangana reflects the administrative system
that was prevalent in Karnataka. The Telangana region was divided into rashtras, vishayas
and bhuktis consisting of 50 – 70 villages. These were headed by the rashtrapati, the
vishayapati and the bhogapati. The rashtrapati was in charge of military and civil
administration. The vishayapati was a replica of rashtrapati in the vishaya. The bhogapatis
carried on revenue administration in cooperation with village head man called nalgavunda
gavunda. Besides these officials, the inscriptions of this period also mention senabova or a
village accountant who kept the revenue records of the village, and talari who assisted the
accountant or patwari in the collection of land revenue of the village. Each village was headed
by Gramasabha. This Sabha not only appointed the village accountant and Talari and made
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them responsible to trace out thieves and return the theft material to the owner. Even the king
has to take the permission of village Sabha at the time of land transaction of the village.
5.5.1 Juicial Administration

The king remained as the Chief Justice of the kingdom. Judgments were given by
‘Rashtrapati’ in provinces and ‘Vishayapati’ in ‘Vishayas. In villages, Grama Sabhas used
to give the judgments. Ordinary disputes were all decided in Grama Sabhas only. During the
Chalukyan times, there used to be special judges, called as ‘Pradvivakas’. When disputes
occurred between villages regarding land borders and use of water from river, kings used to get
them solved through the ‘pradvivakas’ or their ministers or through caste elders. These courts
were established as pre the principles that are recorded in ancient smriti works, such as
Yajnavalkya smriti. The judgments that were delivered by these courts were issued with
king’s emblem and in the name of Jayapatras. For putting the stamp of the emblem, there used
to be special officers, known as ‘mudravartulas’.
5.5.2 Economic Conditions

During the Chalukyan period, the dependence of the people on land and agriculture
has increased. Brahmins got associated with temple service, got allotted lands and agraharas
and got turned as landlords. Sudras used to cultivate their lands and remained loyal to them. As
there was pressure on land, expansion of agriculture became inevitable. As cultivation of lands
increased, it became necessary for converting uncultivated and forest land into crop lands. For
tax imposition, agricultural lands have been divided into different types. They have been divided
as low lying lands wet lands, dry lands, sandy lands (garuvu) and garden lands. Land tax was
fixed depending on water facility, land fertility, and crop yield. In the inscriptions of the Chalukyan
times, reference was made about the commercial crops, such as coconut, betel leaf, betel nut
gardens, mango, sugarcane, cotton, grams and pulses. Land was measured in the form of
measurements such as marutlu or matter, nivartana, khandugas, rajamana or rachamana
(royal measure), etc. Regarding rights over land, every landlord had full authority over his land,
but, acceptance of the concerned village elders has to be obtained.
During the Chalukyan rule in Telangana, several tanks were dug at the initiative of the
rulers, local chiefs and officials such as Madivojanakere (Medak), Bhimasamudram
(Mahaboobnagar), Brihat tataka (Nalgonda) and Achebbe Samudra (Choppandandi in
Karimnagar), etc. Construction of tanks was considered to be one of the seven means of
attaining merit.
5.5.2.1 Taxes
Agricultural land tax was one of the important taxes. This was collected 1/6th of gross
yield. Other taxes were water tax tanks, canals, house tax, export and import taxes, and taxes
on market or Santhas. These were collected in the form of kind or cash such as drams, mada,
panam, gadyana etc. Barter system was in vogue in the villages. Besides these, other measures,
such as sola, manika, adde, kuncham, seru, manugu and putti etc., are in vogue during
those times.
5.5.2.2 Trade and Commerce

Expansion of agriculture, improved irrigation facilities, and cultivation of commercial
crops resulted in the revival of trade and commerce by 11th century CE. Trading groups such as
vaisyas, perikas, balijas etc., had their guilds. Each guild used to sell only one commodity.
During this time, business was mainly in the hands of the vaisyas. They had nakarams or
Sangam. Every nakara had a sreshti. Fairs and pilgrimage places got developed into trade
centres at places like Alampur, Warangal, Vemulavada, Polasa, etc., and trading guilds like
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ayyavoli – 500, Ubhayananadesis and Nakarams etc. were prevalent to carry out trade and
commerce.
5.5.3 Social Conditions

During the Chalukyan period, Vedic brahmanic religion gained prominence and varna
system has taken stable shape. Four – fold varna system was prevalent. Brahmins had first
place in society because of their Sanskrit education, study of Vedas and Vedangas and serving
as teachers. Kshtriyas had occupied second position as administrators and warrior class. During
Chalukyan period, many sudras entered into the service of army and also claiming themselves
as of lunar descent called themselves as kshtriyas. In the varna society, vaishyas occupied
third position. Their occupation was trading. They were called as sreshti, setti and komati.
Being the devotees of Gomateswara (Jain monk), they are called as gomatlu or komatlu.
During this time, they got organized into guilds (or) nakarams and carried the internal and
external business, which helped them to become rich. Sudras are fourth group in varna society.
Based on their occupations they emerged into many castes. Among them, those who pursued
agriculture and entered into army service emerged as powerful communities. Those who adopted
handicrafts, such as pottery, black smithy, carpentry etc., remained at low position varna society.
Thus, occupation based caste society and hierarchical class society came into stabilization
during this period.
5.5.4 Religious Conditions

5.5.4.1 Buddhism
By the 7th Century CE. Buddhism began to decline and incorporated into Hinduism, as
Buddha came to be regarded as got ninth incarnation of Vishnu and got worshipped along with
Hindu gods.
5.5.4.2 Jainism
Though Buddism declined, Jainsim continued to receive royal patronage. During the
time of Vemulavada Chalukyan king Arikesari-II, Trivhuvanatilaka Vasadi was built and 24
‘Tirthankaras’ along with ‘Chakrasvaris’ were installed by Jinavallabha, brother of the famous
Kannada poet, Pampa. Baddega, another king of the same line, constructed Subhadhamma
Jinalaya and appointed Somadeva, a famous jaina poet as its pontiff. The reign of Kalyani
Chalukyas witnessed the growth of several Jain centres at places like Patancheruvu, Bodhan,
Ujjili, Kolanupaka, Pedakondumuru, Togarakunta etc. they were endowed with rich donations.
The growing popularity of Saivism in Telangana region from 10th century resulted in Jaina –
Saivate conflicts. Consequently, Jainism had to give way to this Puranic faith. Thus many Jain
temples got converted into Saivaite temples.
5.5.4.3 Saivism
Among those who received agraharas from the Chalukyan kings, Brahmins, the basic
pillars of Vedic religion, were in greater number. During the time of Chalukyas, Vedic religion
was in highest position. Kumarilabhattu, who propagated purvamimamsa Vedanta method,
belonged to this age only. Because of internal reformation of Vedic religion, people’s interest
towards rituals and charities, idol worship and construction of major temples, has increased.
The one development which deserves to be stated was that during this age, temple construction
was taken up by the Government as a movement and a social necessity. It became the tradition
of Chalukyan kingdoms or kings that the number of wars that were fought have to be equaled
by the construction of same number of temples. Saivism had popular following, hence, many
Saivite temples were built during this period. Srisailam emerged as an important Saivite centre
along with its four main gateways, which include Tripurantakam (East), Siddhavatam (South),
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Umamaheswaram (North) and Alampur (West). Rajarajeswara temple of Vemulavada emerged
as an important Saivite centre. In thse temple of Vemulavada emerged as an important Saivite
centre. In these temples, Lord Siva is worshipped along with Mahasena and Ganapati.
5.5.4.4 Vaishnavism
Along with Saivism, Vaishnavism also progressed in Telangana at Burugugadda, Maktala,
and Lingagir, which became renowned seats of Vaishnavism.
Puranic theism which replaced Vedic Brahmanism, emerged as a temple – centered
and ritual – oriented cult with bhakti or devotion as its base. As a result, temple building activity
gained momentum from the 10th century onwards.

The kings encouraged Vedic religion and Vedic studies which got resulted in the
establishment of several ghatikas. ‘Ghatikas’ are attached to the temples. The literary works
of this period are Pampa’s Adipurana, Jain treatise, and Vikramarjuna vijayam a biography
on his patroni, Arikesati-II of Vemulavada Chalukyan family. These works were written in
Kannada languse.
The next important poet was Somadeva suri, the author of Yasastilaka Champu which
was written in Sanskrit. He was also the court poet of Vagaraja of the Vemulavada Chalukyan
family. From the later half of 9th century, Telugu language came to be gradually used in the
inscriptions.

Royal courts and temples of Chalukyan times had been the centres for the arts of
music, dance, architecture and sculpture. The early Chalukyas at their capital Badami and its
surrounding places, have constructed many cave temples. Prominent temples came up at Aihole
and Pattadakal in Karnataka. Exhibiting their styles of architecture and sculpture, as many as
around 70 temples in Aihole area and 10 temples at Pattadakal have been constructed. These
temples have been built in the manner of erecting a rectangular platform and over it row of
pillars was arranged which could bear the load of roof. Perhaps, this was the early temple.
Walls won’t be there on its four sides. This is called as ‘sandhagaram’. This structure might
have been used as the meeting place of village elders and people. In Mahaboobnagar district of
present day Telangana, and at Alampur on the bank of sacred Tungabhadra river, there are nine
temples, otherwise called as Navabrahma temples. Among them, six had compound walls
around them. Remaining temples stay outside this compound wall. The names of all these
temples had the word ‘brahma’ at their end. But, all these are Sive temples. Sive temples. Sive
lingas got installed in them. Among these nine temples, ‘Viswabrahma’ temple was the biggest
one. These temples are receiving even today the prayers and worship of the devotees.
The temples that were built at Vemulavada in Telangana region, belonged to ninth and
tenth centuries. Among these, Bhimeswara temple is important. This temple belonged to ninth
century. It was built by Baddega. Earlier it used to be called as ‘Baddegeswara’ temple. In it at
the entrance of sanctum sanctorum ‘Gajalakshmi’ was there. In the walls of sanctum sanctorium,
there are four pillars. This was the tradition of early Chalukyas. In the Bhimalingeswara temple
at Vemulabada, on the northern wall of sanctum sanctorium, the sculpture of ‘Mahishasura
mardini’ was carved. Nageswara temple is another one at Vemulavada. This was built during
the time of Arikesai-II. The God worshipped by the merchants is called as ‘Nagareswara’.
Sive linga was installedin the inner temple. It is learnt from the inscriptions that a Jain temple
was built at Repaka by Arikesari-III. In Karimnagar district, 22 kms from Manthena, and in the
hillock beside ‘Adavisomnapalli’ village, four cave temples are there.
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Navabramha Temple, Alampur. Bhimeswaralayam, Vemulavada.
From the 7th century, the early Chalukyas of Badami evolved a new style of architecture,
known as Vesara style. This style is a combination of both the North Indian Nagara style and
South Indian Dravida style of architecture.
In Telangana, Vemulavada Chalukyas who patronised both Jainism and Saivism,
constructed several temples in Vesara style. For example, the Saivite temples at Vemulavada,
Dharmapuri, Raikal (Karimnagar District) and Alampur (Mahaboobnagar District) belong to
the Vesara style. Jaina temples of this period are found at Vemulavada, Sanigaram, Korutla and
Kolanupaka.
Jain Temple at Kolanpaka.

The latter Chalukyas of Kalyani were also great builders of temples and evolved a
different style, called later Chalukyan style. Examples of this style are the Baddegesvara
(Bhimaesvara) Nagaresvara, Kedaresvara, Rajarajeswara temples found in Telangana.

1. Bhimasamudram Constructed by
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2. Who was written "Ysastilaka Champu"
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5.6 SUMMARY
The period of Chalukyan rule could be considered as a glorious age in South Indian
history. These Chalukyas during their long period of rule extending from sixth century to twelfth
century, could achieve political unity and resist successfully foreign invasions on South India.
Regarding the Arab invasion of Northern India which occurred during their time, they were
able to some extent to prevent its spread to the Western areas. Even though Chalukyan kings
got emerged in continuous wars, they could develop South India in all fields and thereby could
bring back memories of Satavahana rule. During the time of Badami Chalukyas, Pulakesin-II,
as part of his military conquests, occupied most parts of Telangana and Rayalaseema and has
proclaimed the eminence of the Chalukyas. Vemulavada Chalukyas who ruled over Telangana
areas, have given the fruits of great administration to the people of Telangana. During the time
of Baddega who fought 42 battles and did not taste defeat in any one of them, war heroes like
him brought glory to the age. During the time of Vemulavada Chalukyas, Arikesari-II taking
advantage of the relations with Rashtrakutas, was able to expang his empire. Mudigonda
Chalukyas also, with the confidence from the Eastern Chalukyas ruled over Telangana region.
During the time of the Chalukyas, though local government resembled that of the Cholas, they
have divided their empire into units and handed over the administration. Appreciable fact is that,
greater percentage of State income was spent on people, welfare programmes and thereby
received the admiration of the people. In the maintenance of the army also, new changes could
fang place. Pulakesin-II in Aihole inscription has referred to the six types of army organizations.
Keeping the responsibility of catching the criminals on the local officials and giving importance
to village assemblies in judicial trials have remained as useful and praiseworthy measures.
Chalukyas, giving importance to the construction of tanks, got them dug and contributed for
improving the crop yields. Along with agriculture, industries, trade, and commerce proceeded in
progressive path. Among the handicrafts, weaving of different kinds of clothes gained importance.
Though the four fold varna system was prevalent in the society of those days, sudras and
women could freely take up their activities and enjoy their rights. Saiva and Jain faiths enjoyed
good patronage and progress. Reflecting style of the Chalukyas. Next to Saivism and Jainism,
Vaishnavism also gained importance and enjoyed patronage. In literary field, inscriptions and
writings began in Prakrit and Sanskrit languages and gradually, during the time of the Eastern
Chalukyas and Vemulavada Chalukyas, Telugu the language of the local people, started becoming
the medium for inscriptions and writings, and with the taking up of the preparation of
‘Mahabaharata’ in Telugu by Nannaya who happened to be the court poet of Rajaraja Narendra,
way became clear for the development of Telugu language and literature. It could be realized
that the Chalukyas, during their long rule of six centuries, could introduce stable, praiseworthy,
popular, ideal and trend-setting systems and changes in political, administrative, economic social
and cultural fields. In that way, their rule period could be considered as an age by itself in
Telangana, as well as South Indian history without any doubt.

1. Pulakesi - I (535 - 566 CE)
2. Baddega
64
1. Chalukyas
2. Somadeva Suri

1. Write about the Greatness of Pulakesi-II, of the Badami Chalukyan ruler.
2. Write about the Vemulavada Chalukyas contribution to Telangana cultural life.
3. Discuss the rule of Mudigonda Chalukyas in Telangana.
1. Discuss the Greatness of Vikramaditya-VI, of Kalyani Chalukyan ruler.
2. Write about Kanduru Chodas and their contribution to Telangana.
3. Describe the Social and Economic life of the people during Chalukyan Age.
4. Discuss the Religious life of the people during Chalukyan Age.

1. Gopal Reddy. Y. : A Comprehensive History of Andhra Pradesh.
2. Rama Rao. M. : Studies in the Early History of Andhradesha.
3. Raghumatha Rao. P. : History of Andhras.
4. Rama Krishna. V. : Samagra Andhradesa Charitra – Sanskruti.
5. Satyanarayana. K. : A Study of the History and Culture of Andhra vol-I,
Delhi,1975.
6. Yazdani. G. : Early History of the Deccan. vol-I
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BLOCK - III
MEDIEVAL PERIOD
During the period between 10th century to 1323 CE, Andhradesa was ruled by
the Kakatiyas. They were the contemporaries of medieval rulers like Yadavas of Devagiri,
Hoyasalas of Dwarasamudra, Pandyas of Madurai and Delhi Sultans. Kakatiyas united
Telugu people. They provided popular administration and patronised fine Arts. They
encouraged agriculture, trade and commerce. Religious freedom was granted to people.
Many tanks, temples, and forts were built by them.
The Musunuri and Velamas ruled most parts of present Telangana with great
dedication. But, the rise of Bahmanis, Vijayanagar, and Reddi, kingdoms dragged them
into struggle for supremacy. The lack of farsightedness among them finally gave an
opportunity to Bahmanis to conquer their territories. The heroic efforts of Musunuri
Prolayanayaka, Kapayanayaka and Velama rulers gave a new strength to the people of
this region. They preserved the rich culture of Kakatiyas. They ruled the people of
Telangana with great care.
The Bahamani Sultans ruled Deccan for nearly from 170 years. Muhammad
Gawan played an important role in have bringing about salient reforms. He established a
big madrasa. He encouraged education and literature. Bahamani Sultans encouraged
agriculture, local industries, trade and commerce. They fought with the Vijayanagar rulers
for the Raichur Doab. They extended their empire between the seas. They have contributed
a lot for the development of culture and architecture in the Deccan.
Qutb Shahis ruled from 1512 to 1687AD. They fought with contemporary
Vijayanagar, Bijapur, Berar, Bidar and Ahmadnagar kingdoms. They encouraged agriculture,
trade, industry, literature and architecture. The Sultans also read and wrote the Telugu.
They patronised Telugu poets and writers. They encouraged Deccan in Urdu. Sultans
constructed Charminar, Mecca Masjid, Charkaman, Daru-us-Shifa and Badu Shahi
Ashurkhana etc.
This block is divided into four units:

Unit -6 : Kakatiya Polity, Society and Culture.
Unit -7 : Musunuri Nayakas and Padmanayaka: Polity, Society-Economy and Culture.
Unit -8 : Bahamani Polity, Society-Economy and Culture.
Unit -9 : Qutb Shahi Polity, Society-Economy and Culture.
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UNIT - 6: KAKATIYA POLITY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Contents
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sources
6.3 Rise of Kakatiyas
6.4 Political achievements of Sovereign Kakatiyas
6.5 Administrative System
6.5.1 Central Government
6.5.2 Provincial Administration
6.5.3 Village Administration
6.5.4 Military System – Nayamkara System
6.5.5 Judicial System
6.6 Society, Economy and Culture
6.7 Summary
6.10 Books for Further Reading
6.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
1. Know the emergence of Kakatiyas as a political force in Medieval Telangana.
2. Explain the unification of Telugu Speaking people.
3. Discuss the expansion of Kakatiya political hegemony over coastal Andhradesa and
achievements of Kakatiya rulers.
4. Describe the impact of Muslim invasions and decline of Kakatiya.
5. Analyse the political system, society, economy and culture of Kakatiya period.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
During the period between 10th century to 1323 CE, Andhradesa was ruled by the
Kakatiyas. They were the contemporaries of medieval rulers like Yadavas of Devagiri, Hoyasalas
of Dwarasamudra, Pandyas of Madurai and Delhi Sultans. The credit of uniting Telugu- speaking
people, and establishing the vast empire for the first time goes to Kakatiya rulers. Their long
rule of nearly three centuries as semi-independent and sovereign rulers provided an identity to
Telugu people and their abilities. They won the total support of all the sections. Eminent historians
and scholars like Nilakanta Sastri, M.Rama Rao, M.Somasekhara Sarma, B.N.Sastry,
P.V.Parabrahma Sastry and American scholar Cynthia Talbot, wrote excellent works on the
political, socio, economic and cultural history of the Kakatiyas.
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In recent years, different public welfare programmes introduced by the Kakatiyas
became an inspiration to the present policy makers. The irrigation works or ‘Golusucheruvulu’
of Kakatiya rulers inspired the present Telangana State Government to launch the prestigious
‘Mission Kakatiya’ to improve irrigational facilities to agriculture.
6.2 SOURCES
The following archaeological and literary sources of Kakatiya rulers are providing
useful information about the different aspects of Kakatiya. Among the archaeological sources,
epigraphs, coins, monuments are very important.
A) Epigraphical Sources: The epigraphs or inscriptions issued by the Kakatiyas, their
ministers, Generals and contemporary rulers are providing very useful information about
the various aspects of Kakatiya history. Some of them are quoted here.
1. Mugallu grant, dated 956 CE, of Eastern Chalukyan prince Danarnava, referred for
the first time about the name of a Kakatiya chief, named Gundyana.
2. Hanamkonda Thousand Pillar Temple inscription, dated 1163 CE, of Rudradeva,
clearly mentioned the declaration of sovereign power by him.
3. Bayyaram Tank Inscription of Mailambika, sister of Ganapatideva, dated 1219 CE,
throws some light on the genealogy of Kakatiyas. According to the information
stated in this epigraph, the Bayyaram Tank was constructed by her.
4. Motupalli Abhaya Sasanam, dated 1244 CE, issued by king Ganapatideva, describes
the external trade carried out from Motupalli port. It also mentioned the elaborate
arrangements made by the King to protect the external traders by providing them
with concessions.
5. Malkapuram epigraph, dated 1261 CE, by an official of Rudramadevi’s reign referred
about the educational institutions (Vidyamandapams) of Kakatiya Age.
6. Chandupatla, dated 1289 CE, issued by Puvvula-Mummadi, who was working under
Rudramadevi’s General Mallikarjuna, gives very useful information regarding
Rudrama’s death in her attempt to crush the Revolt of Kayasta Ambadeva.
B) Literary Sources: During the period of Kakatiyas, many Sanskrit, and Telugu works
were written by poets and scholars. Among them ‘Panditaradhya Charitram and
Basavapuranam of Palkuriki Somanatha, Shivayogasaram of Kolani Ganapatideva,
Pratapacharitram of Ekamranatha, Kreedhabhiramam of Vinu Konda Vallabharaya.
Prataparudra Yashobhusahanam of Vidyanatha, Nrutyaratnavali of Jayapa Senani
and Siddheshwara Charitam of Kase Siddappa’ are providing very useful information
about the political, socio, economic, and religious life of the period.
Besides the above mentioned Sanskrit and Telugu works, the works written by
contemporary Muslim scholars such as ‘Tarik-e-Ferishta of Muhammad-Qasim-
Ferishta, Futuh-us-Salatin of Islami and Tarikh-e-Feroz Shahi of Zia-uddin-Barani
are providing some facts about the Muslim invasions in Warangal and its conquest.
The Travels of Marco Polo is providing information about the flourishing State of
external trade during the reign of Rudramadevi.
6.3 RISE OF KAKATIYAS

There are still many doubts among the scholars regarding the origin, native home, their
caste and how the name ‘Kakatiya’ is derived. According to the view of many historians,
Kakatiyas started their service in the army of Rastrakutas. Kakatiya ‘Gundyana’ was the first
member of the dynasty. Magallu grant of Eastern-Chalukyan Prince Daanarnava deted 956
CE, referred about him. After serving under Rastrakutas, early chiefs of Kakatiya family entered
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into the service of Eastern Chalukyan Rulers. During this period , they became the provincial
officials. They worked at Koravi and Khammam.
According to a group of scholars, Kakatiyas were the native people of a village named
‘Kakatipuram’. But, so far, no clinching evidence is found to be established where exactly this
Village is located. Another group of historians opined that the name ‘Kakatiya’ is derived from
their family deity ‘Kakatamma’. On the basis of information collected from various sources,
eminent historian P.V.Parabrahma Sastry viewed that they acquired the name Kakatiya, due to
the worship of Goddess Kakati, one of the incarnations of ‘Durga’.
Scholars divided the Kakatiyas into two categories i.e., subordinate chiefs and sovereign
rulers. A brief account of subordinate is described in the following pages.
Subordinate or Feudatory Chiefs (956 CE- 1162 CE): Kakatiya Gundyana was
the first historical person among the feudatory chiefs. He was mentioned in the Magallu grant
of Daanarnava. The Baggaram epigraph of Mailamba mentioned him as ‘Pina Gundyana’. He
was the contemporary of Rastrakuta king Krishna III. He interfered in the internal conflict
between Eastern Chalukyan ruler Daanarnava and Rastrakutas. Gundyana has played a
significant role in the success of Daanarnava against his rival Ammaraju (Step brother). Prince
Daanarnava honoured Gundyana for his help. The Magallu grant describes the above
developments. After the decline of Rastrakuta power in 973 CE, Gundyana refused to recognise
the lordship of Chalukyas. Finally, Gundyana declared his authority in the Koravi region. He
also assisted Mudiganda Chalukyas to establish their control over Mudigonda. Viriyala Yerranna,
the dynamic General of Gundyana helped Mudigonda Chalukyas. But, in the fight Gundya lost
his life. Viriyala Kamasani, wife of Yerranna (maternal aunt) saved the young Beta-I. He was
made the incharge of Anumakonda Vishaya.
Beta-I (1000-1052 CE): He was the son of Gundyana. He was a capable General.
He was the chief of Anumakonda Vishaya. He invaded Kanchipuram as per the orders of
Chalukyan King Someshwara I in the year 1051 CE. The details are not clear.
Prola-I (1052-1076 CE): He was the son of Beta I. He served under Someshwara
I, the Chalukyan King. He proved his abilities and won his confidence. From his reign only,
Anumakonda became the capital to early Kakatiyas. He built a big tank named Kesamudram
at Kesamudram village, Warangal.
Beta-II (1076-1108 CE): Beta-II was the son of Prola-I. He served under
Vikramaditya-VI, the Eastern Chalukyan Prince. He supported Vikramaditya-VI against his
brother Bhuvanaikamalla Someshwara in the war of succession. After the victory, Vikramaditya
bestowed ‘Sabbinadu’ Madalam (Karimnagar) with thousand Villages. He also assumed the
titles like Tribhuvanamalla and Mahamandaleshwara. Rameshwara Dikshita was his spiritual
guru. He was succeeded by his son, Durgaraya. He ruled up to 1116 CE.
Prola-II (1116-1157 CE): Durgaraju was succeeded by his brother Prola-II. His
military achievements are mentioned in the Anumakonda Thousand Pillar Temple epigraph of
his son Rudradeva. Prola-II supported Someshwara-III to seize the Kalyani Chalukyan throne.
Tailava and his feudatories Medaraja of Polavasa and Gundaraju of Manthena were defeated
by Prola-II. But, unfortunately, Prola-II lost his life at the hands of Velanatichola King’s general,
Inagala Brahmi Reddi. So, under these conditions, Prola’s son Rudradeva came into power in
1158 CE. He declared his sovereign power in the year 1163 CE.
6.4 POLITICAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF SOVEREIGN

KAKATIYA-RULERS – (1163-1323 CE)
Rudradeva (1163-1195 CE) was the first sovereign ruler among the Kakatiyas. His
military conquests were well described in the Anumakonda Thousand Pillar inscription issued
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by him in the year 1163 CE, to mark his sovereign power. He was a great warrior and assumed
a title Raya Gajakesari’ and issued coins in his name. According to the information collected
from Anumakonda Thousand Pillar record, he defeated the chiefs of Nagara (Karimnagar)
Dommaraju, Medaraja-II of Polavasa (Karimnagar), Malligadeva and Choda Udaya. His army
also inflicted a defeat on Telugu Chola King Kanduri Chola Bhima. Vellanki Gangadhara, the
dynamic General of Rudradeva has played a key role in the military conquests and consolidation
of administration. During his reign, Rudradeva also faced the challenge of Yadavas of Devagiri.
In order to accommodate the growing population of his State, he laid the foundation for the
construction of a new capital city at Orugallu or Warangal. He was killed in the war with
Yadava King Jaitugi’ in the year 1195 CE. Mahadeva, the younger brother of Rudradeva became
the new king of Kakatiya State. He ruled up to 1199 CE. He lost his life fighting with Yadava
army. His young son Ganapatideva was set free by Yadava king Jaitrapala to divert the attention
of other rulers towards Devagiri. Recherla Rudra, the most trusted and capable officer of
Ganapatideva, installed young prince (Ganapatideva) on the throne and managed the affairs of
the State.
Ganapatideva (1199-1262 CE): Ganapatideva was one of the greatest rulers of
Medieval South India. His long rule of nearly more than six decades has expanded the territorial
authority of Kakatiyas over coastal Andhra. He also came into conflict with Yadava rulers.
Among his contemporaries, Jaitrapala, Singana and Mahadeva of Yadava dynasty, Viraballala-
I, and Narasimhadeva-II of Hoyasala dynasty, Prithvishwara of ‘Velanadu’ were note worthy.
The Kakatiya army led by the King himself scored grand Victories. Prithvishwara, the ruler of
Velanadu, and his supporters were crushed by Ganapatideva. His forces next conquered
‘Divisima’ after defeating its ruler, Pinna Choda of Ayya family. Malayala Chauda (chauda),
the capable commander of Ganapatideva, has played a significant role in this victory. But,
Ganapatideva permitted Divi ruler to rule his principality as a subordinate to him. He also
realised the strength of Divi ruler. He entered into matrimonial alliance with Divi ruler.
GanapatiDeva married Pina Choda’s two daughters, Naaramba and Peramba. These victories
established the sway of Kakatiyas over entire Godavari. Telugu people of Telangana and Andhra
region were united under Kakatiya rule. He ruled his people with great care.
Ganapatideva, helped Nellore Telugu Choda King Manumasiddhi, son of Tikkabhupala
against his enemies. In 1208 CE, the Kakatiya forces defeated all the opponents of Manumasiddhi
and installed him on the Nellore throne. After this victory, Kakatiya forces marched on to
Kanchi and defeated the local ruler.
Tikkabhupala, king of Nellore Telugu Choda kingdom and friend of Ganapatideva died.
His son Manumasiddhi lost his seat to his rivals. Under these conditions, Manumasiddhi deputed
his court poet Tikkanna to the court of Ganapatideva with a request to help him. The Kakatiya
forces led by Induluri Somaya achieved success over the opponents of Manumasiddhi. Kayasta
Gangaya Sahani, the General of Ganapatideva also defeated Vijayaganda Gopala and others.
Later, Gangaya Sahani was appointed as ‘Bahattara Niyogadhipati , by Ganapatideva.
Ganapatideva in his last years came into conflict with Pandyan army. The main reason for this
conflict was, Pandyan forces attacked Nellore Telugu Chola kingdom. Ganapatideva led his
army to protect Manumasiddhi-II. But, in the battle of Muttukur (Nellore) fought in 1263 CE,
Kakatiya forces suffered a humiliating defeat, at the hands of Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan.
Manumasiddi-II lost his life Nellore was annexed to Pandyan kingdom. After this defeat
Ganapatideva retired from active political life. He nominated his daughter Rudramadevi as his
successor to the throne. Ganaptideva’s rule of nearly six decades made Kakatiyas popular in
entire South India. He was a great administrator, statesman and a great personality. He
strengthend the matrimonial relations with all powerful families. He gave his daughter
Rudramadevi to Chalukya Veerabhadra, the prince of Nidodhavolu. He reorganised his army,
completed the construction of Warangal fort. He transferred the capital from Hanmakonda to
Warangal.
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Rudramadevi (1263-1289 CE): As it is stated aove, that Ganapatideva selected and
nominated his daughter Rudramadevi as his successor, she took the reins of the State in the
year 1263 CE. She was well trained in warfare and state affairs by her father. Her twenty six
years rule has witnessed alround progress in the kingdom. She ruled her people with great
spirit. She crushed the revolt of her cousins, Harihara and Murari.
Rudramadevi enjoyed the services of many loyal and experienced officials. Kayasta
Jannigadeva, Tripurari and Gonaganna Reddy. Recherla Prasaditya, Malyala Gundiya, Inuluri
Annayya also served under her. Ganga and Yadava rulers invaded on Rudrama’s kingdom’ But
she defeated them. Her authority was established over Godavari region, Mahadeva, Yadava
king suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of Rudrama’s forces. Recherla Prasaditya, her
General led the army against Yadavas. Velugotivaari Vamsavali described Prasaditya as
‘Kakatiya Rajya Sthapanacharya’. After his defeat, matrimonial relations developed between
Kakatiyas and Yadavas. Ellannadeva, member of Yadava family, married Rudrama’s daughter.
The last stage of Rudramadevi’s rule was terribly disturbed due to the revolt of her
official, Kayasta Ambedeva. According to Tripurantakam Inscription, Ambadeva along with his
supporters challenged Rudramadevi. So she marched along with her forces to crush him. But,
according to Chanduptla epigraph dated 1289 CE, she died in her struggle with Ambadeva. She
was succeeded by her grandson-Paataparudra-II.
Prataparudra-II (1289-1323 CE) and the decline of Kakatiya Kingdom:
Prataparudra-II was the last member of Kakatiya dynasty. He was trained by Rudramadevi.
As she had no male issue, she adopted him and declared him as her successor before the
Ambadeva’s revolt. After her grandmother’s death, he ascended the throne.
Prataparudra-II dispatched his army under the able commandership of Kolanu
Munumagannaya, son of Kolani Somamantri and Induluri Annaya on to Kayasta Ambadeve.
Ambadeva was defeated by Kakatiya forces. The other revolted chiefs of Nellore, Rajaganda
Gopala etc., were crushed. The Yadava army also suffered a defeat at the hands of
Prataparudra’s army.
The unexpected enemy from North (Delhi) in the form of Khilji invasions of South
Indian Hindu kingdoms has commenced from 1290 CE. The Yadavas of Devagiri suffered a
defeat at the hands of Delhi Sultanate forces. In the year 1303 CE, for the first time, Alauddin
Khilji’s Generals Malik Fakruddin , and Juna Khan made an attack on Warangal. But, they
suffered a defeat at the hands of Kakatiya army in the battle of Upparapalli. In the year 1309
CE, Khilji army attacked Warangal for second time. Malik Kafur led the Sultan’s army. He
defeated Prataparudra-II and sued him to accept subordinate position. The defeat of Kakatiya
King has encouraged the local subordinates and chiefs of Kakatiyas to revolt against
Prataparudra-II. The capable commander of Kakatiya army Juttayya Gonkaya Reddi crushed
the revolted chiefs such as Kayasta Malliideva, Nellore Ranganatha and others. He reestablished
the control of Prataparudra-II. In the year 1316 CE, Alauddin-Khilji died. As a result, political
situation in Northern India changed. Prataparudra-II stopped paying tribute to Delhi Sultan. So,
in the year, Ghiyasuddin-Tughlaq Shah seized the throne of Delhi Sultanate. The new Sultan
decided to punish Kakatiya King. So, he dispatched huge force under Ulugh Khan (son of
Ghiyasuddin). Prataparudra-II faced the Delhi forces with great spirit. But, he was defeated
and became captive along with some of his officials. On his way to Delhi; he committed suicide
by jumping into river Narmada. Thus, the rule of Kakatiyas came to an end. Andhradesa
passed into the control of Muslim rule. Warangal was renamed as Sultanpur. The Governors of
Delhi Sultan ruled the local people in a most oppressive way. So, the survived Chiefs, Generals
and officials of Prataparudra started liberation movement.
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6.5 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM UNDER KAKATIYAS
Contemporary inscriptions of Kakatiya rulers, their officials and literary works of the
period are providing some information about the nature of Kakatiya administration. The Kakatiyas
followed the age- old system of hereditary monarchy. Even though they were sudras, they
followed the principles laid down by political thinkers like Narada, Sukra and Kautilya. They
introduced popular and sound administration. King was the supreme head of the State and
administration. There was no uniform opinion among the historians about the nature of the
Kakatiya administration. Burton Stein, an eminent American historian, said that the Nature of
Kakatiya polity was very close to Cholas, ‘Segmentary State’. But, most of the native historians
like C.V.Ramachandra Rao said that there is no similarity between Kakatiya polity and Cholas,
Segmentary State. Learned scholar Romila Thapar described Kakatiya polity as ‘Metropolitan’
State like Mauryan polity. Most of the scholars described the nature of Kakatiya polity as
decentralized monarchy.
6.5.1 Central Government

King was the supreme head of the State. He was the head of army and justice. But, he
honoured the principles that were laid down by earlier political thinkers. King was assisted by a
group of council of ministers and officials in the management of State. Pradhani, Amatya,
Mantri, Senadhipathi were important members of Central Council. King used to preside over,
all the meetings. The feaudatory kings were also taken into confidence. The entire State
administration was divided into 72 Departments or Niyogas. A contemporary work
Purusharthasaram of Shivadevayya is supporting the above information. The head 72 Niyogas
was called as Bahattara-niyogadhipathi. King personally led the army whenever the situation
demanded. The credit of recognising right of daughter on the Royal throne goes to Kakatiya
Kings.
6.5.2 Provincial Administration

The political authority of Kakatiyas has greatly expanded over entire Andhradesa due
to their military achievements. So, from the period of Ganapatideva, their kingdom was divided
into rastras or provinces, Sthalas and Nadus. An inscription dated, 1313 CE, from Srisailam of
the period of Prataparudra-II is giving some details about provincial, and local administration. It
also mentioned some of the provincial units like Kammanadu, Sabbinadu, Pakanadu, Renadu,
Venginadu, Mulkinadu etc. In number of epigraphs found in Warangal, Anumakonda, Matterwada
and Orugallu are mentioned as ‘Sthalas’. Each Sthala roughly consisted of 20 villages. Provincial
Governors and incharge officers of Sthalas functioned as per the rules laid down by the centre.
6.5.3 Village Administration

Village stood as the lowest unit of the entire administration of Kakatiyas. The Twelve
village servants or employees or professionals known as ‘Ayagars’ or panniddaru Ayagars took
the responsibility of serving the villagers. Among them, Karnam, Reddy, Purohit, black smith,
carpenter, goldsmith etc were some of the Ayagars. The Ayagars were given lands or mera in
crop for their services. Tax exemption was given to the lands granted to Ayagars. Karnam,
Reddy, Talari are chief Government Servants at village level.
6.5.4 Military organization – Nayankara System

Kakatiya rulers were known for their sound military organisation. Chaturangabalas
consisted in their army. They also built many forts, Nayankara units were created. They gave
some villages. Nayakas were asked to fix the number of forces. Prataparudra’s Nitisaram
describes the appointment of Nayakas and allotment of Villages by King to them. Nayakas
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used to maintain fixed number of horses, infantry and elephants. Land became the link between
king and the Nayaka. The subordinate rulers of Kakatiyas also maintained army for the king.
During the period of Prataparudra-II, the Nayanka Units were reorganised. The Nayankara
system became more active under Vijayanagar rulers.
6.5.5 Judicial System

The Kakatiyas followed the judicial system of earlier times. The king was the chief
judge. The court was referred as Dharmasthanam in contemporary sources. At village level,
Karnam, Reddy, Talari exercised the Judicial and Police powers. In Guntur epigraphs, boundary
disputes between villages were recorded. The king deputed the head of the village and Mahajans
to solve the issue. Even canal disputes were solved by judicial officials.

1. Who was the Kakatiya ruler that committed suicide
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2. Purushartha Saram was written by
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6.6 SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE UNDER

KAKATIYAS
Inscriptions of Kakatiyas, literary works such as Kreedhabhiramam, Basavapuranam,
Pratapacharitam and Marcopolo’s Travels etc are providing some glimpses of society, economy
and culture of Kakatiya period. Brahmins, Vaishyas, and Sudras were main social groups in
the society. Several sub-Social classes or castes also emerged during this period.
Kreedhabhiramam of Vinukonda Vallabha Raya mentioned eighteen castes (Ashtadasakulas)
which lived in the fort Warangal. Large number of ‘Samyas’ also came into existence. The
Samya of Brahmins was known as Mahajanas. The Samya of Vaishyas was known as Nakaram.
The ‘Samya of PanchanamuVaaru was also mentioned in sources. Each Samya was headed
by its president. He used to exercise great powers over his caste men. The head of the Samya
received some taxes from his own caste people. Brahmins held high positions in military
organization and general administration.
Pratapa charita of Ekamranatha and few epigraphs also referred about different
castes like gollas, barbers, sales, potters, vaishyas, brahmins, telikas, boyas, carpenters, medharas
(basket makers) and upparas etc. Saivism, and Vaishnavism became very popular in society. In
the early stages Jainism received patronisation of Kakatiyas. Veerasaivism became Very Popular.
Dance, music, puppet shows, cock fights etc, are the chief pastimes of people, and child marriages,
devadasi system, polygamy etc are prevalent in society.
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Economy: Kakatiya kingdom was known for its sound and fabulous economy and
fiscal policy. Agriculture stood as the primary occupation of majority of the people. After the
conquest of coastal Andhra bytheir forces, the rich natural resources passed into the control of
Kakatiyas. Land Revenue was the chief source of income to the State. Agricultural land was
divided into two categories i.e. ‘magani’ and metta. Regular agricultural fields are known as
achukattuboomulu. Land tax was described as ‘Ari’. Food crops were cultivated on large
scale. New land was brought under cultivation. It was known as Dashabandha lands. Tax
exemption was given to those peasants, who brought these new lands into cultivation ‘Food
crops such as paddy, barley, jawar were cultivated on large scale. Among the agricultural taxes,
Diddhayam or Sangamu, Pannu, Kanika, Darshanam, Niruvdi, Ardhayam, Pullari (tax on grass
land) were collected by different officers.
Internal and external trade was very hectic during this period. Orugallu, Anumakonda,
Alampur, Panugallu, Motupalli, Vemulawada, Machilipatnam etc are big trade centres. Local
trade was carried out at santas or pemtas. Textiles of Orugallu are very famous. Trade and
professional guilds came into existence. Setti was the head of guild. The Motupalli port earned
special name for external trade. Among the exports, textiles, spices, diamonds etc occupied
important place. Special officers, known as ‘Sunkamanyagarlu’ were appointed to collect the
taxes. In contemporary epigraphs, burrasunkam, pellisunkam, revusunkam, alam (tax on
vegetables) antharayam (tax on arecanut) etc are mentioned. This makes clear that Kakatiyas
collected number of taxes and customs.
Culture: Jainism received the support of early Kakatiya chiefs. Bodhan, Vemulawada,
Patancheru, Kolanupaka, Anumakonda etc are famous Jain centers in early days of Kakatiyas.
Kase Diddappa’s work Siddheshwara charitam describes, how Jainism was patronized by
Prola-I and Beta-I. They donated land and cash to Jain basadis. But, Saivism and Vaishnavism
became very popular under sovereign Kakatiya kings.
Among the saivite sects Kalamukhas, Kaapalikas, Pasupatas, Aaradhya Saivites and
veerashivites were there. Vemulawada, Dharmapuri, Kaleshwaram, Nandikandi, Alampur,
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Pangal, Sanigaram, Kanteshwar, Ainavolu are famous Saivite centres. Golakimatas were founded
at Manthema, Malkapuram, Somadila and Madadam. Vaishnavism also enjoyed people’s good
will during this period. Rudradeva built Thousand Pillar Temple at Anumakonda. It is a Trikuta
Alayam. Shiva, Vishnu and Swaya were worshipped here. Ganapatideva’s sister Mailambika
built a Gopala Krishna temple at Inugarthi.
Among the famous temples of Kakatiya times, Thousand Pillar temple (Anumakonda)
Ramppa temple (Palampet), and temples built at Pillalamarri, Nagulapadu, Raikal, Ghanpur,
Bejjanki, Kaleshwaram etc are known for their wonderful art and architecture.
Telugu and Sanskrit literature received great patronisation under Kakatiyas.
Basavapuranam and Panditaradhya Charitam of Palkuriki Somanatha, Kreedhabhiramam
of Vallabharaya, Nitisaram (Sanskrit) work of Rudradeva, Nrutya Ratnavali (Sanskrit) of
Jayapa are well known works of this age. Tikkana, the famous Telugu poet of Nellore Telugu
Chola king Manumasiddhi-II translated fifteen parvas of Mahabharatha into Telugu. His another
famous work was Nirvachanottara ramayanam. Thus, during Kakatiya period, society was
in a solid position and communal harmony became a unique feature. But, the Muslim invasion
and their success caused great damage to Kakatiya culture.

1. Which fort was controlled by the Kakatiyas.
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2. Thousand Pillar Temple was built by
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6.7 SUMMARY
The advent of Kakatiyas in Telangana region as chiefs and transformation of their
position into sovereign rulers was an historic event in the history of Medieval South India. They
expanded their authority to coastal Andhra due to the grand military achievements of
Ganapatideva. Kakatiya Gundyana, Prola-I, Beta-I, Prola-II and Beta-II were important chiefs.
Rudradeva was the first sovereign Kakatiya king. After him, Mahadeva, Ganapatideva,
Rudramadevi and Prataparudra-II ruled Kakatiya kingdom between 1195-1323 CE, Kakatiyas
united Telugu people. They provided popular administration and patronised fine Arts. They
encouraged agriculture, trade and commerce. Religious freedom was granted to people. Many
tanks, temples, and forts were built by them. The Muslim invasious from 1290 CE, onwards
have caused great loss to the political power and people of Kakatiya kingdom. In the year 1323
CE, Warangal was captured by Delhi Sultanate (Tughlaq) forces and it was named as Sultanpur.
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6.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ANSWERS
1. Pratapa Rudra-II
2. Sivadevayya.

1. Motupalli
2. Rudradeva
6.9 EXAMINATION MODEL QUESTIONS

1. Write a note on the achievements of Ganapatideva.
2. Explain the achievements of Prataparudra-II
II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines each.

1. Analyse the administrative system of Kakatiyas.
2. Discuss the socio-economic conditions during Kakatiya rule.
6.10 BOOK FOR FURTHER READING

1. Rama Rao.M. : Studies in the early history of Andhradesa
2. Satyanarayana.K. : A Study of History and Culture of Andhras-Vols-I&II.
3. P.V.Parabrahma Sastry : The Kakatiyas
4. Yazdani(ed) : Early History of Deccan
5. Telugu Academy : Telangana History and culture.
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UNIT - 7: MUSUNURI NAYAKAS AND
PADMANAYAKAS: POLITY, SOCIETY,
ECONOMY AND CULTURE
Contents
7.0 Objective
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Sources
7.3 Musunuri Nayakas:
A) Prolaya Nayaka (1325-1335 CE)
B) Kapaya Nayaka (1335-1368 CE)
7.4 Origin of Padmanayakas / Rachakonda, Devarakonda Velamas
7.5 Important rulers of Padmanayaka dynasty or Rachakonda
7.6 Polity, Society, economy under Musunuri Nayakas & Padmanayaks
7.7 Cultural contribution – Literature, Art & Achitecture
7.8 Decline of Musunuri, Padmanayakas
7.9 Summary
7.10 Model Answers to Check your progress
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
1. Know the conditions prevailed in Andhradesa after the decline of Kakatiyas.
2. Explain the starting of liberation movement and the rise of Independent kingdoms in
Telangana.
3. Discuss the political history of Musunuri, Padmanayaka rulers and their achievements.
4. Analyse the polity, society, and economy of their age and
5. Describe the cultural contribution of Musunuri, and Velama rulers.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The conquest of Kakatiya kingdom in the year 1323 CE, by Delhi Sultanate, placed the
Telugu- speaking people under the rule of Delhi Sultan. But, the oppressive rule of the governor
of Delhi Sultan increased the problems to local Hindus. As a result, some of the surviving
officials of Prataparudra-II, with the support of local people tried to liberate them from the
Muslim rule. In this process, in the ex-Kakatiya territories, Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka and
Musunuri-Kapaya Nayaka played a significant role and they founded a kingdom which became
popularly known as Warangal kingdom. Another officer of last Kakatiya ruler, Prataparudra-II
Prolayavema Reddy liberated the coastal Andhra region from the control of Delhi Sultan’s
governor rule and founded Reddi kingdom at Addanki, By 1336 CE, Harihar-I and Bukka-I
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founded the Vijayanagara kingdom on the banks of the river Tungabhadra. Their heroic efforts
provided a new strength and confidence to the local Hindus.
7.2 SOURCES
Archaeological and literary sources have provided very important information regarding
political conditions that prevailed in Andhradesa after the decline of Kakatiyas. They are also
giving some information on socio- economic, religious and cultural conditions.
Among the archaeological sources, contemporary epigraphs issued by kings and their
officials are playing an important role and supplying very useful information.
Vilasa Copper plate grant of Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka, Musunuri Kapaya Nayakas
‘Prolavaram epigraph’ deted 1345 CE, Kaluva Cheruvu grant of Reddi Queen Anethalli dated
1423 CE, Kapaya Nayakas, inscriptions from ‘Mallavaram’, Srisailam, Recherlapadma Nayakas
epigraphs, at Pillalamarri, Ainavolu, and Ganapeshwaram are giving valuable information. Among
the literary works, contemporary work, Tarik-e-Ferishta of Md Qasim Ferishta giving very
accurate information Velugotivaari Vamsavali (ed. N.Venkata Rammaiah), ‘Hara-Vilasam’,
‘Bheemakhandam’, ‘Kashikhandam’, etc are providing useful historical information about
Musunuri chiefs. ‘Tarikh-e-Ferishta’ of Muhammad-Qasim Ferishta, ‘Futuh-us-Salatin’ of
Islami, ‘Tarikh-e-Feroz Shahi’ of Ziauddin-Barani, ‘The Travels’ of Marco-Polo etc are also
providing interesting information about liberation movement and foundation of Vijayanagara,
Bahmani, and Reddi kingdoms and their wars with Musunuri Nayakas.
7.3 MUSUNURI NAYAKAS 1325 – 1368 CE

A) Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka (1325-1335 CE)
Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka was the first to unite and mobilise the people of ex-Kakatiya
territories against the oppressive rule of Delhi Sultan’s governor. He belongs to ‘Sudra’ castes.
‘Potinayaka’ was his father. His ancestors served under Kakatiyas. Along with Prolayavema
Reddy, Kapaya Nayaka, Harihara-I, Bukka-I, Musunuri-Prolayanayaka also survived in the
war with Delhi Sultanate army. He escaped and with hardwork, he rose to highest position. He
became very active in the ‘Rekapalli’, and Bhadrachalam area. Recapalli became his main
centre. He restored many temples and protected brahimins and granted them donations. His
activity also became an inspiration to Singama Nayaka of Recherla Velama family. He founded
Velama kingdom at Rachakonda (Nalgonda) and ruled most parts of present Nalgonda and
Mahboobnagar areas. Prolaya Nayaka donated, ‘Vilasa’ village to a brahmin scholar, named
‘Vennamma’ of Bharadwaja Gotra.
Prolaya Nayaka became a model to his energetic contemporaries like, Kapaya,
Prolayavema Reddi, Harihara-I and Bukka-I. He died in the year 1335 CE.
B) Musunuri Kapaya Nayka (1335-1368 CE)

Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka was the son of Prolaya’s (Yerapota Nayaka) cousin brother.
He succeeded to the (Rekapalli) throne in the year 1335 CE and ruled till his end in the year
1368 CE. The epigraphs from Prolavaram Gurijara, Pillalamarri, Ganapeshwaram, literary works
like Venugoti-Vaari-Vamshavali, Pratapa-Charitra, Tariq-e-Ferishta of Muhammed-Qasim-
Ferishta are providing very useful information about Kapayanayaka’s great qualities,
achievements, and his efforts to restore Hindu religious institutions, People of Andhradesa and
his relations with his contemporaries such as Harihara-I and Bukka-I, ProlayavemaReddi, Ala-
uddin-Hasan-Gung-Bahmani and Velama rulers. Inscription described him with resounding titles
such as ‘Andhradesa-Deeshwara’ and Andhra Suratraana. In order to restore Telugu people
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and temples, he took many steps. He renovated the fort of Warangal and made it as his
headquarters.
Kapaya Nayaka was involved in a number of wars with his contemporaries. These
wars became essential to protect his own territories and to expand his authority. In the year
1336 CE, Kapaya Nayaka defeated Delhi Sultan’s governor Maliq-Maqbool at Warangal and
captured it. The Muslim governor and soldiers were driven out of Warangal. Thus, he put an
end to the rule of Tughlaqs over Telangana. He helped Alauddin Hasan Gang Bahmani to
declare his independence. Kapaya Nayaka made elaborate arrangements to protect his power
and Warangal. He was involved in wars with Bahmani Sultan Alauddin-Hasan-Gang-Bahmani.
In the year 1350 CE, Muhammed-Bin-Tughlaq dispatched his army under the commandership
of Sikander Khan. The Sultan’s army seized Kaulas fort (Nizambad). Kapayas forces suffered
a defeat and concluded a peace treaty. At this same time, Recherla chief, Singamanayaka
revolted against Kapaya Nayaka.
Amanagallu fort was captured from Velamas by Kapaya Nayaka. ‘Errapotha Lenka’
was appointed as the governor to this new region.
In the year 1356 CE, once again Kapaya clashed with Bahmani Allauddin-Hassan
Ganj Bahmani. Kapaya suffered a defeat at Bhongiri and peace treaty was concluded. Kapaya
Nayaka’s son Vinayakadeva faced the Bahmani Sultan’s (Muhammad Shah-I) forces in the
year 1362 CE. In the battle, Kapaya’s son lost his life. This forced Kapaya to request the
assistance of Delhi Sultan Feroz Shah-Tughlaq against Bahmani Sultan.
The Delhi Sultan rejected the plea of Kapaya. As a result, Bahmani forces attacked
Warangal in the year 1364 CE. Under these helpless conditions, Kapaya Nayaka concluded a
peace treaty with Bahmani-Sultan (Muahmmed Shah-I) and paid huge war indemnity to the
Sultan. Golkonda fort, 400 elephants, 250 horses, 33 lakh cash was paid to Sultan. The Bahmani-
Velama alliance became very dangerous to Kapaya’s power. Finally, Kapaya died at the battle
of ‘Bheemavaram’ (1368 CE) at the hands of Recherla Velama ruler Anapotanayaka (son of
late Singamanayaka). The entire terrirtory of Musunuri chiefs passed under the control of
Recherla Velama rulers.
Kapaya Nayaka made elaborate arrangements in Telangana and over coastal Andhra
by appointing his own relatives and trusted men as officers/governors. ‘Anavota Nayaka’
(cousin) was appointed by Kapayanayaka as the governor of ‘Toyyeru’ and later
Rajamahendravaram. ‘Muppa-Bhupa’ was appointed as the governor of ‘Sabbinadu’.
‘Madikisingana’ was patronised by Muppa Bhupala. ‘Manchukonda Kunaya Nayaka’, a son-
in-law of Kapayanayaka’s brother built the fort of ‘Korukonda’. ‘Kunavaram’ is named after
this chief. Kapayanayaka arranged the marriage of his sister’s daughter with Kunaya Nayaka’s
son Mummadi-Nayaka. Koppula family member ‘Namaya Nayaka was another great supporter
of Kapaya. He was made as the Governor of ‘Pitapuram’.
Thus, Kapaya made all possible efforts to consolidate his authority, but the changed
political conditions in Telangana and Velama-Bahmani friendship led to his end.
7.4 ORIGIN OF RACHAKONDA, DEVARAKONDA VELAMA

KINGDOM – THEIR SERVICE AND CONTRIBUTION
TO TELANGNA
Recherla rulers earned a great name in the history of 14th century Telangana for their
heroic deeds and glorious cultural service. They wer subordinates under Kakatiyas. They
belonged to ‘Velama’ caste. Betalanayaka was the first member of Recharla family. According
to eminent scholar, N.Venkata Ramanaiah, during the reign of Ganapati Deva, Betalanayaka
worked as the governor of ‘Amanagallu’. His successors, Damanayaka, Recherla Prasiditya,
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and Recherla Rudra served under Ganapatideva and his daughter Rudramamba between 1199-
1289 CE. The Velamas served under Kakatiyas with loyalty and have played a dynamic role in
the expansion and consolidation of Kakatiya authority in Andhradesa. The Recherla Velamas
were the contemporaries to Reddis of Addanki, Bahmanis of Gulbarga, and Sangamas of
Anegondi.
The famous rulers of Recherla Velama dynasty were:
1. Recherla Singama Nayaka (1325-1361 CE)
2. Anapota Nayaka (1361-1383 CE) and Mada Nayaka-I (1361-1383 CE)
3. Singama Nayaka-I (1383-1399 CE) and Vedagiri-I (1384-1410 CE)
4. Anapota Nayaka-II (1399- )
5. Madanayaka-II ( )
7.5 IMPORTANT RULERS & THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS

1) Betala Nayaka: Betala Nayaka was the earliest member of Recherla Velama
dynasty. According to ‘Velugoti Vaari Vamshavali’, ‘Amanagallu’ is present in Nalgonda (near
Miryalaguda) was his native place. Between the years 1225-1253 CE, he and his successor
ruled Kakatiya Aamanagallu and Pillalamarri area, as Ganapatideva’s subordinates. Thus,
Recherla Velamas continued their support to Ganapatideva’s successors. They played very
important role in crushing the internal and external attackers of Kakatiya kingdom. After the
defeat of Prataparuda-II in his last war against Delhi Sultanate forces, the Velamas declared
their independence.
Betalanayaka’s three sons, viz., Daamanayaka, Recherla Prasaditya and Recherla
Rudranayaka also served the Kakatiya kings. They held highest positions as commanders
under Kakatiyas. Eminent historians P.V.Parabrahma Sastri and Nelaturi, Venkata Ramanayya
appreciated the significant role played in protecting Kakatiya kingdom after Mahadeva’s death
in the battle against Yadavas. Recherla Rudra was described as ‘Kakatiya Rajya
Sthapanacharya and Rayapitha mahanka. Betalanayaka’s second son ‘Recherla Prasaditya’
served under Rudramadevi. He led many battles and protected Warangal kingdom. ‘Recherla
Venna’, son of Damanayaka faced the mighty army of Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khilji in 1309-
1310 CE, and defeated them in the battle of Upparapalli. Yerayachanayudu son of Recherla
Venna led the Kakatiya army in 1316 CE, against Pandyan army. He was given the titles like
‘Pache Pandyadala Vibhala’, Kanchi Kavatachurakara and Pandya Gaja Kesari by king
Prataparudra-II. Yerayachanayaka’s son ‘Singamanayaka-I was considered by scholars as
First Independent kingdom founder of soverign Velama kingdom.
2) Singamanayaka (1325-1361 CE): Singamanayaka was the first soverign king of
Recherla Velama dynasty. He was the son of Yerrayachanayaka. Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka,
Kapayanayaka, Prataparudra-II, Prolayvema Reddi and Harihara-I and Bukka-I, and Alauddin
Hasan Gangu Bahmani were his contemporaries. Singamanayaka-I, proved his abilities as a
brave General during the reign of Prataparudra-II. He look active part in the battles against
Pandya, Kapili rulers and against Tughlaq army in 1323 CE. He established his authority over
Antharvedi, Yeleshwaram area. He also defeated Somakula Kshtriya chiefs and captured some
parts. But, he was brutally stabbed at Jallipalli fort’ by ‘Tambullajiyya in 1361 CE. His sons
struggled very hard against his enemies and (Soma chiefs) achieved success.
2) Anapota Nayaka (1361-1384 CE): Anapota Nayaka was the son of
Singamanayaka-I. He took the reins of the Velama kingdom in a very critical situation. He
attacked Jallipalli ruler and defeated him and his supporters, Reddis. He rebuilt Rachakonda
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fort shifted his capital from Aamangallu to Rachakonda. The Recherla Velamas and Reddis of
Kondavidu became deadly enemies from his period.
In the battle of ‘Dharamikota’, Anapotanayaka defeated Reddi ruler Anavema Reddy.
He captured Srisailam region. Anapota Nayaka defeated and killed Musunuri Kapayanayaka
in the Battle of Bheemavaram in the year 1368 CE. Velama armies also captured Bhongir,
Sanigaram etc. The ‘Ainavole’ inscription describes his victories.
He assumed the title of ‘Andhradeshaa-deeshwara’. He entered into friendly alliance
with Bahmani Sultan against Reddis of Kondavidu. He built the steps to paatalaganga at
Srisailam to facilitate the pilgrims.
During his reign only the Devarakonda Velama kingdom was founded. Anapotanayaka-
I’s Madayaka,(brother) was made as the king of Devarakonda. The successors of Anapota-I
ruled Rachakonda Velama kingdom. The successors of Madanayaka ruled from Devarakonda.
Anapota-I died in the year 1383 CE.
3) Kumara Singama Nayudu (1383-1399 CE): He was the eldest son of
Anapotanayaka-II and Sarvagna Singabhupala. He defeated Vijayanagara army led by Saluva
Rayadeva, General of Harihara-II in the battle of Kothakota During his era, the Velama-
Vijayanagara conflict reached to climax. Singamanayaka-II along with Pedavedagiri of
Devarakonda, invaded Kalinga and captured Gautami region form the control of Reddis. The
Simhachalam inscription of SingamaNyaka-II is supporting the above achievement. The struggle
between Velamas, Vijayanagara rulers and Bahmanis continued till 1397 CE. Finally, in the
battles of Kandanavole and Pangallu (1397 CE), Vijayanagar army, led by Bukk-I inflicted a
defeat on Velamas and their ally Bahmani Sultan Feroz Shah. Two years after this defeat
Singamanayaka-II died. He was a great scholar and patronized many poets and scholars.
‘Rasaranava Sudhakaram’ a work on ‘Alankarasastra’, ‘Sangeeta Sudhakara’ a
commentary on music, ‘Ratnapanchalika’ a drama are his works. His court poet Vishveshwara
wrote a book entitled ‘Chamatkara Chandrika’ Kumar Singama Nayudu assumed titles like
‘Sarvagna’, Sarvagna Chudamani’ etc.
Anapotanayaka-II (1399-1421 CE): Anapotanayaka-II, the eldest son of
Singamanayaka-II succeeded to the throne of Rachakonda in 1399 CE. He was a great warrior.
He was involved in a series of wars with Reddi, Bahmani and Vijayanagara rulers. During his
period, the Reddi-Bahmani relations turned against Velamas. An attempt was made by
Pedakomati Vema Reddi’s friend (Bahmani Sultan) Feroz Shah on Rajamundry. But, his attempt
was spoiled by Allada Reddi of Rajamundry. Peace treaty was concluded between Velamas
and Vijayanagara due to the efforts of Devaraya-I.
RaoMadanayaka (1421-1430 CE): After the death of Anapota Nayaka-II, as his
sons were too young to take the reins of Recherla Velama kindom, his younger brother
Madanayaka ascended the throne of Rachakonda and ruled till 1430 CE. During the reign of
Madanayaka, the enemity between Velamas and Bahmanis reached to peak level. Devaraya-
II and Bahmani Sultan Ahmed Shah were involved in a war in 1424 CE. In this war, Madanayaka
assisted Vijayanagara ruler, Bahmani Sultan deputed huge army under the commandership of
Azim Khan on to Warangal to punish Velamas. The Bahmani General destroyed many temples
and caused great damage to Velamas. As a result, Madanayudu concluded a peace treaty with
Bahmani Sultan Ahmed Shah in the year 1425 CE. This led to the decline of Velama power in
Telangana region and consolidation of Bahmanis power. Madanayaka was a good scholar. He
donated many villages to temples and brahmins. His wife Naagambika constructed a tank
named Nagasamudram at Rajagiripalam near Rachakonda.
Sarvagnan Rao Singama Nayudu (1430-1475 CE): Singama Nayudu-III, son of
Anapotanayudu-II, who was also known as Sarvagna Rao Singamanayudu ascended the
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Rachakonda seat in 1430 CE. His brother Lingamanedu, younger brother of Pinavedagiri of
Devarakonda ruled at the same time. Both of them remianed dynamic rulers. But, they failed in
checking the aggressive attacks of Bahmanis on Velama territories. He tried to check the
Bahmanis with the assistance of Kapileshwara Gajapati. But, it failed due to the death of
Kapileshwara in 1470 CE and outbreak of civil war between his sons. Finally, by the year 1475
CE, the Velama kingdom disappeared. Bahmanis seized its territories Nizam-ul-Mulk Ibrahim
became incharge of Telangana.

1. The Delhi Sultan’s governor Maliq Maqbool was defeated by
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2. Who shifted the capital from Aamangal to Rachakonda.
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7.6 POLITY, SOCIETY, ECONOMY UNDER MUSUNURI

NAYAKAS AND PADMANAYAKAS
Contemporary inscriptions of Musunuri Nayakas, and Recharla Padmanayakas are
providing glimpse of the administrative system, society and economy of this age. There was not
much change in the above aspects from Kakatiya age.
The administration of this period was to a great extent a replica of Kakatiya. The
Musunuri, Velama rulers tried to protect Vedic Dharma and Varnashrama Dharma. Their main
motto was to serve their people with great care. They followed the principles laid in Hemadri’s
‘Vrathakhanda Kalpa Tharuvu’ on state management.
King was assisted by ministers, officials, number of other employees, Prime Minister,
Senadhipathi (Commander-in-Chief, and Purohit (priest) were important members of the
council. Velamas also recruited brahmins as their ministers. Peddanna, Potaraju, Bachana, and
Singana, are famous ministers of their times. Ministers also participated in the battles. There
was no specific division between civil and military departments. ‘Yuvaraja’ (their prince) was
given great importance whenever the ruler was not blessed with children, his brother, or nearest
relative also discharged the duties of a ruler.
King was the supreme head of the State. He was also the head of administration. His
word was law. He was the chief judge and supreme commander of army. Their kingdom was
divided into number of ‘Simas’. Each ‘Sima’ was created, with a fort as its headquarters. Each
‘Sima’ was created around a big city. There are ‘Nayankars’ in each sima. Simas were further
divided into ‘Mandalas’ Members belonging to royal family were appointed as incharges of
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Simas. The officials were given the responsibility of protection of Sima, its people and collection
of land revenue.
The Velama kings paid special care for fort administration. Bhongir, Rachakonda,
Devarakonda, Jallipalli, Orugallu, Amanagallu, Ananthagiri, Anumula, Sthambagiri etc happened
to be important forts of their times.
Village stood as the base to entire administration. Village servants have played a key
role in village administration. Karna, Thalari are very important employees of village ‘The
punishments were very severe. The king was chief judge. At village level, the village officials;
at Sima level and the incharge officials solved the legal cases.
B) Society: The society during Musunuri-Velama age was known for its dynamism.
Varnashrama system was hounoured. The invasion of Muslims on Andhradesa, their rule over
Telugu country has shown some impact on social-structure. Some changes took place. Brahmins
lost their old status. Sudras emerged as powerful force. The people depended upon their ancestral
profession. Shaivism, and Vaishnavism received royal patronage. Religious freedom was given
to people. Temple became an important centre. It played a significant role in socio-economic
and cultural life of the people. People believed in tradition, blind beliefs, enjoyed different games,
and sports. Womens position was not so good. Prostitution was the profession of some women.
Sarvagna Singa Bhupala honoured prostitutes. ‘Bhongiridandakam’ of Potana kavi describes
the influence of prostitutes. Men and women wore variety of dresses according to their status.
C) Economy: Agriculture was the primary occupation of majority people of this
age. The Velama kings encouraged it. Many new lands were brought under cultivation. Old
tanks, wells, lakes, and canals were repaired. New tanks were constructed. Peasants enjoyed
ownership right on their land. Village council was a powerful body. It decides many matters,
such as sale, purchase, donation of land by owners Anapotanayaka built a tank named Anapota
Samudra’, Rao Madhavanayaka’s wife Nagambika built ‘Nagambika Samudram’. Variety of
rice, vegetables, plants, fruits and flowers were cultivated. Cattle -rearing was an important
profession of people at rural level. Temples also reared number of cows and oxen. The stables
of cattle (Temple) are known as ‘Khilaras’. Different types of crops, both cash and food were
grown on larger scale. Village craftsmen produced variety of products. Weekly santa’s or
angadi was the place where local consumers used to purchase their needed articles, cloth,
cattle etc. Annual Jataras, and Thirunallu also attracted huge sellers and buyers. The Velama
rulers earned huge revenue in the form of sales tax. The Velama kings followed Shaivism and
Vaishnavism. Religious tolerance was their great quality. They honoured brahmins. Donations
and gifts were given to various temples.
7.7 CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION : LITERATURE, ART AND

ACHITECTURE
A) Growth of Literature: The Velamas patronised Telugu, and Sanskrit scholars.
Most of them are good scholars. Naganatha, author of ‘Madana Vilasa Bana’ was patronised
by Anapotanayaka. Sarvagna Singa Bhupala was a great scholar. ‘Rasarnavasudhakara’
was his great work in Sanskrit. ‘Ratnapanchalika’ was a famous drama written by Sarvagna
Singa Bhupala. This drama was played during the period of Vasantosthavam in front of Prasanna
Gopala Temple at Rachakonda. In the court of Singama Bhupala, flourished Vishweshwara,
and Bommaknti Appamarya. ‘Chamatkara Chandrika’ was the famous work of Vishweshwara.
Shakalaya Bhattu wrote a book named Niroshtya Raonayamam.
The important Telugu scholars of the Velama age include: Poosapati Naganatha
(Vishnupurana), ‘Gaurana’ (native of Ramagiri) wrote a famous book entitled
Harischandropakayanam and Navanatha Charitram. He was the contemporary of Sreenatha,
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the court poet of Pedakonati Vema Reddi. Koravi Goparaju, and Bammera Potanna also belong
to his age. Thus, under the liberal patronisation of Velamas, literature made grand progress.
B) Art and Achitecture: The Musunuris and Velamas continued the temple
construction, and their renovation Kakatiyas. ‘Rachakonda’ and Devarakonda, the two imperial
headquarters became centres for many beautiful temples. Bhairava Temple, and Rama Temple
in the Rachakonda fort were built by them. Laxmi temple was also built at Rachkonda. At
Devarkonda many temples were built to Shiva, and Rama. The ‘Someshwara Temple’ at Bhongir
fort was built by them. They also renovated many temples at fort Warangal.
7.8 DECLINE OF MUSUNURI AND VELAMAS

The Musunuri and Velamas ruled most parts of present Telangana with great dedication.
But, the rise of Bahmanis, Vijayanagar, and Reddi, kingdoms dragged them into struggle for
supremacy. The lack of farsightedness among them finally gave an opportunity to Bahmanis to
conquer their territories.

1. The tank constructed by Anapota Nayaka is known as
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2. Madana Vilasa Bana was written by.
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7.9 SUMMARY
The heroic efforts of Musunuri Prolayanayaka, Kapayanayaka and Velama rulers gave
a new strength to the people of this region. They preserved the rich culture of Kakatiyas. They
ruled the people of Telangana with great care. They laid foundation for futher rulers of this
region.

1. Kapaya Nayaka.
2. Anapota Nayaka.

1. Anapota Samudra.
2. Naganatha.
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1. Discuss the achievements of Musunuri Prolayanayaka.
2. Discuss the political achievements of Velama rulers.
3. Examine the cultural contribution of Velamas.
4. Describe the growth of fine arts under the Velamas.

1. What are the Epigraphical sources that help in the study of Musunuri chiefs?
2. Salient features of the administrative system under the Velamas.
3. Trace the growth of Telugu literature under the Velamas.

1. B.N.Sastry, (Telugu) : Recherla Padmanayakulu, Moosi Pub,
Hyd-1990.
2. B.S.L.Hanmantha Rao : Andhrula Charitra (Telugu) Vishalandra
Pub, Hyd-2012.
3. Suravaram Pratapa Reddy : Andhrula Sangika Charitra (Telugu)
Oriental Longman, Hyd-1992.
4. A.Satyanarayana & D.Satyanarayana : Telangana Charitra-Samskruthi-
Rastra Avatharana Udyamaalu
(Telugu) Sangam Books India Pvt.-2016
5. Telangana Charitra and Samskruthi, Telugu Academy – (2019) (B.A. III year).
85
UNIT - 8: BAHAMANI POLITY, SOCIETY-ECONOMY
AND CULTURE
Contents
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sources
8.3 Political Conditions
8.3.1 Muhammad Shah-I
8.3.2 Mujahid Shah
8.3.3 Firoz Shah
8.3.4 Ahmad Shah-I
8.3.5 Ahmad Shah-II
8.3.6 Humayun
8.3.7 Muhammad Shah-III
8.4 Administrative System
8.4.2 Military Administration
8.4.2.1 Police Administration
8.5.1 Marriage System
8.5.2 Houses
8.5.3 Food
8.5.4 Dress
8.5.5 Family Life
8.6.1 Revenue System
8.6.2 Industries and Handicrafts
8.6.4 Taxes
8.6.5 Coins
8.7 Religious Conditions
8.7.1 Hinduism
8.7.2 Islam
8.7.3 Sufism
8.8.1 Educational System
8.8.2 Literature
8.8.3 Architecture
8.9 Summary
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8.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the Political History of Bahamanis.
2. Explain the Social Conditions of Bahamani Kingdom.
3. Discuss the Economic Conditions of Bahamani Kingdom.
4. Analyse the Religious Conditions of Bahamanis.
5. Describe the Cultural Conditions of Bahamanis.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The Bahamani Sultans ruled Deccan for nearly from 170 years. They have taken keen
interest for the development of the Kingdom. They encouraged agriculture, local industries,
trade and commerce. They fought with the Vijayanagar rulers for the Raichur Doab. They
extended their empire between the seas. They have contributed a lot for the development of
culture and architecture in the Deccan. They have patronised Sufi saints in Gulbarga and
Daultabad.
8.2 SOURCES
Many literary and foreign sources are available to reconstruct the history of Bahamani
Kingdom. Ferishta had written “Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi” which gives detailed information about the
polity, economy and socio-cultural conditions during the Bahamani period. Mulla Mohammad
Lari had written “Sirajat-Taarikh” gives vivid description about the Bahamani rule. Mulla Dawood
Bidri’s work “Tahwfatoon-Salatin” also provides information about the administration, polity,
socio-economic, religious and cultural conditions during the period. The work “Tazkirat-Ul-
Mulk of Rafiuddin also gives information about the Bahamani Kingdom.
Nikiitin has given valuable information about the Bahamani dynasty. The inscriptions,
coins and monuments also give detailed information about the kingdom.
8.3 POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Allauddin Bahaman Shah (1347-1358), the founder of the Bahamani Kingdom, had to
overcome the opposition of the local chieftains who had proclaimed sovereignty. The partisans
of Tughluq dynasty and the supporters of Ismail Shah had to abdicate in favour of Bahaman
Shah. Those chieftains who, after defeat, agreed to pay tribute were accepted as loyal subjects;
the recalcitriant elements were put to death and their properties were confiscated. Narayana,
a chieftain of Jamkhandi and Moinuddin, a fief – holder of the same neighbourhood, were loyal
to Delhi. They fought against the Bahaman Shah. But, they were defeated by Bahman Shah.
Kapaya Nayaka of Warangal was defeated by Bahaman Shah and occupied the fort of Kaulas.
8.3.1 Muhammad Shah-I

Bahaman Shah was succeeded by his son Muhammad Shah-I (1358-1375 A.D). He
came into conflict with Telangana as well as Vijayanagara, whose rulers demanded the restoration
of the territories seized from them by his father – Kaulas from Telangana and the Raichur
Doab from Vijayanagar. The Telangana and Vijayanagar forces attacked Kaulas. But, the
allied forces were utterly defeated. Muhammad Shah-I got victory and got huge indemnity
from Kapaya Nayaka. Golconda was received from Kapaya Nayaka. Mudgal fort, which was
situated in Raichur Doab was captured by the Vijayangar forces. Muhammed Shah-I immediately
started attacks on Vijayanagar forces and recaptured the fort of Mudgal. He also fought for the
Raichur Doab. However, both concluded peace.
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8.3.2 Mujahid Shah
Muhammad Shah was succeeded by his son Mujahid Shah (1375-1378 A.D). He
provoked a clash by demanding the surrender of the Raichur Doab. On Bukka’s refusal, the
Sultan crossed the two rivers and sent a force to capture Adoni, and himself marched upon
Vijayanagar. For nine months, he besieged the fort without success. Mujahid was killed by his
own uncle, Dawood Khan, who made himself king. Very soon, after a month, Dawood was
murdered at the instigation of Mujahid’s sister; his brother, Muhammad Shah-II, was proclaimed
king. He ruled (1378-1397 A.D) for nearly twenty years. He was a man of peace, devoted to
learning. The State suffered with a famine during the years 1387 to 1395. The Sultan organised
relief measures throughout the kingdom. One thousand bullocks travelled round the clock between
his dominions and Gujarat and Malwa, bringing grain in large quantities. They were sold at low
prices. Muhammad Shah-II died in the year 1397 A.D.
8.3.3 Firoz Shah

Firoz Shah (1397-1422 A.D) was a scholar-statesman of extraordinary talent and a
warrior of exceptional ability. He was well – versed in Mathematics, Botany, Logic, Rhetoric
and allied subjects, beside Law and Linguistics. He acquired mastery over several languages,
including the vernaculars spoken in the Deccan. During the reign of Firoz Shah, the Bahamani
and Vijayanagar rulers took up arms thrice for the possession of the Raichur Doab. Harihara-
II organised an expedition against the Raichur Doab with the support of Narsing Raya of Kerla
was situated in Gondwana. Firoz Shah started attacks on Narsing Raya, plundered southern
Gondwana, and pursued the Vijayanagar forces as far as their capital. He made several people
prisoners, among whom were Brahmins. They were, however, released on payment of eleven
lakhs of hons (I hon = 3 ½ tankas) as ransom, the Brahmins paying six lakhs and the Raya five.
The second war was fought in 1406 A.D when Deva Raya-I was the ruler of Vijayanagar. The
Sultan crossed the Tungabhadra and laid siege to Vijayanagar. Deva Raya-I sued for peace
and gave his daughter in marriage to the Sultan. He ceded the fort of Bankipur as dowry and
paid a large indemnity –ten lakhs of hons, five maunds of pearls, fifty elephants and two thousand
male and female slaves who were experts in singing. The third war was fought in 1417A.D,
when Firoz Shah laid siege to the fort of Panagal, situated in Nalgonda District. It belonged to
the king of Vijayanagar. The Sultan invested the fort for two years, without success.
8.3.4 Ahmad Shah-I

Ahmad Shah-I (1422-1435 A.D), the younger brother of Firoz Shah, came to the throne.
During his reign, he invaded Vijayanagar, which was ruled by Vijaya Raya. Vijaya Raya
surrendered to Bahamani Sultan and concluded a treaty. He agreed to pay a vast amount as
tribute. The Sultan, after crushing the Vijayanagar forces, invaded Telangana in 1424 A.D. He
captured Warangal and slew its king. The regular employment to new comers from Persia,
Iraq, Arabia, etc., in civil and military services gave rise to bitter rivalry between them and the
local Muslims, the Deccanis. The quarrels between the two factions often led to pitched battles,
notwithstanding the commonness of their religion. The Sultan changed the capital from Gulbarga
to Bidar, where he got a beautiful city built.
8.3.5 Ahmad Shah-II

Ahmad Shah-I’s son, Ahmad Shah-II (1436-1458 A.D) came to the throne. He collected
the arrears of tribute from Vijayanagar. Deva Raya-II purchased peace by surrendering a
number of elephants and a large amount of money. The rivalry between the Deccanis and the
Afaqis took a serious turn by now. Both the sections of the ruling class began a bitter struggle
for power. In this struggle religious considerations played little role. In 1446-1447, when an
expedition against Konkan was planned by the Sultan, the Deccanis joined hands with two
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Hindu Rajas. As a result, the Bahamani forces suffered disaster and a large number of Afaqis
were killed. All the Afaqi officers were murdered in cold blood by their co-religionists. 1200’
Sayyids and 1000 others were put to death, besides numerous children. The Deccani Muslims
appropriated the property of the Afaqi Muslims and captured their wives and daughters as
prisoners.
8.3.6 Humayun
Humayun (1458-1461 A.D), the son of Muhammad Shah-II, and earned the notoriety
of a cruel tyrant. He indulged in the most despicable acts of sadism to suppress a mutiny led by
his own brother, Hasan Khan. Two thousand city guards were tortured to death. Hasan Khan
and his followers were imprisoned, and the mutiny was suppressed.
Humayun’s son Ahmad Shah-III (1461-1463 A.D), was a boy of eight when he ascended
the throne. During his reign, the king of Malwa, a pious Muslim, taking advantage of the weakness
of the administration, had committed such outrages on the possessions of the faithful as had not
been perpetrated even by the ferocious Chengiz Khan in his conquests.
8.3.7 Muhammad Shah-III

The boy-king was succeeded by his younger brother, Muhammad Shah-III(1463-1482
A.D). The queen-mother, suspecting Malik Shah Turk, one of the three regents, of treachery,
got him executed. During his reign, the Bahamani forces annexed Goa, the best port of the
Vijayanagar Empire. The forts of Rajahmundry and Kondapalli were seized from the Gajapatis
of Orissa. Saluva Narasimha, the feudatory chief of the south-eastern part of the Vijayanagar
Empire, asserted his independence and annexed several tracts of the empire to his dominions.
Bahamani Sultan defeated Saluva Narasimha. During the reign of Muhammad Shah-III, the
Bahamani kingdom, for the first time, extended its borders from sea to sea. The inner-party
rivalry between the Deccanis and the Afaqis took a violent turn during the closing years of
Muhammad Shah-III. Muhammad Gawan, one of the most capable ministers of the dynasty,
was unjustly executed by the Sultan, strongly influenced by the false reports of the Deccani
faction. The Sultan discovered his mistake too late. He tried to down the remorse in drink until
he died in 1482 A.D.
Mahmud (1482-1518 A.D), the son of Muhammad Shah-III, was forced to retire to
Bijapur, owing to fierce fights between the Deccani and the Afaqis. He left the administration
of the Kingdom in the hands of Malik Hasan, the Prime Minister. His was an inglorious reign,
during which the governors of the provinces began to rule as independent sovereigns, owing
nominal allegiance to the Sultan. Muhammad was followed by his four sons, who ruled
successively for about ten years. During this period, the provincial governors threw aboard
their semblance of allegiance and began to rule as real monarchs. Such was the origin of the
five kingdoms of the Decccan – the Nizamshahis of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshahis of Bijapur, the
Imadshahis of Berar, the Baridshahis of Bidar and the Qutbshahis of Golconda.
8.4 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

The Bahamani Sultans ruled the Deccan from 1347 A.D to 1526 A.D. Their capital
City was Gulbarga. Its founders set before themselves the model of Delhi administration, which
was based on the Shariat or Muslim law. The Bahamani institutions were therefore modelled
on those of Delhi, which were inherited from those of Arabia, Baghdad and Turkestan. According
to Amir Khusru, Khalifa is the head of the both this world and the Divine World. Sassanid rulers
of Persia built their court buildings like a temple and the people considered their ruler as the God
and all were his slaves. But, Khalifas strongly condemned this theory and they declared
themselves as the ambassadors of the Divine. Most of the Delhi Sultans declared themselves
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as divine slaves and divine shadows. Most of the Sultans followed this theory in the world in
general and India in particular. In the Deccan, the Bahamani Sultans also followed this theory.
The Bahamani Sultan, like an Indian monarch, was the lord of the realm and the head
of the State. He was the supreme commander of the armed forces and the highest judicial
authority. Besides, he was the “shadow of the God on the earth”. The nobles (Umra) were in
a way his subordinate allies. The masses of people (the various classes of cultivators, artisans
and merchants) were below them, separated by almost impenetrable barriers. The native
chieftains shared power with them as junior partners. The Sultan was advised, but not always
guided, by a council of eight ministers and associated of with Prime Minister in the administration.
The qualities of an ideal king were set forth in a brochure, called as “Nasaih-ul -Mulk”. It was
prepared by the first Prime Minister, Saifuddin Ghori.
The king was the supreme authority; he was the fountain head of justice and
administration, the pivot on which the whole empire moved. He was the State and his will is the
government; but, the king had a council of his own to help and serve him. During the first
Sultan, Allauddin Bahman Shah’s (1347-1358AD) reigns seven seats of administration as Sahib-
e-Arj (Army Supervisor), Qur Begi Maisarsh (Commander of the Left Wing), Qur Begi Maimanat
(Commander of the Right wing), Dabir (Secretary), Diwan ( Finance Minister), Saiyad-ul-
Hujjab (Lord Chamberlain), and Haijjib-ul-Qasbah (Commissioner of the City). This was
mentioned by Tabataba in his book “Burhan-i-Masir”. Later Sultans effected modifications in
the existing administrative system as per their rules and requirements.
The Bahamani Sultan’s Council consisted of the following seven officers.
1. Vakil-us-Sultanate (Prime Minister)
2. Amir-i-Jumla (Finance Minister)
3. Vazir-i-Ashraf (Foreign Affair Minister)
4. Nazir (Secretary, Finance)
5. Kotwal
6. Vazir-i-Kul (Auditor-General)
7. Sadar Jahan (Member, Judiciary)
Appointments to ministerial posts were made after great deliberation and care. Only
persons of outstanding merit and experience were eligible, and army experience was considered
necessary. Members of the royal family were invariably not appointed to such posts.
The duty of every Member was to look after the affairs of his own department and to
represent them to the king and get his ultimate sanction. Vakil-us-Sultanate was the head of the
Council. He had his own Secretary, called Peshwa. Vakil represented the king in his absence
and hence was called Deputy King or Naib Badshah. The Kotwal, besides being a custodian of
peace and tranquility, functioned as special Magistrate in particular criminal cases. He was also
in charge of the Jails. Sadar-Jahan Qazi-ul-Quzzat was the Judicial Member and was also in
charge of ecclesiastical affairs. Thus, we see that the Bahamani Government functioned under
the aegis and patronage of the Kings through a council composed of seven members.
The king conducted the affairs of Government through his Durbar and meeting of the
ministers. The durbar was a larger body in which all the ministers, nobles, officials and Ulemas
assembled. General complaints and grievances were heard and decisions taken. Reports from
provincial Governments were considered and royal orders and decrees used to be read out.
The durbar during the reign of Bahamanis was an instrument to show off the pomp, power and
splendour of kingship. Muhammad Shah-I enhanced the presentation value of the durbar by
placing Takht-u-Firoza acquired from Warangal. He got the hall decorated with rare carpets,
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furnishings and curtains. The durbar was held in the morning of every Friday and dismissed
before noon.
The kingdom was divided into four provinces or tarafs: Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar
and Telangana, along with Indur and Kaulas. Every taraf was under a tarafdar, or governor.
The tarafdar looked after peace, law and order in his area. Tarafdars were appointed personally
by the Sultan, and on his advice, his assistants were appointed. The civil and military affairs
were looked after by Sar-i-Lashkar. Allauddin Hassan gave various titles to the tarafdard.
Daulatabad Tarafdar was given the title of Masdi Ali, Berar Tarafdar was given the title of
Majlis Ali and the Telangana Tarafdar was given title of Azam Humayun and Gulbarga Tarafdar
was given title of Vakil-us-Sultanate. Under the Tarafdars there were many tanedars. The
Tarafdars influenced both the tarafs and the Sarkars. Tanedars are commanding a fort. They
were responsible for maintaining of peace, law and order in the area of the forts. Every taraf
consisted of Sarkars or Districts; they were further divided into Parganas or Tahsils. Each
pargana had a group of villages under it.
Sultan appointed officers for important provinces. Saifuddin Ghori, Prime Minister
was looking after Gulbarga; Daulatabad, Bir and Patan was under the charge of Mohammad
Khan; on the North, Mahur Ramgir and a portion of Berer were under the charge of Sistan;
Bidar, Kaulas and the Districts of Telangana were under the charge of Azam Humayun.

The Bahamani Sultans were the custodians of Muslim law and defenders of the faith.
They had no authority to alter it, though they had the right to interpret it. The Bahamani Sultans
provided a well-organised Department of Justice and an effective system of checks and balances.
All judicial proceedings were open, and responsibility was divided among the officials of different
ranks. Nikitin refers to “several courts of justice “situated in the king’s palace at Bidar.
The highest court of criminal appeals was the Durbar where the Sultan himself
dispensed justice. It was held every Friday. The next higher one for civil and criminal appeals
was the Sadr Adalat. Presided over by the Sadr or the Quazinul-quzzat. The Sadr who presided
over the Sadr Adalat was the highest official of the judiciary. He was also a member of the
central cabinet. Under him there were judicial officers like Sadr Qazis, Muftis, Muhtasads,
Faujdars, Darogas etc. They formed the staff of the Sadr Adalat. The Sadr Jahan was the
highest official of the Ecclesiastical Department; all the major religious disputes were referred
to him.
At the provincial and district levels, there were two kinds of courts – the Court of
Shara and the Court of the Common Law. The former was meant for the Muslims. It was
presided over by the qazis and the religious preceptors. The latter was meant for the non-
Muslims, presided over by the Qazis. They were assisted by the Hindu pundits.
In the province, the tarafdar or governor was the highest judicial officer representing
the Sultan. In villages and taluks, criminal cases were tried by Tanadars; they forwarded the
files to the Qazi, who gave the verdict. The village panchayats exercised limited civil powers.
Land disputes were occasionally referred to the Tanadars and Tarafdars.
The Bahmanis tried to implement the laws of the Shariat to the best of their capacity.
Murder was punished by murder. Those who abetted murder were also awarded capital
punishment. Rebels were punished with utmost severity. Thieves and dacoits came next. It is
stated that the heads of 8,000 dacoits were piled up near the gates of Gulbarga. The first Sultan
gave public audience twice a day, transacting business and administering justice to the poor and
friendless.
Exemplary punishments were awarded to those who committed serious offences. “A
Syed traveller once complained against Sher Malik, a respectable and reputed amir, for having
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maltreated and dishonoured him. The sultan hanged him for the crime. Mujahid robbed some
golden coins from the royal treasury and he was flogged for it. The grandson of Hazratbanda
Nawaz drank wine and indulged in adultery. He, too, was publicly flogged.
During political crises, not even a semblance of trail was gone through to get rid of
suspects, however exalted they be. Khwaja Mahmud Gawan, the most talented and faithful
minister of Muhammad Shah-III was orderd to be summarily executed on the basis of a story
implicating Gawan in an act of treason.
In districts and tehsils, the vast masses of people were little in contact with the practical
application of the law. The traditional system of village administration was hardly interfered
with; the village panchayat was left free to carry on its functions so long as they did not come
into clash with those of the Qazi.
8.4.2 Military Administration

The military administration of the Bahamanis can be studied under two heads such as
Central and Provincial. The Central military administration was headed by the Amir-ul-Umra
the Commander-in-chief. The Amir-ul-Umra had 1500 soldiers under his direct command,
besides other officers commanding 1000, 500, 300 and 100 soldiers. The army under the Central
authority consisted of 50,000 cavalry and 25,000 infantry during the reign of the first Sultan
Allauddin Hassan Bahaman Shah. It was increased gradually by the later kings.
The subordinate officers of the Amir-ul-Umra commanded their separate contingents
and were given either fiefs or a fixed sum from the State to maintain a stipulated number of
soldiers. The value of their fiefdoms was counted in terms of money. Thus, an amir of 1000
was granted an Iqta whose value was equivalent to 2,00,000 huns.
During the reign of Muhammad Shah-III, drastic reforms were introduced by
Muhammad Gawan, the Prime Minister, in the system of assigning lands to the nobles. Their
aim was to curb the power of the fief-holders. Hitherto, the allowances for the maintenance of
troops (whether in cash or land) was calculated at the rate of 1,00,000 huns for 500 horses and
2,00,000 huns for 1,000. Though the amount had been originally fixed in proportion to the troops
at the command of the Iqtadar, the system in course of time had become prone to corruption:
grants were made without reference to the stipulated number of troops. Later, the value of the
Iqtas was raised to 1,25,000 huns to 2,50,000 huns respectively. A system of inspection and
control was introduced and deductions made when the troops were not regularly maintained.
Nikitin, the Russian traveller, described Muhammad Shah-III as being “in the power of
the nobles”, of whom Gawan, the initiator of the aforesaid reforms, was one. He kept an army
of 2,00,000 men. In the battle against Vijayanagar “Malkhan led 20,000 horse, 60,000 foot and
20 elephants. Bedar Khan led 30,000 horse, his brother 1,00,000 foot and 25 elephants, the
Sultan 10,000 horse, 20,000 foot and 10 elephants, Vazir Khan 15,000 horse, 30,000 foot and 10
elephants, Kutar Khan 15,000 horse, 40,000 foot and 10 elephants, each Vazir (minister) 10,000
or 15,000 horse and 20,000 foot.”
The Bahmanis improved the methods and techniques of warfare. Muhammad Shah-I
used gunpowder in 1366 A.D in the siege of Adoni, which was in the hands of the Rayas of
Vijayanagar. The latter, despite their 40,000 cavalry and 5,00,000 infantry, could not withstand
the onslaught of the Bahmanis, who had with them only 10,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry.
They had strong artillery consisting of able gunmen.
The provincial military organisation was headed by the Tarafdar, who had both civil
and military authority. He maintained an army of 10,000 soldiers and render service whenever
asked by the king. The Bahmani armies were composed of both the Hindus and Muslims. The
army was divided into many Lashkars. Every Lashkar had a number of elephants and firearms.
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The chief weapons of attack were lance, mace, battle-axe, sword and bow. Ferishta mentions
that the Bahamanis used firearms and maintained an “Atish Khana”. The officer in charge of
the “Atish Khana” was called “Mir-i-Atish”. The “Atish Khana” maintained guns and other
firearms useful for the war purposes.
8.4.2.1 Police Administration

The Department of Police exercised extraordinary powers. Its head was the Kotwal
or commissioner. He wielded great influence in the court as well as the Council. He had
subordinate officers under him and thousands of Constables and Police men. He functioned as
a special magistrate in certain criminal cases; He was also the incharge of jails. Cities and
towns were guarded by armed Police men. According to Nikitin, “throughout the night, the
town of Bidar is guarded by 1,000 men Kotwals, mounted on horses in full armour, carrying
each a light.” The traditional practice of village watchmen guarding each village during night
was in vogue.

1. Who was the founder of Bahamani Kingdom.
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2. Who was the first Prime Minister of Bahamani Kingdom.
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In 14th century, the society was divided into four classes viz., the Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Sudras. Later, the society got divided into five classes such as the aristocracy, the
traders, the artisans, the peasants and the slaves. The Brahmans occupied an important place
in the society. They served as ministers, army generals, army chiefs, advisers and religious
heads. The Kshatriyas looked after the administrative affairs. Other services were provided
by the traders of Vaishyas. Sudras provided all types of services.
The aristocracy consisted of different grades of nobles: the Khan, the Malik, the Amir
etc., whose official status was decided by the size of the Iqtas granted to them in lieu of
military service. Most of them were foreigners (Turks, Persians, and Arabs etc) and Hindu
converts who proved their loyalty on fields of battle. Some of them held responsible positions in
the state service. The revenue farmers, non-converted Hindu chieftains and subordinate officers
in the State occupied lower positions in the ladder. Some of the nobles were Ministers of State,
Governors of Provinces, heads of district administration etc.
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The Ulema or State theologians formed an important part of the aristocracy. They
occupied religious and judicial posts in the State. They were mostly Persians. A large number of
Muslim traders who migrated from abroad received royal patronage. The wealthy among them
found it easy to be admitted into the ranks of the nobility. Most of them gained the upper hand
in commercial activities. Though direct evidence is lacking, it will not be far from truth to state
that Hindu merchant-princes like Avaci Tippaya Setti were a rare phenomenon under the rule
of the Bahmanis. Bankers and money-changers formed an important part of this class. Several
economic and social factors helped to modify the rigidity of the caste system and changed the
relative position of the upper castes. The introduction of Islam, with its declaration of equality
and denunciations of caste distinctions, opened its doors to the members of the lower castes.
8.5.1 Marriage System

Brahminis married in the same caste, but not the same gotra. Marriage within the
same gotra is prohibited among the brahminis. Marriage with the niece (sister’s daughter)
was in vogue among the Lingayats. Among Reddy, Lingayat and other caste people, marriage
in the same caste was common.
Child marriages were common among the traders and sudra families. Divorce was
very difficult in those days. If the husband is a handicap, leper or of immature mental state, unfit
for sexual act, or suffering from incurable diseases, then the wife was eligible for divorce.
Similarly if the wife is barren (could not beget children), not cooperates with the husband in the
sexual acts, sometimes male child is not born to that lady, husband can divorce the wife and
marry a second wife. Widow remarriages were not allowed. Dowry was essential at the time
of marriage. Sthreedhana was there. Dowry was in vogue in upper classes. It was common in
the Deccan. From the dowry, if sthreedhan is not given, then the husband has to give equal
share in the property on par with his son.
As per the “Brihaspati Smriti” wife should also die immediately after the death of her
husband (this was called Sati). This tradition was followed by the upper class of the people in
the Deccan. When the Bahamanis defeated the Reddy kings, queens of the defeated Reddy
kings took to sati. This was mentioned by Ferishta in his writings. Yadava Ramadeva’s queen
Kamaisa embarced sati. The book “Guru Charita” has praised greatly the sati practice. Sati
was not practiced by sudras. Ibn Batuta, Nicole Conti, Barbosa mentioned that sati was
prohibited in the Deccan. Pregnant women, women carrying children and sudra women were
prohibited to perform sati. Lower castes did not follow the practice of sati. They practiced the
widow remarriage. The women of lower classes and lower caste had more freedom, and they
had equal participation in fairs and festivals.
8.5.2 Houses
Sultan lived in the royal palace. It was variety of fruit gardens, flowers, trees, birds and
curtains. Ministers, royal family members, officials, landlords and nobles lived in big palaces
with highly decorated buildings. Palaces were filled with furniture, chairs and curtains. Nikitin
mentioned that the nobles lived a lavish life indicating their status in the society. Palaces are
built on a strong foundation. Walls are constructed with mud and the foundation is laid with hard
stones, which was found in the excavation at Navasa (Ahmadnagar District in Maharashtra).
The houses consisted of three or four rooms; one of them being a kitchen room. The upper
ceiling of the building consisted of mud and grass. Use of mud in the construction of all types of
houses was common in those days. Rich people’s houses consisted of, one verandah, drawing
room etc. Common people’s, houses had one or two rooms with bathroom. These houses were
built with mud and wood.
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8.5.3 Food
Vivid varieties of rice were used for preparation of food. Higher class people consumed
quality rice. The food was eaten with curd, buttermilk and several types of vegetables. Wheat,
millets (jawar) and barley were also eaten during that period. Green-gram is used in the food,
and ate bread made with jawar powder. This was the menu of the common people. Sun flower
oil was consumed by most of the people. On the eve of the festivals, people consumed sugar
and jiaggery. Different types of pickles were also eaten. Nikitin mentioned that the Hindus had
different faiths, and they did not dine together. Some people ate meat, chicken, fish and eggs.
Hindu kings mostly belonged to Marathas or Reddys. Higher class women remained behind the
veil or parda. Nikitin wrote that the brahmins and their surrounding area people did not eat
meat, chicken, fish and eggs. Common people ate different types of food. According to Isami,
in the royal place different types of non-vegetarian and vegetarian food was prepared. After
taking food, they chewed the betel leaves, and in the palace table imported from China was
used for dining.
8.5.4 Dress
In those days people used to wear dhoti and uttariam and tied head-dress. Wearing of
footwear was common in those days. Women wore sarees and cholis (blouses). During the
fairs and festivals, silk and costly dress was worn by the people of higher class. Woollen
blankets were used during winter season, similar to those that the Muslims used in Delhi. Two
piece clothes were used as head-dress. Dress made of silk was worn beyond the elbow and
another dress beyond the knee was used. Trousers, petticoats and dupattas were used. They
covered the complete body with the dress. Both the Hindu and Muslims wore different ornaments,
neck ornaments, and rings to the fingers studded with varieties of coloured stones. During the
summer season, uttariam was not worn by the common people. Farmers and craftsmen never
wore the uttariam.
8.5.5 Family Life
Joint family system was common in those days. The eldest person looked after the
house-hold affairs. Sometimes, though the brothers were living separately, participated together
in the religious performances, festivals and fairs. Polygamy and polyandry were accepted, but
practically was very difficult. Ferishta mentioned about the child marriages in the Deccan.
“Jnaneshwari” and “Leela Charitra” support the child marriages. Brahmins on the eve of
marriage ceremony rode on horse. According to the contemporary writings, Deshmukhs,
Kumbhi, Sutar, Lohar, Gurav, Sonar, Daangar, Jangam, Mahar and Bheel also used horses. In
the Muslim marriages, horses was used. The Mang community bride rode on a buffalo, and the
Kaikaris and Burudus did not use any animal to take their bride, who simply walked. Other
communities’ people, especially artisans, rode on a bull.
The Bahmani Sultans during leisure time went oo hunting with the army and concubines.
They enjoyed in hunting.
Domestic slaves under the Bahamanis occupied a peculiar position. The Muslim slave
had the same social rights as any other member of Muslim society. If he was originally a Hindu,
probably of a lower caste, his social status was made better. A slave under the employ of the
Sultan was usually manumitted after some time, and was provided with an honourable position,
even with rank and an elevated social status.
The mother of the boy king, Shamsuddin Dawood-II, was a manumitted slave girl.
After her son’s accession to the throne, she was raised to the rank of dowager queen. Firoz
Shah in his last days relegated his power to two slaves, Harshiyar and Bedar. Their influence
over the old king was so great that they could gather a force of 20,000 of cavalry and 30
elephants to subdue the king’s brother, Ahmad Shah, who was to ascend the throne after the
Sultan’s death. Slaves like Yusuf Adil, Malik Hassan and Khasim Barid rose to the highest rung
of the official ladder.
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There were slaves among the natives, too. Nikitin mentions the sale of “black people”
in the city of Bidar, besides “horses, goods, stuffs, silks and all sorts of other merchandise”.
These “black” slaves served native as well as foreign chiefs. They were not engaged in
production.

Agriculture was the back-bone of the State. Cultivators depended on rainfall. Shortfall
of rain is common in the Deccan. They depended on well and tank irrigation. The cultivators
cultivated their lands on traditional method. They used wooden plough for cultivation. Most of
the land was used for the cultivation of foodgrains. Paddy, bajra, jowar, bengal gram, green
gram and red gram etc were cultivated. Vegetables and fruits were also grown in the Deccan.
Traditional manure was used for fertility of the land.
8.6.1 Revenue System

The Bahmanis continued their predecessors’ practice of systematic survey and
settlement of lands. This was a method of augmenting revenue. The Bahmanis retained the
tradition of granting fiefdoms to subordinate chiefs, which was obtaining in Deccan for a long
time. Individual villages or group of villages were distributed to the nobles on the condition that
they supplied on demand a stipulated number of troops. These were called Iqtas. The grantees
collected revenue from the Iqtas for their own maintenance and the maintenance of troops.
Thus, the grants were conditional. As long as the Iqtadar fulfilled the conditions, he could
appropriate the entire revenue from the area. The villagers continued to own the land, either as
a community or as individuals, as before. The Iqtadars, says Sinha, “were actually feudal
lords”.
The Bahamanis collected land revenue as 1/6th of the gross product. Later on, during
Muhammad Shah’s reign, when a systematic survey was undertaken, the able guidance of
Prime Minister, Muhammad Gawan, land was classified according to its fertility, irrigational
facilities and nearness to the market. Based on these considerations, land revenue was fixed.
Wet, cash and garden crops yielded more revenue, while the dry crop was assessed low.
Three or four famines swept the countryside during the rule of the Bahamanis. The
relief measures were undertaken by Muhammad Shah-II. Popular tradition credits Ahmad
Shah-I with a miracle which is supposed to have brought rain to the people of the Deccan. This
earned him the title of Wali (saint), which is still current in Bidar and its neighbourhood. During
the reign of Muhammad Shah-III a severe drought occurred in the Deccan for two years.
8.6.2 Industries and Handicrafts

Most of the industries that flourished for lng and those patronised by the kings and
nobles continued to thrive. Warangal was famous for its carpets and tanning industry. Bhongir
in Nalgonda district and Nirmal in Adilabad were reputed for the manufacture of swords,
arrow-heads, knives and daggers, besides crucibles and vessels made of brass, bronze and
other metals. The weaving industry of the coastal Andhra continued to prosper. Nicolo Conti
says that the ships built during the reign of Allauddin Bahaman Shah-II were larger than those
built in Italy. Bidar was a pot-manufacturing centre, and the Bidri work was famous in India
and abroad. Trade in diamonds was of particular importance. The diamond mines situated at
Kollur in Krishna District must have continued working during this period. Besides these, Ahmad
Shah-I obtained possession of a diamond mine at Kulum, situated in Gondwana. Nikitin, relying
on a popular tradition, says that diamonds were available on the top of a rocky hill, situated 30
kors from Bidar. Referring to crude diamonds, he says that each was sold for “2,000 pounds
weight of gold per lokot (meaning perhaps carat), the Kona diamond was sold at 10,000 pounds
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of gold per lokot”. At Raichur diamonds were sold at the rate of “5 rubles a parcel”, but the
least, ten crude diamonds were sold at a tanka a parce.

Tanned leather was exported from Thana to Arabia and Persian Gulf. Barbosa mentions
that Portuguese traders used to visit Bijapur and other centres regularly to purchase velvet
cloth and fine muslins. There was extensive trade with Arabia, Persia, Africa and the countries
of Europe. The main exports were textiles, Bidri works, carpets, and other traditional articles
like spices and precious stones. The main imports were horses, silks, Chinese goods, spices,
drugs, pearls and perfumes. According to Fersihta, Firoz Shah “every year dispatched vessels
from the ports of Goa and Chaul to procure the manufactures and curious productions of all
quarters of the world.
The main outlets of foreign trade were Dabhol, Chaul and Goa on the west coast and
Machilipatnam, Motupalli and others on the east coast. Barbosa noted that fine muslins and
calicos were produced in the Bahamani kingdom and exported from Chaul along with cereals
like wheat, rice, millet and gingelly. According to Nikitin, Dabhol was a very extensive sea-port,
where many horses are brought from Mysore, Rabart (Arabia), Khorasan, Turkestan and
Neghostan.
Inland trade too advanced. In Bidar, there was a trade in horses, goods, stuffs, silks
and all sorts of other merchandise and also in black people, but no other articles are sold, but
Indian goods. At a place called Shikhbaludin Peratry and a bazaar named Aladinand, a fair was
held once in a year “where people from all parts of India assemble and trade for ten days”. As
many as 20, 000 horses are brought there for sale from Bidar, which is 20 kors distant, and
besides every description of goods; and that fair is the best throughout the land of Hindustan.
Ibn Batuta refers to trade guilds which were very active in Bidar, Gulbarga, Paithan
and the ports of Dabhol, Chaul and Goa.
8.6.4 Taxes
The rates of duty collected on essential goods and animals were nominal. Their purpose
seems to be not revenue, but encouragement to trade. Horses per head one dinar, cows and
buffaloes per head one fanam, goat per head 5 jital, camel per head ½ jital, and elephant per
head one dinar. No customs duty was imposed on grass, wood and stores, but salt tax remained.
Rich merchants hailing from Iran, Turkey and other countries were patronised by the
Bahamanis. They came to occupy positions of vantage.
8.6.5 Coins
The Bahmani Sultans established mints at Bidar, Gulbarga and Fathabad. The Bahmanis
from the very beginning attached great importance to monopoly in coinage. Muhammad Shah-
I, the organiser of the State, prohibited the circulation of local coins of different values and
denominations. He minted gold coins in large quantities and made them legal tender throughout
the kingdom. Copper coins, the silver ones, struck by them at Gulbarga were also on the Delhi
model, but in different sizes. After the establishment of mint copper coins become more plentiful,
and a large variety of dies are shown on plates VII and XI.
8.7 RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

The Lingayat movement born in the 12th century spread very rapidly. During the time
of the of Bahamanis, it was flourishing, having hundreds of votaries in its fold. The Lingayat
Movement was started by Basava and Chenna Basava in the 12th century. Lingayatism was
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opposed to Buddhism and Jainism. It emphasised the existence of one God. It advocated, the
abandonment of cremation purification death ceremonies and inequalities of caste and sex,
reform of marriage and the conception of one brave community led by a leader.
8.7.1 Hinduism
Majority people in Deccan were Hindus. They performed pooja for their god and
goddesses. Nasik and Paithan were the important centres for Hindus. Vithoba temple at
Pandaripur is pious one for both the Kannada and the Maratha people. Dattatreya was chief
god at a pious place, Gangapur. In Tulzapur, Bhavani temple was famous. According to the
1398 AD inscription of this place, a fair was held every year. This fair was started during Feroz
Shah period. Tulzapur, Kolhapur, Matapur and Saptashrungi are the four important Bhavani
places. Sirpur near Akola was a Jaina worshipping place. Riddipur near Buldana is famous for
Mahanubhavas.
8.7.2 Islam
Along with Hindu religion, Islam is one of the largest religions in the world. It played an
important role in the Deccan society. It was established by Prophet Muhammad in Saudi Arabia.
According to Islam, every Muslim must pray 5 times a day as namaz, observe Roza (during
Ramzan month), Friday prayer in Jama Masjid, Jakat, they must visit Mecca at least once in
their life and to follow Kalma is very important. The Sufis were ascetics who renounced the
world. They were men of learning. Though often householders, they were genuinely indifferent
to material comforts. Claiming to be true Muslims, they believed in an ethical religion and strove
to attain salvation by graded exercises practiced in seclusion. Naturally, the uninitiated masses
felt drawn to their life of piety. The Sufis freely mixed with the sadhus and sanyasins. The
Hindu ideal of a guru found its parallel in the Sufi. In short span of time, Sufism gained popularity.
8.7.3 Sufism
One of the outstanding Sufi saints of the Deccan was Shaikh Zainuddin Dawood. He
lived when Muhammad Shah-I was ruling the kingdom. He retired to the tomb of Burhanuddin,
his preceptor, and challenged any one to remove him from there. Another reputed saint was
Hazrat Syed Muhammad Gesu Daraz. He was born in Delhi in 1321 A.D. He arrived at
Gulbarga with a number of disciples during the reign of Firoz Shah and settled down in the
beautiful Khanqah (mutt) near great mosque. He preached the Chisti order of Sufism. The
Sultan granted number of villages to the saint for the support of himself and his disciples. The
great saint died within a month of Ahmad Shah’s accession. Gesu Daraz died in the year 1422
A.D. The Sultan, before leaving Gulbarga for Bidar, got erected the present magnificent tomb
of Muhammad Gesu Daraz at Gulbarga. Side by side with the tomb, one finds a Saivite temple
of Chenna Basava, a Lingayat who turned into a Sufi saint while in the company of Gesu
Daraz. His teachings “were like those of Khaja Saheb, emphasising universal brotherhood and
unity of godhead”. Ahmad Shah himself attained sainthood, bearing the title Wali. The Muslims
of Bidar even today call him Ahmad ShahWali, and the Hindus Alam Prabhu.
The Hindus celebrated Dassara, Deepavali, Sankranti, and Holi festivals etc. Muslims
celebrated Ramzan and Bakrid. Sultans participated in both the Hindu and Muslim festivals.

The educational system introduced by the Bahamanis must have helped people to
overcome the traditional ideas of obscurantism in howsoever small a degree. The need to fill up
the lower administrative posts with natives loyal to the ruling class impelled the latter to throw
open their educational institutions to all the castes and creeds without distinction. They established
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mosque schools not only religious but secular knowledge was which were also imparted. They
were mostly residential in nature, enjoying State grants. Persian and Arabic were taught in
these schools. Besides these, there were high schools and a few colleges. There were two
colleges, one at Bidar and another at Ellichpur, each of them equipped with big libraries. The
college at Ellichpur received an annual grant of 3,000 dinars. Besides this, there were schools
in Daultabad, Gulbarga and, in fact, in all other places. In the non-residential schools, students
were given monthly stipends and scholarships. The teachers were paid handsomely. The caste
distinctions were not observed in admitting students, and several boys belonging to all castes
must have joined them.
8.8.1 Educational System

Though direct evidence is lacking, one can presume that Natural and Biological Sciences,
besides Mathematics, History, Geography and Religion must have been taught in these
institutions. Islam must have been presented in the brightest of colours, coupled with powerful
attacks on Hinduism. The Bahamanis by themselves were great patron of learning. During the
reign of Muhammad Shah-I, a number of eminent scholars from Middle East crowded his
capital. They made the Deccan “the centre of the learned and the envy of all parts of India”.
Muhammad Shah-II established free schools for orphans at Gulbarga, Bidar, Kandahar,
Ellichpur, Daulatabad, Chaul, Dabhol, etc., in which Muslim children were taught, clothed, fed
and housed.
The Bahamanis had a big library of their own, to which Firoz Shah made several
contributions. He increased the number of books to several thousands. It contained rare and
valuable books brought from several countries. During the reign of Ahmad Shah-I, the capital
became a rendezvous of the learned and the pious from Iran, Iraq, and Arabia etc. Ahmad
Shah-II was the Sultan; Shaikh Ibrahim dedicated to him his work “Maarif-ul-Ulum”, in which
he catalogued all the known Sciences of his day, along with their definitions.
The great University at Bidar, which was constructed during the reign of Muhammad
Shah-III, was an imposing structure of three storeys. Renowned scholars from various countries
gathered here. The library attached to the university must have been a very large one. Rare
and valuable manuscripts are pressured in it. Muhammad Gawan, the Prime Minister, “was
frequently to be seen in the corridors of the college in his spare hours; but we also read in his
letters how eager he was to get the best among the learned in Iran and Iraq to come and lecture
at Muhammadabad-Bidar. In fact, he left no stone unturned to get such giants of contemporary
learning as Maulana Nuruddin Jami, the great Persian scholar Jalaluddin Dawani, Shaikh
Sadruddin, Abdur Rahman Rawasi and others to come to the Deccan.
8.8.2 Literature
Many scholars wrote works about Bahamani rule. Adhari written a work, “Bahaman
Nama” , Isami wrote “Futuh-us-Salatin. Gesudaraz’s work on “Anis-ul-Ushshaq”, Muhammad
Gawan’s work on “Riyaz-ul-Insha” and “Manazir-ul-Insha” and Syed Ali Taba Taba’s “Burhan-
i-Masir” were most important and provide useful information.
8.8.3 Architecture
The migration of Turks, Arabs, Persians, etc., to the Deccan helped a lot for the
development of architecture. The foreigners brought with them architectural ideas which had
developed in the Middle East for centuries. When they began to construct religious and secular
buildings like palaces, mosques and tombs, they came into contact with the traditions that had
already developed. The distinctive features of Turkish, Arabic or Persian architecture are seen
in the standardised style of the palace, the mosque and the mausoleum. Their buildings had
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bulb-like domes, small towers, arches etc. The mosque consisted of a large, rectangular courtyard
without a ceiling; it was surrounded by arches on all sides. The call to prayer was made from a
tall tower or minaret. There were arches in the gateway. Decorative devices consisted of
raised plinths, stone-carving and inlay, besides fretwork and engraved calligraphy. Many of
these were new to the Indian architects. The Bahamanis utilised freely the services of local
designers and craftsmen, who were among the most skilful in the world.
The Jame Masjid at Gulbarga was constructed during the reign of Muhammad Shah-
I. It was a magnificent structure. It discloses the hand of an expert designer, who borrowed
from the styles of Persia, Syria and Turkey, but abandoned some of their traits under Hindu
influence. The unique features of this mosque are that its courtyard is entirely covered. No
other mosque in India presents this characteristic.
The tombs of the kings from Mujahid-I to Ahmad Shah-I, though free from Iranian
influence, reverting to the orthodox Tughlaq style with its sloping walls and flat domes, the
western corner of Ghiasuddin’s tomb “shows a marked Hindu influence which was to develop
further in Firoz Shah’s tomb and in Afzal Khan’s Mosque and entirely replaces the Tughlaq
tradition in course of time. The tomb of Firoz Shah, the most imposing sculpture at Gulbarga,
represents an intermixture of Iranian, the Hindu and Delhi styles. The unique feature of Firozabad,
a city which Firoz got built for the vast member of his wives – Hindu as well as Muslim has the
combined use of dome and pyramid roof.
The mausoleum of Hazrat Gesu Daraz, the great saint of Gulbarga, along with that of
his son, is a “perfect specimen of Perso-Deccani or Bahmani architecture, and is built on the
principles already adopted in Firoz’s tomb”.
Bidar, too, has a number of buildings which display originality in design and workmanship.
The grandest building is the throne hall whose composite structure displays Hindu jambs which
support the arches in the doors of the palace. The credit for the construction of this building
goes to Ahmad Shah-I. His tomb, whose interior is decorated, shows excellence in workmanship.
The inscriptions are painted in bright colours, studded here and there with precious stones of
inestimable value. At Bidar, we find a beautiful tomb of Shah Khalilullah, an Afaqi nobleman.
This has no dome at all.
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Ahmad Shah Wali’s death anniversary is celebrated every year by Hindus as well as
Muslims. The public of Bidar must also be attending physical exercises for athletic training;
their traces are discernible even today. The city was divided into four talims, called after their
founders, viz., Siddiq Shah, Nur Khan, Maniyar and Pansal. They radiate from the Hindu
monument, Chaubarah.

1. Who was started the Lingayat Movement.
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2. Who established orphans Schools at Gulbarga and Bidar.
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8.9 SUMMERY
Allauddin Bahaman Shah (1347-1358), the founder of the Bahamani Kingdom has an
extended kingdom. The Prime Ministers actively the taken steps for the extension of the empire
and strengthened the Kingdom. Muhammad Gawan played an important role in have bringing
about salient reforms. He established a big madrasa. He encouraged education and literature.
The local (Deccani) and non-local (Afaqis) conflict started during his period. Most of the rulers
fought against the Vijayanagar Empire and got victory. They have constructed big forts in
different parts of the Kingdom. The Sufi Saint Gesudaraz occupied prominent place in the
history of Deccan.

1. Allauddin Bahaman Shah.
2. Saifuddin Ghori.

1. Basava and Chenna Basava.
2. Muhammad Shah-II.

1. Explain the Socio-Religious conditions during Bahamani rule.
2. Discuss the Cultural Conditions during Bahamani Rule.
3. Analyse the Economic conditions during Bahamani Rule.
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1. Explain the role of Mohammad Gawan in the development of Administration.
2. Analyse the important Sufi saints in the Bahamani Kingdom.
3. Discuss an important monuments constructed by Bahamanis.

1. Haig, Woolsele : The Combridge History of India, Delhi, 1965.
2. Satyanarayana, K : A Study of the History and Culture of the Andhras, Vol-II,
New Delhi, 1983.
3. Sherwani, H.K : The Bahamanis of the Deccan, Hyderabad, 1953.
4. Sinha, S.K : Medieval History of Deccan, Hyderabad, 1964.
5. Yazdani : Antiquities of Bidar, Calcutta, 1922.
6. Irwani Prasad : A Short History of Muslim rule in India, Allahabad, 1958.
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UNIT - 9: QUTB SHAHI POLITY, SOCIETY - ECONOMY
AND CULTURE
Contents
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sources
9.3 Political History
9.3.1 Sultan Quli Qutb Shah (1512-1543)
9.3.2 Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah (1543-1550)
9.3.3 Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah (1550-1580)
9.3.4 Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah( 1580-1612)
9.3.5 Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612-1626)
9.3.6 Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626-1672)
9.3.7 Abul Hasan Tanashah (1672-1687)
9.4 Administration of Qutb Shahis
9.5 Military system of Qutb Shahis
9.6 Judicial System
9.7 Land Revenue System
9.8 Socio-Religious Condtions
9.10 Trade and Commerce
9.12 Summary
9.13 Check your Progress Answers
9.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the political conditions of Golconda Kingdom.
2. Explain the economic conditions during Qutb Shahi Rule.
3. Discuss the social conditions in Golconda Kingdom.
4. Analyse the religious conditions in Qutb Shahi Rule and
5. Describe the development of literature during Qutb Shahi Rule.
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9.1 INTRODUCTION
The founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty was Sultan Qutb-ul-Mulk. After disintegration
of Bahamani kingdom, several governors declared their independence. Sultan Quli also declared
independence and established Golconda kingdom with its capital at Golconda. They ruled from
1512 to 1687AD. They fought with contemporary Vijayanagar, Bijapur, Berar, Bidar and
Ahmadnagar kingdoms. Mughal rulers slowly came to Deccan and established their supremacy
over the Deccan. The Qutb Shahi Sultans encouraged agriculture, irrigation, industry, trade,
literature and architecture. The Qutb Shahi kingdom occupied prominent place in the history of
Deccan.
9.2 SOURCES
Ghazinagar inscription of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah, Badshah-e-Ashurkhana, Darus Shifa
inscription of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, Miyan Misq inscription of Abul Hasan Tanisha, the
Pangal and Koilkonda inscriptions are useful for the reconstruction of the Qutb Shahi History.
Mirza-Ibrahim-Zubari’s work Basantin-us-Salatin (Dastur-ul-Amal) is providing very
useful, authentic information about the Qutb Shahi polity, its nature and structure. The author
tried to describe the Qutb Shahi administration in just thirteen pages. According to eminent
historian H.K. Sherwani, Mirza-Ibrahim-Zubari was a contemporary of Abdullah-Qutbshah
(1626-1672). This book was written on the model of Siasat Nama written by Nizam-ul-Mulk-
Tusi, the court scholar of ‘Sultan-Malik-Shah-Seljuki’, the ruler of Central Asia. The author of
Siasat Nama discussed the duties and objectives of a Sultan. The Qutb Shahi Sultans followed
the guidelines laid in Siasat Nama. But, they also honoured, the local people desires and local
laws in running the administration.
9.3 POLITICAL HISTORY

Qutb Shahi Sultans, Sultan Quli, Jamsheed Quli, Ibrahim Quli, Muhammad Quli Qutb
Shah, Sultan Mohammad Qutb Shah, Abdullah Qutb Shah and Abul Hasan Tansha were ruled
the kingdom nearly 175 years. They were extended their Kingdom and fought with surrounding
dynasties.
9.3.1 Sultan Quli Qutb Shah

Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk (1512-1543), the founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, was a
scion of the royal family of Hamdan and a survivor of the Qara Quyulu tribe (Black Sheep) of
Turkistan. His tribe was subjugated by the rival group of Aq Quyunlu (White Sheep). Factional
fights between the two led to the occupation of the kingdom of Qara Quyunlu and the murder
of almost all the male members of the tribe. Under such perilous circumstances, Sultan Quli
fled to India. He came to seek his fortune in the Deccan towards the close of Muhammad Shah
Bahmani’ reign and settled down at Bidar, the capital of the Kingdom. He was well received by
Muhammad Shah, and in course of time was enlisted in the royal bodyguard. One of his
enterprising acts in hunting expedition resulted in the presentation of the district of Warangal as
a Jagir and 150 Arab horses in harness to Sultan Quli. He was awarded the title of Khawas
Khan in 1487, when he saved the life of the Sultan from the rebellious Deccanis in the fort. A
rebellion in Konkan, led by Bahadur Gilani, was suppressed by him. This won him the title
Qutb-ul-Mulk (Pillar of the State). On his return to Bidar, he was granted the title Amir-ul-
Umra and appointed as tarafdar (governor) of Telangana, along with the fort of Golconda.
After the death of Muhammad Gawan, Bahamani Kingdom slowly declined and the
provinces such as Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Bidar declared their independence as early as
1489 AD. But, Sultan Quli Qutb Shah declared independence in 1512 A.D.
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Sultan Quli waited till Vijayanagar was weakened by internal dissensions. He
strengthened the rampart of Golconda fort, reorganised his army and suppressed the revolts of
local chiefs. He marched against Sitapati, seized some of his strongholds, including Bellamkonda,
and defeated him in the battle of Khammamet. The Hindu chiefs headed by Sitapati, fought a
sanguinary battle at Penganchiprolu. Sultan Quli met them with a small army. The immense
numbers of the Hindus served only to increase the disorder, resulting in their utter defeat. The
joint forces of Vijayanagar and Devarakonda, numbering several thousands, suffered a similar
disaster at Pangal; as a few thousand Muhammadan soldiers won a decisive victory over the
joint force.
Then followed the capitulation of Ghanpur, Koilkonda and other forts. One of the
Bahamani nobles, Qiwam-ul-Mulk, who began to lay waste large parts of Telangana, was
defeated in a pitched battle.
Kondavidu, Kondapalli and Bellamkonda were under the possession of Achyuta Raya.
Sultan Quli attacked against these forts and seized them one after another. Achyuta Raya had
to sue for peace. He agreed to pay an annual tribute of three lakhs of hons to the Sultan. Later,
Sultan suppressed the revolt of Harichand, who held the fort of Nalgonda. The ruler of Bidar
surrendered Medak to Sultan Quli.
Sultan Quli was a military leader of exceptional qualities, a remarkable strategist and
powerful monarch. Starting his career as a bodyguard, he became the ruler of an extensive
kingdom which included large tract of coastal Andhra, Rayalaseema and Telangana. He ruled
for 24 years as governor and 26 years as sovereign.
A civil war broke out between his sons in the last days of his life, as result of which he
fell a prey to the machinations of his third son, Jamsheed. The latter hatched a powerful conspiracy
from inside the prison, got his father killed while engaged in his afternoon prayer and crowned
himself as king.
9.3.2 Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah (1543 – 1550 C.E.)

Jamsheed ruled for seven years. His reign was the ugliest chapter of Golconda history.
Mahmud Hamdani, whom Jamsheed employed to kill the Sultan, was himself murdered, so as
to draw the curtain and conceal the crime. Jamsheed killed him with his own hand. His younger
brother Ibrahim, sensing danger to his own life, fled to Bidar with a few hundred horsemen and
appraised its king of the situation. Ali Barid of Bidar, accompanied by Ibrahim laid siege to
Golconda with a large army. Jamsheed, in his turn sought the help of Burhan Nizam Shah of
Ahmadnagar. The latter invaded Ali Barid’s territory, as a result of which Ali Barid had withdraw
to Bidar. Ibrahim, finding that he was left in the lurch, fled to Vijayanagar, where he stayed till
the death of his brother.
Burhan Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar appealed to Jamsheed to help him in recovering
Sholapur from Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur. Jamsheed had to accede to his ally’s request.
Finding that Ali Barid joined hands with Ibrahim, Burhan made friends with Darya Imad Shah
of Berar. The allied forces of Bidar and Bijapur were defeated by the three confederate forces
of Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Berar. To overwhelm Ali Barid of Bidar, Jamsheed allied with
Bijapur and Ahmadnagar, whereupon the forces of Ahmadnagar captured Kandahar, an important
fort of Bidar. Unaware of this alliance, Ali Barid of Bidar sought the help of his old friend,
Ibrahim Ali Adil Shah. The latter treacherously imprisoned him and annexed a large part of the
Southern kingdom. Burhan Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar attacked Sholapur, a bone of contention
between Bijapur and Ahmadnagar for a long time. Both being equal in strength, each sought the
help of Jamsheed. The latter offered to assist Ibrahim on condition that he released the king of
Bidar. Ibrahim conceded the request. But, Jamsheed did not keep his word. Instead, he marched
against Bidar and replaced Ali Barid on the throne. The latter offered large presents to Jamsheed
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as a mark of gratitude. Later, Ali Barid with the help of Ibrahim Adil Shah, marched against
Kaulas, but was defeated by Jamsheed’s forces at Narayanakhed.
Taking an advantage of these feuds, Ramaraj of Vijayanagar took the initiative and
scored a victory over the Bijapur forces on the river Bhima. Ibrahim Adil Shah, finding that he
was backing the wrong horse, broke up the coalition by making concessions to Ahmadnagar
and Ramaraj. This resulted in an attack on the Golconda kingdom by the Bijapur forces. But,
soon Jamsheed asserted his superiority over all his rivals by his bravery, strategy and
Statesmanship.
Jamsheed died of cancer in 1550 A.D. After his death began a struggle for power
among the nobles. Some of them, headed by minister, Jagadeva Rao, and supported by all the
Naikwars, invited Ibrahim, the youngest brother of Jamsheed, who was taking shelter at
Vijayanagar for seven years when Ramaraj was the ruler of that kingdom. Ibrahim returned to
Golconda, accompanied by Ramaraj upto a spot of 25 miles of Vijayanagar. At Koilakonda he
received grand welcome.
9.3.3 Ibrahim-Quli-Qutb Shah (1550 – 1580 C.E.)

After the death of Jamsheed Quli, political confusion prevailed in the kingdom, Subhan
Quli, a seven year old son of late Sultan was declared as the new Sultan by his mother and
some selfish nobles.
Under these conditions, Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah, the youngest son of Sultan Quli, the
founder of the kingdom, returned to Golconda with the help of Aliya Ramaraya, the de-facto
ruler of Vijayanagar. During the three decades rule of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah, the glory of
Golconda enhanced in every field. He was the contemporary of great Mughal emperor Akbar.
Friendly, diplomatic relations existed between Golconda and Mughal rulers.
In interState relations he relied more on craft than on valour. In 1557 Ibrahim joined
hands with Ahmadnagar and laid siege to Gulbarga which belonged to Bijapur. But, soon he
raised the siege on the request of Bijapur and the advice of Ramaraj, his old friend. Soon after,
he joined Bijapur and Vijayanagar in besieging Ahmadnagar. He cemented his friendship with
Ramaraj by sending an armed force against his two rebel brothers and seized the fort of Adoni
from their hands. He supported Ramaraj, in spite of the asylum he had given to Jagdeva Rao,
his traitorous general, and on his advice helped Bijapur in his effort to recover Sholapur and
Kalyan from Ahmadnagar. It is reported that the Hindu and Muhammadan forces laid waste
the whole area from Parenda to Junnar and from Ahmadnagar to Daulatabad; Vijayanagar
forces insulted the honour of Mussalman women and destroyed the mosques in a number of
places.
The united forces of Golconda and Ahmadnagar now invested Kalyani, which belonged
to Bijapur. Finding no alternative, the Sultan of Bijapur sought the help of Ramaraj. The two
armies proceeded against Kalyani and forced the invaders to raise the siege. It is related that
the Vijayanagar army again laid waste the countryside and perpetrated atrocities against
Muhammadans and their religion. When Ramaraj sent his son and two renegades of Golconda,
Jagdeva Rao and Amin-ul-Mulk , to ravage the country around Golconda, Ibrahim had to sign a
treaty under which the forts of Pangal and Ghanpur were ceded to Vijayanagar. The treaty left
Ramaraj supreme in the South. He subjugated Bijapur, subdued Ahmadnagar and occupied a
number of Qutb Shahi forts.
This State of affairs foreboded ruin to the Deccan Sultanates. They came to realise
the disastrous consequences of disunity and began to take steps to bring about unity among
themselves. Four of the five Sultanates-Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda and Bidar joined hands
to come together and liquidate Vijayanagar. The first three were in forefront. A brief account of
the battle that was fought in December 1565 A.D (Rakshasi-Tangidi) between Vijayanagar on
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one side and the allied forces the other, as well as the reasons for the fall of Vijayanagar, has
been given elsewhere.
After the fall of Vijayanagar, the capital was shifted to Penukonda and Sadasiva became
the emperor. The struggle between Sadasiva and his brother Tirumala ended in the murder of
the former and the accession of the latter. The provincial chiefs became virtually independent.
In the far South an almost continuous civil war raged between the Nayaks of Madura, Tanjore
and Jinjee. The great coalition which had liquidated the power of Vijayanagar disappeared
within five years of the battle of Rakshasi-Tangdi.
At Penukonda, Tirumala was succeeded by his son, Sriranga-I. Finding that his authority
ceased to exist in the territory around Rajahmundry, which was parcelled out by a number of
chieftains, Ibrahim Qutb Shah sent an expedition against them, the chief of whom were Sitapati
and Vidyadhar. Both of them were forced to surrender the fort of Rajahmundry. After that,
Ibrahim, forces marched to the North occupied Kasimkota and subjugated the whole of Southern
Orissa, which included Potnur, the farthest limit of the Qutb Shahi kingdom in the North.
In 1579 Ibrahim captured Udayagiri, the capital of a province of Vijayanagar. It was
one of the strongest forts in the region. Next, Vinukonda, Kocharlakota and Cumbum were
subjugated. Kondavidu fell after a heavy bombardment in April 1579. He supported Ahmadnagar
in investing Sholapur, which had been presented to Bijapur as dowry of Princess Chand Bibi.
The Allied forces marched against Bijapur, the capital of the kingdom. The allied commanders
requested Ibrahim Qutb Shah to direct the campaign himself. But, the Sultan expired by that
time in 1580.
9.3.4 Muhammad-Quli-Qutb Shah (1580 – 1612 C.E.)

During the reign of Muhammad Quli, the conflict with Bijapur continued. The main
army planned the capture of Bijapur, whose citadel was defended by Chandi Bibi, the brave
widow of Ali Adil Shah. Local revolts of Kondavidu, Nandyal, Gandikota and other places were
suppressed. Expedition sent by Vijayanagar was defeated by the Golconda forces. Mohammad
Quli’s army crossed the Krishna and attacked the fort of Muslimadugu, a place famous for
diamond mines in its neighbourhood, and subjugated it. Next, Nandyal and Velgode were
overpowered, and then Sirvel, Jammalamadugu and Chennur. Hande Hanumappa of Anantapur,
a fief –holder under the Qutb Shahis, attacked the famous temple of Ahobilam and plundered it
of the jewels belonging to the idol.
This was the period when the Mughal influence began to be felt in the Deccan. The
Sultan of Ahmadnagar appealed to Bijapur and Golconda to join hands in a common struggle
against the Mughals. They both agreed to the proposal and sent large armies in support of
Ahmadnagar. But, before they reached Ahmadnagar, the Mughals, occupied the city. This
happened in December 1595. But, the fort of Ahmadnagar did not yield, thanks to the strong
resistance of the defenders who fought under the leadership of Chand Bibi. A treaty was
concluded according to which Berar was ceded to the Mughals, leaving the bulk of the Nizam
Shahi territory intact. A decisive battle was fought at Sonapet in January 1597 between
Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar on one side and the Mughals on the other. The conflict
resulted in the flight of the allies. Ahmadnagar fell in 1600 A.D. Chand Bibi sought to enter into
a treaty with the Mughals. But, they refused. The valourous heroine was murdered. The whole
of the Nizam Shahi territory was as good as gone.
During the closing years of his reign, Muhammad Quli quelled the revolt of the
commandant of Kondavidu, carried on a long drawn guerilla war against Bijapur and besieged
Penukonda, the Vijayanagar capital. The siege was raised on false promises made by Venkata-
II. As a result, Muhammad Quli had to retrace his steps. He was forced to surrender the great
fortress of Gandikota.
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Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah received the envoy of Akbar, Masood Baig with great
respect. He sent costly gifts to the Mughal emperor. Friendship continued till Akbar’s death in
1605 C.E. Jahangir’s attacks on Golconda caused damage to their friendship. Muhammad-
Quli-Qutb Shah died in the year 1612 C.E.
9.3.5 Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612 – 1626 C.E.)

Sultan Muhammad-Qutb Shah, son of Mirza Muhammad Amin and nephew of
Muhammad Quli, became the Sultan of Golconda in November, 1612 C. E. He married Hayat-
Baksh Begum, the daughter of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah. He ruled for fourteen years.
Muhammad Qutb Shah’s mother was ‘Khanam Agha’. She belonged to the family of Imam
Musakhajim, the head of the Shia sect.
Malik Ambar continued his valiant fight against Jahangir’s forces. The Sultans of Bijapur
and Golconda signed a treaty with the Mughals, agreeing to pay peshkash. They loaded the
Mughal envoy with priceless presents. Thus, left alone, the slave general of Ahmadnagar had
no alternative but to withdraw from Ahmadnagar after occupying it for 10 years. Ahmadnagar
signed a treaty, according to which he had pay a tribute of twelve lakhs; Bijapur had to pay
eighteen and Golconda twenty lakhs.
The court intrigues at Delhi, followed by the revolt of Shah Jahan against his father,
saved the Deccan. ShahJahan took refuge at Daulatabad, negotiating for Deccan Sultan’s
help. The king of Golconda, while pretending neutrality, helped ShahJahan with cash and cereals.
Sultan Mohammad encouraged the Dutch and the English to establish their trade centres
on the east coast and strengthen them by fortifications. The Dutch had their factories, at
Machilipatanam, Nizampatanam, Pulicat and Nagapatnam. These centres were intended to
organise the production, purchase and sale of a large variety of textiles, spices and miscellaneous
articles saleable abroad, especially in South East Asia, Middle East and Europe.
Sultan Mohammad Quli died in January 1626 A.D. Malik Amber died four months
after, and Jahangir one and half years later. With the death of these three, a new chapter was
opened in the history of the Deccan. Conditions became more favourable than ever for the
Mughal rulers to subjugate the three Sultanates of the Deccan-Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and
Golconda.
9.3.6 Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626 – 1672 C.E.)

Abdullah Qutb Shah, the eldest son of Sultan Mohammad, ascended the throne after
the death of his father. At the age of fifteen years, Abdullah Qutb Shah ascended the throne of
Golconda. His mother Hayat Baksh Begum managed the affairs of the State in his early years.
She used all her experience to run the administration. He continued his father’s policy of
maintaining friendly relations with the Shah of Iran, striking gold and silver coins in his own
name reciting the names of the twelve Shiate imams as against the four caliphs, etc.
A farman, known as the deed of submission was sent to Abdullah Qutb Shah by the
Mughal emperor ShahJahan in the same year., demanding the omission of the Shah of Iran in
Friday prayers, payment of a stipulated peshkash, recitation of the names of the four caliphs of
the Sunni faith, introduction of coins in the name of the emperor and declaration that his friends
would be the same as the emperor’s and his enemies also the same. Abdulla Qutb Shah paying
the first instalment of peshkash amounting to eight lakhs of hons, followed by rich presents,
which included 100 elephants, 50 horses and jewels worth four lakhs. Bijapur suffered the
same fate as Golconda.
Muhmmad Syed Mir Jumla, the Prime Minister of Golconda rebelled against his master
and joined the camp of the Mughals. he conspired with Aurangzeb, the viceroy of the Deccan,
to invade Golconda. The Mughal armies entered the Deccan in 1655 AD and took possession
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of Hyderabad. Aurangzeb reached Golconda in 1656 and laid siege to the fortress. Abdullah
promised the marriage of his eldest daughter to Prince Muhammad, the son of Aurangzeb,
ceded Ramgir as a part of the dowry and offered ten lakhs of hons as indemnity to be paid in
three instalments. As a result of this submission the Mughal army withdrew from Golconda.
Sivaji triumphed over Bijapur and Golconda and became the master of the Maharashtra
territory which he had brought under control. Shivaji was permitted in 1669 to collect levy
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in the Kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda.
The Qutb Shahi Sultans pursued a policy of granting concessions to the European
traders. English factory at Machilipatnam had to be shifted to Armagoan in 1628. Later, it was
brought back to Machilipatnam. In 1639 the English established a factory at Madras by an
arrangement with a local Zamindar, Damerla Venkatadri Naidu. One Francis Day constructed
a fortress and built a wall round the island. A large native settlement arose outside the island,
formed by weavers and others. This was called the Black town. Both the white and black
towns were included under the general name of Madraspatnam. In 1643 a lease was granted
by Rajah of Chandragiri, exempting the Company from the payment of import and export
duties. In 1645 a renewed grant was obtained from Golconda. But, the lease became invalid in
1646 when the Qutb Shah conquered the whole of Coromandel. Mir Jumla gave a new lease to
the Company. In 1658 all factories on Coromandel and Bengal were made subordinate to
Madraspatnam, known as St. George. In 1662 Neknam Khan, the Governor of the Karnataka,
recovered Santhome from the Dutch, who had seized it from the Portuguese. Neknam Khan
refused the Company a new lease. After ten years, he blockaded Madras, as a result of which
the Company surrendered. It paid 11,000 hons as arrears, promised to pay 12,000 hons per year
towards rent and 4200 hons per year towards customs. Abdullah Qutb Shah died in 1672 AD.
9.3.7 Abul-Hasan-Tanashah (1672 – 1687 C.E.)

Abul Hasan, known as Tanasha, succeeded to the throne with a treasury containing
fifty crores and five lakhs of hons. He had in his service two brothers, Madanna and Akkanna,
the former his Prime Minister and the latter the Minister of armed forces. They slowly filled the
high offices of the kingdom with their own co-religionists. One of their nephews, Gopanna, is
known in history as Ramadas. Being the revenue officer of Palwancha pargana, he spent large
sums of money belonging to the State on the famous temple of Badrachalam.
In 1672 i.e, at the time of Abul Hasan’s accession, Sivaji was at the height of his power
in Maharashtra. Pretending to be a strong supporter of the independence of the Deccan, he
collected twenty lakhs of hons from the Qutb Shahi king. In 1677, when the Mughals invaded
Golconda, Bijapur joined the Mughal forces, thus helping the Mughals extract one crore of
rupees and ten thousand horses from Golconda. In the same year, Sivaji entered into an agreement
with Abul Hasan for dividing his father’s jagirs between himself and his half brother by resorting
to a military campaign.
Aurangzeb’s charges against Hasan happened to be; appointment of Madanna as the
Prime Minister, subjecting Muslims to Madanna’s un-Islamic rule; implementation of Hindu
rules in place of Islamic ones; toleration of vices and immorality; sex indulgence and alliance
with the Maharashtra. The terms of surrender handed over to Hasan were one crore and
twenty lakhs for settlement of arrears; annual payment of two lakhs of hons as peshkash;
removal of Akkanna and Madanna from State service. Hasan refused to surrender. Remaining
inside the fort, he organised resistance. Akkanna and Madanna, according to one version, were
murdered by the nobles and members of the harem. The siege of Golconda began in January
1687 and lasted for eight months.
Some of the generals of Golconda played a treacherous role in the besiegers in the
dead of night, resulting in the empire collapse of defence. Hasan was captured and detained in
the Daultabad fort for the rest of his life. He died in 1700 after a hunger strike for several days.
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9.4 ADMINISTRATION OF QUTB SHAHIS
The administrative system that was introduced by Qutb Shah Sultans is unique in its
nature and structure. They provided sound and popular administration in the Deccan.
Central Government
A) Sultan
Sultan was the head of State in the Qutb Shahi administration. He enjoyed extensive
powers. He claimed divine right, calling himself ‘Zillullah’ (the image of God). As the
Head of the State, he was the Chief of all organs of power-legislature, judiciary and
executive. He was the only law-giver, the Supreme Commander of the armed forces.
He lived in a grand style and very rarely came out of his palace to receive very important
guests.
According to an envoy of Shah Abbas of Persia, who visited the court of Abdullah-
Qutb Shah in the year 1636-37 C.E., was very much surprised to see the Sultan’s
Palace, his dress, headwear which are studded with costly diamonds and gems. Even
the ministers and high officials of Sultan also lived in a grand building. The events like
the birthday or marriages or victory celebrations were held in a grand way in the court.
The Qutb Shahi Sultans received costly presents from foreign rulers on such occasions.
B) Council of Ministers (Majlis-i-Diwandari)
In the Qutb Shahi Kingdom, after Sultan, Council and its members played key role in
the administration. It consisted of powerful and high officials and ministers. All its
members respected the Council and its laws. During Ibrahim-Quli-Qutb Shahs reign,
the Council became popularly known as ‘Majlis-i-Kingash’. It used to meet only on
emergency issues. During the period of Abdullah-Qutb Shah, Majlis-i-Diwandari
attained complete perfection. It used to meet every day. The Sultan also promoted
some of the members of Majlis to the positions of ambassadors. Abdullah Qutb Shah
promoted his minister (Ain-ul-mulk) ‘Yusuf Shah’ as the Qutb Shahi ambassador at the
Court of Jahangir in 1630 C.E.
Peshwa or Vakil or Prime Minister

The head of the administration was the Peshwa, and perhaps the most renowned of all
the Peshwas of the reign was Shaikh Muhammad Surnamed Ibn-i-Khatun. The Peshwa was
paid an amount of twelve thousand Hons as salary. By the period of Abul Hassan-Tanashah,
the Peshwas, post was converted into Diwan. Madanna was the last Diwan of the Golconda
Kingdom. Peshwa was assisted in his job by many high officials and employees. Peshwa used
to live in a grand building with many workers.
Meer-Jumla (Finance Minister)

Next to the Peshwa came Jumlat-ul-Mulk or, as he was popularly called, Mir Jumla.
Mir Jumla was the head of Finance Department in Qutb Shahi administration. His main duty is
to collect the various types of taxes and customs. He enjoyed the power to allocate the required
amount to each department. He used to supervise the accounts of all the departments. Mir-
Momin, Mansur Khan Habashi (Abdullah reign), Muhammad Said Ardistani were some famous
men who held the post of Mir-Jumla under different Qutb Shahi Sultans.
Ain-ul-Mulk
He was the Minister in-charge of Military Affairs. Appointment of various army officials,
soldiers, training etc are his main duties. He also used to prepare the war strategies. Taraf level
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military officers were also appointed by him. Sultan’s position and safety of the kingdom depended
upon the efficiency of this department. Trusted and experienced persons like Saif-Khan, and
Mansoor-Khan held this office.
Nazir
The main duty of Nazir is to inculcate in people, respect towards ethics, laws, Sultan
and his policies. Sometimes he also maintained law and order. During Muhammad-Quli’s period,
Abu-Talib held the post of Nazir. Meer-Qasim worked as Nazir under Abdullah-Qutb Shah.
Majumdar
He was the Account – General, the entire kingdom. His staff used to check the accounts
of all the Departments. Qutb Shahi Sultans preferred Hindus for this post. Narayan Rao was
Abdullah-Qutb Shah’s Majumdar.
Dabir
The office of Dabir is known as Diwan-e-Insha. His main job is the translation of the
farmans issued by Sultan and sending them to Tarafdars and other heads of the Departments.
Stamping of the farmans approved by the Sultan and Council is also his duty. Qazi-Muzaffar
Ali, Moulana-Owaisi held this position and did good work.
Kotwal
One of the most important of Central Officers was the Kotwal or Commissioner of
Police. The accounts of Tavernier, Thevenot and Berniar appreciated the systematic functioning
of Police department and its staff. The internal, and external traders were provided full security
by the Police. The Police used to check each person entering into the capital city. Along with
his main function of keeping law and order, he was also supreme judge of the city.
Sarkhel
Sarkhel was the Chief Revenue Officer at the Capital and had a large jurisdiction over
the districts and provinces. . He also exercised his extensive powers over provincial officers.
Sarkhel also supervised the work and activities of foreign traders in the East-Coast. He provided
security to them.
Hawaldar
He was the incharge of Government godowns, stables of horses and elephants. The
Golconda Sultans appointed trusted men as Hawaldars.
Provincial Administration
The Qutb Shahi Sultans, like all the medieval rulers, also divided their vast kingdom into
number of Tarafs. Each taraf was ruled by tarafdar (Governor). The officers in charge of the
Sarkars and Paraganas were called fauzdars; they were assisted by hawaldars. During the
period of Abdullah-Qutb Shah there were six Tarafs in the kingdom. Vinkonda, Kondapalli,
Masulipatnam, Eluru, Rajahmundry, Visakhapatnam, Bellamkonda etc., are important tarafs of
the kingdom. The Sarkars were called Simi.
During the period of last Golconda Sultan. Abul-Hasan-Tanashah, the entire Golconda
kingdom was divided into 37 Sarkars and 517 Parganas. The head of the port-town was known
as Shah Bandhar. The right to collect land revenue was granted by Sultan to highest bidders in
auction method. Those who got such revenue collection rights are known as ‘Mustagirs’.
Machilipatnam fletched yearly more than one lakh eighty thousand pagodas.
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Local Government
The Qutb Shahi Sultans divided the provinces and Smits into small size units. Villages
stood as the foundation step of the entire administration. In the Farmans of Qutb Shahis, the
names such as Deshpande, Deshmukh, Thandedar, Sthalakami etc., are mentioned. The head
of the village was called as ‘Muqaddam’. Kullkarni was Village Accountant. Deshpande was
Pargana level Accounts Officer.
9.5 MILITARY SYSTEM OF QUTB SHAHIS

The Qutb Shahi Sultans organised their military system on the model of Bahmani Sultans
with minor changes. Strong and efficient army was maintained by Qutb Shahis. Standing army
was under the direct control of Sultan. It was stationed at the capital city. The armies of
Golconda Sultans faced the strong challenge of contemporary Deccani Sultans, Vijayanagara
and Mughal rulers. The Military Department was headed by Ain-ul-Mulk. The Sultan granted
Jagirs to Tarafdars to maintain fixed number of armed forces. The Qutb Shahi army consisted
of Hindus, Muslims and Iranis. The Qutb Shahis allocated huge amount from their treasury or
revenue to maintain their army. According to one version, during the period of Abdul-Hassan-
Tanashah, an amount of eight lakhs, eighty four thousand four hundred and seventy seven Hons
were spent to pay the salaries of army every year. All the forts were well built and stationed
under the control of experienced Fort Commander. Srilaskhar used to lead the army during
campaigns.
9.6 JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The Qutb shahi Sultans managed the legal system, honouring the Hindu (local) and
Islamic laws. They made arrangements from village level to deal with the civil and criminal
cases. Qazis, Moulvis and Hindu Pandits played key role in solving the different cases. Special
Courts were also established by Qutb Shahi Sultans. Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah founded
Dadmahal and Aman-Mahal was founded by Abdullah Qutb Shah. The Sultan used to attend
these special courts once in a week. He used to listen the different cases and delivered the
judgments with the help of Qazis and Pandits. French travellers Tavernier and Bernier also
appreciated the Qutb Shahi judicial system. According to them, the judges and Sultans also
delivered judgments without any fear or favour.
9.7 LAND REVENUE SYSTEM

An inscription on a stone at Malkapuram in Guntur district records the extent of land in
each of the 19 villages included in the Ravipudi sthala as measured by the standard rope of 38
cubits, “the measurement having been made by the villagers themselves, by mutual agreement,
under the order of Ibrahim Qutb Shah. Under Qutb Shahi rule, the cultivators used a standard
rope for measuring the land.
Most of the villages were held under the mirasi tenure. The word mirasi is derived
from miras, which means hereditary right. The farmans of the Qutb Shahis contain references
to twelve ayagars, holding lands under hereditary tenure. They were called balutiyan. There
were twelve of them- the patel or headman, the kulkarni or accountant, the chaudari or head
of the traders, the potadar or money changer, the despandya or district accountant, the nahani
or barbe, the parit or washerman, the gurav or temple attendant, the sutar or carpenter, the
kumbhar or potter, the vesanar or gatekeeper and the joshi or astrologer.
The Qutb Shahis followed on the footsteps of their predecessors in recognizing the
right of owning lands by private individuals. One Malik Mishk endowed “all the lands in the
village Atapur, purchased from him, Mir Malik from special sources, as also from trees in the
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cultivated and other land. Land disputes and remeasurements of lands were natural under such
circumstances. An inscription at Devulachervu in Madanapalle taluk, Chittor district, records
the measurement of certain land in that village, about which there was a dispute.
During Qutb Shahi period, agriculture was the primary occupation of the majority
people. Land Revenue was the chief source of income to the imperial treasury. The Qutb Shahi
Sultans, like the Kakatiyas, made sincere attempts to encourage agriculture by constructing
number of tanks, canals etc. Under Qutb Shahi’s the peasants lived in peace. Tax burden was
normal. A contemporary scholar Girdharilal Asqar in his work Tariq-e-Zafrah described the
total revenue of the State 82, 95, 196 hons in 1685-86 from 22 Sarkars. Changed into rupees at
the Stated rate of Rs. 3 per hon, this comes to about Rs. 2,47,85,529. To this figure must be
added the revenue of the 16 Sarkars (162 paraganas) of newly acquired Karnataka region,
amounting to about 26,75,498 hons.
From the above information, we can conclude that Sikkol Sarkar with 115 Parganas
was the largest Sarkar in the entire Qutb Shahi Kingdom. The smallest Sarkar was Melangur
with three Paraganas. The highest revenue to the State treasury came from Kovilkonda i.e.,
10,510,517,14 Annas.
The Golconda Sultan also received revenue from diamond mines. The diamond-mines
were given on lease to contractors. According to eminent historian Siddiqui, the total revenue of
Golconda Sultan from all the sources was 5 crores. After expenses, Sultan saved nearly 1 crore
per year.

1. Who was the founder of Qutb Shahi dynasty
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2. The battle of Rakshasa Tangidi was fought in the year
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9.8 SOCIO-RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS

The Qutb Shahi Sultans tried to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity through their liberal policies.
Tariq-e-Ferishta, Tariq-e-Qutb Shah, Burhan-e-Masir and Telugu works like Thapathi
Samvaranophakyanam, Yayathi Charita, Vaijayanthi Vilasam, Sukasapthati,
Hamsavimsathi, etc., are giving details about the social life of the people of those times.
According to eminent historian H.K. Sherwani, Palavekiri Kadiripathi, in his work
Sukasapthati described in detail, the socio-religious life of Telangana people. He provided
some useful and interesting details about the Brahmins, Vaishyas and Sudras. He discussed in
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detail the dress, food habits, houses, marriages, daily activities of all the sections of society. He
said brahmins were engaged in ritual work, trade and agriculture. He also described the dress
of Karnam, and Reddy. The Hindus employed in various positions at the Court Service of
Sultan used to wear long size of Silk Pyzamas, and Kurthas. Even some of them used to wear
the long cloth cap on their head.
In Sukasapthati, Kadiripathi described the dress, jewellery, and sarees of women. They
used to wear many types of gold ornaments and costly sarees. The Vaishyas are engaged in
trade.
In the society large number of sub-castes also emerged during this age. Kapu, Reddy,
Velama, Balija, Carpenters, Weavers, Blacksmiths, Boys, Potter, Tailor, Fishermen, Washermen,
Barbers etc., played significant role in the society. Social-evils like child-miserable are prevalent.
They used to work in fields and in the houses of rich people.
Women Position
In general the position of women during Qutb Shahi period was not so good. The
contemporary Telugu writer Ponnaganti Telanganarya in his work Yayathi Charitha described
the condition of women. She was only respected in domestic life. But, outside women was not
given any freedom. She lived under the control of husband or mother-in-laws. The position of
widows was very pathetic. Purdah system was followed by Hindu and Muslim women. Foreign
travellers like Tavernier, Methwold and Frair etc., in their accounts wrote that women were
considered as a means of enjoyment by Sultans and their officials. Child marriages, sati,
prostitution, and devadasi system are common evils. Women of royal families like Hayat Bakshi
Begum, and Chand Bibi excelled in fine arts and politics. Women were engaged in caste-based
profession like weaving. There is not much information about women, education. In generals
girls were given training in dance, music and painting etc. Polygamy was a common feature
among the Hindus and Muslims. The courtesans were patronised by the ruling class.
Regarding women, Frayer says that Hindu women moved about freely, whereas Muslims,
out of jealousy, guarded their wives from the view of others. When they went out, they were
carried in closed palanquins.” the meanest among them not permitting their women to stir.
Polygamy was permitted, but not generally practiced. Monogamy was the rule, as per
as the masses were concerned. According to Methold, adultery was not common, but punishable
in women. Child-marriages were the rule. According to Methold, marriages were celebrated
when the husband was five years old and the wife not above three. He described the condition
of widows that “they were made the drudge to the whole family, not permitted to wear their
jewel, good or cleaned clothes, or upon occasion to go abroad (at least upon pleasure); and this,
with most of them, together with a reverend respect they bear to the reputation of their house,
mortifies them after a strange manner; yet some cannot contain but they flew out, and forsaking
their father’s house, brand it with a lasting obloquy, by their looser lives, keeping themselves at
distance, for if convenient their kindred would poison them”.
The courtesans continued to enjoy the patronage of the ruling class. According to
Tavernier, there were 20,000 of them in the city and the fort of Golconda. Licenses were issued
to those who practiced the profession. But, no tribute was collected by the king. They were
obliged to attend the court every Friday and entertain the king and his nobles. They not only
kept their doors open for their customers but also ran liquor shops near their houses. The king
received considerable revenue by the sale of such liquor. “And for that reason he permits so
many common women, in regard it is for their sake that so much tari is consumed.
The devadasis enjoyed a privileged position in society, as they had been enjoying for
centuries. This, according to Bowrey, was due to the fact that they were permitted to enjoy
earthly pleasures to the utmost without any scandal to themselves or to their families. This was
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the reason, according to him, which dissuaded them from leading a married life which involved
loyalty to a jealous husband, obligation to burn her on his death or lead a life of drudgery as a
widow.
Religious Conditions
Qutb Shahi Sultans adopted a policy of toleration, and even of encouragement, to
Hinduism and the Hindu subjects. Abul Hasan donated Bhadrachalam, Shankargiri and
Palwancha to the Ramadas temple at Bhadrachalam, founded in 1652 AD. Similarly, he gave
three villages Bhogapuram, Cherukuru and Veerannapatnam for the maintenance of
Malleswaraswami temple situated on the river Krishna. Abdullah granted a field as amaram in
the village Chundi, situated in Kandukuru sima, to a person belonging to the valmiki caste “in
order that we may keep in good repair the temples in our sima”.
Qutb Shahi sultans participated in Hindu festivals. Hindus celebrated Vijayadasami,
Deepawali, Sankranti, Holi, Yekadasi, and Shivaratri etc. People visit Srisailam, Bhadrachalam,
Tirupati, Bezwada and Hanamkonda and performed pooja to respective deity.
Muslim festivals called Shab-i-barat celebrated a fortnight before the Ramzan, resembles
Diwali with men, women and children playing with fireworks. Nuroz and Basant are celebrated
in the dynasty. Ramazan and Bakrid festivals are celebrated by the Muslims in the kingdom.
Muharram was celebrated by both the Muslims and Hindus in different parts of the
State. Qutb Shahi Sultans constructed alms-house in different parts of the Teugu country.
Bibika Chesma, Bibika Alam, Bibi Fathima, Imam Hasan and Imam Hussain etc are important
alams. All section of people performed Dua and submit different varieties of flowers, dup
sticks, jaggery and others etc.

The contemporary literature gives us detailed information about the economy of
Golconda Kingdom. It was one of the richest Kingdoms in Medieval period in the Deccan. Two
main factors contributed to its richness. Firstly, the natural wealth of the kingdom, specially the
diamond mines of the Golconda State. Secondly, the fertile coastal land, water source and brisk
foreign trade carried through Machilipatnam port with Central Asia and European countries.
Agriculture and Irrigational Facilities

The Qutb Shahi Sultans and their officials encouraged agriculture. Agriculture was the
primary occupation of the people. The Qutb Shahi Sultans, like the earlier Kakatiya Rulers,
realised the importance of construction and maintenance of small and big irrigational works.
Many tanks of Kakatiya times were repaired by Qutb Shahis. During the period of Ibrahim Quli
Qutb Shah, Hissain Sagar tank, Budwel tank and Ibrahimpatnam tank etc were constructed.
Peasants and people used water from the above tanks for agriculture and drinking purpose. A
tank was built at ‘Durg’ just five kilometers from the Golconda fort. Its water was supplied to
royal family and officials through hydrological engineering skill. Maa Sahab Tank was built by
Khanam Agha (popularly known as Masehaba) near Saifabad to supply the water for local
public.
Agriculture was the chief occupation of the majority population of the kingdom. The
Sultans also extended liberal support to peasants by construction, repairing tanks and canals.
The agricultural land was divided into two categories viz., Zamindari lands. The agricultural
work was carried by peasants between June to October. Commercial crops like cotton, jute,
pulses, fruits, flowers were grown on large scale. In Telangana region, fruits and flowers were
grown on large scale. Thevenot in his account described the different verities of grapes cultivated
in Telangana region by the peasants. Eluru in coastal Andhra was famous for indigo cultivation.
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Qutb Shahi Sultans also instructed their officials, and employees at Village, Sarkar,
Pargana and Taraf level to protect and maintain local tanks and canals. The officials engaged
in this task were given extra salaries. An inscription dated 1551 C.E., States that Ibrahim Quli
Qutb Shah repaired the ‘Pangal’ tank and ‘Udaya Samudram’ tank during his reign. The Sultan
also ordered that from the total product under these two tanks, king was given 1% share,
peasants 1 ½% share, 1% share to brahmins, are 1% share to Soldiers was allocated. The
officials of Qutb Shahi Sultans like Rahmatullah, Anthoji (Hawaldar) also encouraged repairing
works of tanks, canals in the Nellore region. As a result, area of agricultural land was increased.
This contributed to the increase in agricultural production. Thus, Qutb Shahi Sultans became a
model to all their successive rulers by encouraging agriculture and by construction, and repairing
tanks, canals etc.
Industries of Golconda Kingdom

Diamond cutting, diamond polishing, textile industry, carpets industry, ship-building
industry, salt peter industry, Iron and Steel industry and Kalamkari industry are important industries
of Qutb Shahi period. Skilled and trained persons are only engaged in these industries and
production. After agriculture, few sections depended upon these industries at rural and urban
level to carry their livelihood.
Diamonds of Golconda and Diamond Industry

Golconda Kingdom became very famous for its best quality diamonds. The diamonds
of Golconda enjoyed great demand in European market. ‘Kollur’ in Krishna, Ramallakota
(Kurnool), Gollapalli, Mallavalli, Vajrakarur are famous for their best quality diamonds. According
to French traveler Tavernier, even during Vijayanagar times also, these diamond mines were in
operation. In the year 1640 C.E., when Tavernier visited the famous Kollur mine, nearly sixty
thousand workers are engaged in the digging, cleaning, drying of diamonds. Men, women and
children were also engaged in the mining work. World famous diamonds like Kohinoor, Hope,
Pitt, Pigot, Nizam etc., are found in the diamond mines of Golconda Kingdom.
Textile Industry
The textiles, of Golconda enjoyed great demand in the European market. The textiles
of various nature and excellent quality were produced by the weavers of Golconda. After
fulfilling the local needs, they were exported to outside the county. The textiles of Golconda
were known for their colours and quality. Red, blue, and white colour textiles were sold in long
bundles. The plain cotton cloth, Muslin Calico and Lungees are manufactured in different parts
of Golconda kingdom. Muslins were fine or superfine, made principally for internal consumption.
Calicoes were a stout cloth in various qualities, depending on the finess of the yarn and the
number of threads per inch. Many types of flowers, leaves were used in printing various pictures
on textiles, sarees, etc. Chintz cloth was very popular in the kingdom, Kalankari cloth was
produced by expertise weavers at Masulipatnam, Palakollu and Nizampatnam. At
Narasampuram, best quality calico cloth was produced by weavers. In contemporary literature
was mentioned the variety of textiles like Maslin, Salempuri, Palampur, etc. Sultans and officials
purchased costly dress material.
Carpet Industry
Golconda kingdom was famous for best quality carpets. Warangal carpets earned a
special place in the market. Mettawada, Girmajipeta Hasanparthy areas of Warangal,
Machiliptanam and Elloru were inhabited by many Muslim carpet weaving families. The raw
material required for carpet making was available in large quantity in Telangana.
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Ship Building Industry
English and other merchants got their ships built every year at Narsapuram,
Bheemunipatnam and Machilipatnam. The foreign travel accounts of Methwold and Shorer
also referred about the big and small size ships, prepared by experienced workers at Narsapur.
Best quality teak wood and iron was used in their making. The Dutch trading vessels were built
at Bhimilipatnam, Narsapur, Machilipatnam and Pulicat.
Saltpeter Industry
Saltpeter industry also flourished under Qutb Shahis. It was preparation powder to be
used in guns of firing. Masulipatnam, Narsapuram, and Pulicat are famous for Saltpeter products.
9.10 TRADE AND COMMERCE

During the Qutb Shahi period, internal and external trade was in a flourishing condition.
Vaishyas or Komatis played active role in internal and external trade. Arab traders and Portuguese
traders supplied best breed horses to Qutb Shahis. Telugu works Sukasapthati and
Hamsavimsati are providing details about external trade of this age. After the advent of European
trading companies into Qutb Shahi kingdom, Masulipatnam, Kondapalli, Narasapuram, Madras,
and Golconda have emerged as famous trading centers. Internal trade was carried on bullock-
carts, oxen, donkeys, tangas. Masulipatnam, Motupalli, Narasapuram etc., are chief ports of
the kingdom From Masulipatnam Port best quality textiles were exported to European countries.
Vasumata and Visnudasa are two rich traders of this period. Pilgrimage centers like Tirupati,
Srisailam, Srikalahasti also became famous trading centers. Golconda, Hyderabad, Warangal,
Masulipatnam, Kondapalli, Penugonda are main urban centers. Rural economy was in a good
condition. Weekly fairs or angadis used to be held every week in big and small villages. Trade
links between present Telangana. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and
Bengal flourished. ‘Perikas’ carried goods, grain etc., from place to place in jute sacks on their
heads or oxen. The traders of Golconda maintained trade relations with the tradesmen of
Gulbarga, Aurangabad, Bijapur and Madras. The rural level products were sold out in the local
markets or angadis. Artisans and traders also migrated from place to place on trade pursuits.
Ship-building industry flourished at Narsapur and Masulipatnam, Nirmal and Indur were famous
for Iron industry Best quality swords were produced here. Hyderabad via Nalgonda, Kondapalli,
and Vijayawada traders used to reach Machilipatnam.
The Qutb Shahi Sultans encouraged trade by extending many tax concessions and
facilities to traders. They provided security to traders and their merchandise. They appointed
special officers to check the weights and measurements to protect public from any type of
cheating by traders. The chief currency of Qutb Shahi kingdom was Honnu, a gold coin.
Foreigners described it as ‘Pagoda’. Panam, Thaar, Kasu are other units of Qutb Shahi currency.
Karkhanas are established by Sultans to produce clothes and other needed articles for the
royal family. Among the exports of this period, dress, cloth, diamonds, carpets, indigo, best
quality swords etc., occupied important place. The chief imports from Arabia, Central Asia and
Europe include horses, spices, gold, lead, dates and crockery.

Qutb Shahis rulers remained well educated, administrators, and they loved language
and literature. They were good poets. During Qutb Shahi rule, Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and
Telugu languages were developed. Many books were written in different languages during the
period. Qutb Shahis encouraged Persian language. It was State official language.
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The Golconda Sultans encouraged and served for the development of Urdu language.
Culture of Deccan is different from the Mughals. Deccan Sultans patronised several poets and
writers. Makeemi, Gawasi and Mulla Nasrani were patronised by Qutb Shahis. During Ibrahim
Qutb Shah reign, Firoz Muhammad and Mulla Qiyali, were great poets. Firoz had written Tasif
Nama. Muhammad Quli was great poet in Urdu. He had written Khanide, Gazal and Marsi on
the name of MAANI. Vajihi and Ahmad were great Urdu poets. Vajihi composed a poem
entitled Qutub-e-Mushtari and he also composed a prose work called Subras, both of which
have been panned in a light but masterly vein and reckon among the most valuable additions to
the history of literature. Ahmad composed “Laila Majnu”. On the name of Sultan Muhammad
Qutb Shah some poets have written. Abdullah Qutb Shah served for the development of Urdu
literature. His period became Golden Age for Urdu. He has written poems on Abdullahs name.
During his rule Gawasi was eminent Urdu poet in the court. He composed Maina Satwanti.
Gawasi other works Saif-ul-Mulk, and Badi-ul-Jamal. It was composed in the year 1625
A.D. Another poet Ibn-e-Nishati included composed poem entitled “Phool Bun”. Qutb Shahis
supplied oxyzen to Deccani Urdu.
Qutb Shahi rulers patronised the Telugu language. They also read Telugu poems. Telugu
people called Sultan Quli as Bade Malik. Sultan Quli and his son Jamshid issued inscriptions in
Telugu. Ibrahim spent seven years in Vijayanagara and learned Telugu and Sanskrit languages.
Telugu people called Ibrahim as Malikiba Rama. In Ibrahim court Addanki Gangadhar, Mariganti
Singaracharya and Kandukuri Rudra occupied prominent place. Addanki Gangadhar written
“Tapti Samharnopakyanam” and dedicated to Ibrahim Qutb Shah. The Golconda karnam
Sarang Tammaiah had written Vaijayanthi Vilasam. He explained Golconda in a beautiful
manner. He also wrote “Haribakti Subodayam”. In this work, he mentioned Golconda as a
city of Bagirathi.
Mariganti Singaracharya belonged to Kanagallu village in Nalgonda district. He had
written many verses in Telugu. Kandukuri Rudra belonged to Janardhana Kandukuri village of
Devarakonda Taluk in Nalgonda district. He was a great scholar. During Ibrahim as a viceroy
of Devarakonda, he met Rudra and got introduced. Rudra had written Niramkushopakyanam
. Ibrahim felicitated Rudra with the Chintalapalem agraharam.
Ponnaganti Telaganarya work Yayati Charitra was dedicated to Amin Khan, who
was a ruler of Patancher. It is the first work written in original Telugu. Kshetrayya came to
royal court of Abdullah Qutb Shah and participated in scholarly discussion. Between court
scholar Tulasi Murthy and Kshetrayya discussion was held. Nebati Krishnaiah Amathya
composed the work of “Rajaniti Ratnakara” in the court of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.
Gopanna belonged to Nelakondapalli and was appointed as Tahasildar to Badrachalam.
He was a devotee of Sri Rama. He composed many songs on Rama. Malla Reddy was writer
of Shivadharmottara. He dedicated the book to his brother Kami Reddy. Yella Reddy written
Vashistam and Lingapuranam. Pattamatta Somayaji’s work Brahottara Kandam was
dedicated to Yella Reddy.
Architecture
The Qutb Shahi Sultans rebuilt the Golconda Fort which was capital some time to the
Qutb Shahi Kingdom. It was situated about 9 kilometers west the Hyderabad. The first ruler,
Sultan Quli built the boundary wall of the fort. He built “Safa Mosque” in the fort for prayer of
Sultan, royal family and ministers etc. An inscription curved on the gateway of the Mosque
explained that Sultan Quli was the builder of the Mosque. Abdul Karim was the calligrapher of
the inscription. Sultan Quli constructed the Royal Palace “Dawlatkhana” in fort. He renamed
Golconda as Muhammadnagar.
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Ibrahim Qutb Shah strengthened the fortification and extended the area within the
fortified walls by building a magnificent wall of more than 7000 running meters on the advice of
his Peshwa Mustafa Khan. The construction of the wall was in 1559-60 with the erection of
Mecca Darwaza on its south-western section which actually faces Mecca. The entire fort
was constructed over a period of 62 years from 1518A.D., the elevation of the fort is 400 ft.
and the circumference of the fort wall is 4 miles containing 87 semi-circular bastions, 50 to 60
ft. high. After the siege of Mughal Prince Muhammad Azam, Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah
strengthened the fort. Dharma Char, a Hindu architect constructed the Musa Khan Burj in the
fort with Qutb Shahi General Musa Khan.
During Ibrahim Qutb Shah’s reign, a bridge was constructed on the Musi river. It is
called as Purana Pul. It was constructed with 22 Kamans, length is 600 yards and width is 35
feet. The total cost of the bridge is 2,50,000.
The new capital city i.e. Hyderabad was built by Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah in
1591A.D. it was built on the Gridiron system in the form of a giant double cross. The new city
was beautified with several gardens and monuments. The city was capital for both Qutb Shahis
and Nizams. The city was divided into 12,000 precincts and its main through fares were lined
with 14000 buildings including shops, mosques, schools, rest houses etc. Both Hyderabad and
Golconda are the marketing centers for diamonds during Qutb Shahi and Asaf Jahi rule.
The first construction in the Hyderabad city was Charminar. It was built in 1592A.D.
The foundation of Charminar was laid in 1590A.D. The plan and design of Charminar was
outstanding and unique. The plan for Charminar and Daulat Khana-e-Ali (Royal Palace) was
prepared by Mir Abu Talib. Later, he was awarded as Nazir-ul-Mulk. The monument had four
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beautiful arches with highly decorated that is the reason why it is called Charminar. The minarets
are each decorated with double arcaded balcony; two additional balconies encircle each shaft
above roof level, a unique characteristic feature of the Qutb Shahi style. There are four stages
for a total height of 160 feet. The upper most store of each minaret is reached by 146 steps.
250 feet north of the Charminar, Qutb Shahi Sultan constructed Charkaman or the
Four Arches in 1592 A.D. Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah constructed Charkaman, each arch of
60 feet high, 36 feet wide at the base and 6 feet in thickness facing the four cardinal points,
separated from the centre by nearly 375 feet in each case, so that the space between any two
arches facing each other is about 750 feet. The Northern arch called as Machli Kaman (fish
arch), the Southern arch is Char Minar arch, Eastern arch is the Kali Kaman or Kaman of
Shamboo Pershad (the Black arch) and the Western arch is Sher Dil or Sihr Batil. The Western
arch served as the gate of Royal Residence.
Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah laid foundation for Mecca Masjid in 1617 A.D. Its
construction was started under the supervision of Darogah Engineer Faizullah Baig and Choudari
Rangaiah with the assistance of eight thousand masons and labourers. Musa Khan was the in-
charge of the construction of the Mosque. In this construction, as many as 2000 stone cutters,
2000 masons and 4000 labourers worked. The total expense of this Mosque is 3,000,000 lakhs
of Huns. It was completed in 77 years and finally completed during Aurangzeb’s rule. This is
one of the most sublime and impressive Mosques of the Deccan and it is so extensive that
nearly 10,000 people can easily complete their prayer. The building is 225 feet long, 180 feet
wide and 75 feet high; the outer enclosure is oblong whose terrace is 360 feet each way. The
Mosque is composed of triple vestibules measuring 195×126’× 8" with fifteen arches in each
row, and five Masonic arches in front, the Northern and southern extremities are surmounted
by two large domes. The two lofty minarets in front, of the main entrance gate and the Sundial
of the courtyard, belong to the reign of Aurangzeb. 700 pairs of bullocks carried stones for the
construction of the Mosque.
Badshahi Ashur Khana was constructed by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah near Pathergatti.
It was completed in 1596 A.D with the cost of 66,000 rupees. It was the house of Alams or
conventional copies of standard carried by Imam Hussain. The building is 40 yards in length
and 30 yards wide and 12 yards in height. The main building is constructed on a raised platform,
the central hall measures 87 feet in length and 17 feet in width. The entire hall has been
enamelled with tiles of beautiful floral decorations.
The double storied building Daru’sh Shifa was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in
1595.A.D. It was Hospital as well as a college of Unani Medicine. In this building the Qutb
Shahi sultans provided free medicines, lodging and food facilities for the patients. Those who
joined in the college were received scholarships from the Government and were assured of
employment after they received Medical Degree.
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The Qutb Shahi Sultans tombs were situated in Golconda Fort. It was called as seven
tombs. The Qutb Shahi Sultans i.e. Sultan Quli, Jamshid Quli, Ibrahim Quli, Muhammad Quli,
Muhammad Qutb Shah, Abdullah Qutb Shah and Abul Hassan Tanisha are very important and
prominent rulers in the history of Golconda. They ruled very systematically and encouraged
Deccani traditions and culture.
Qutb Shahi Sultans constructed several monuments in Hyderabad City. They built
finest palaces. The palaces such as Dad Mahal, Khuda Mahal, Chandan Mahal, Sajan Mahal,
Lal Mahal, Nadi Mahal, Hydari Mahal, Hasani Mahal, Moosavi Mahal, Jafari Mahal, Hussaini
Mahal, Mishk Mahal, Naubat Pahad, Koh-I-Tur, Hussain Sagar, Purana Pul, Mahasaheba Tank,
Ibrhimpatanam Tank, and Budwel Tank, etc were very finest constructions of the Qutb Shahis.

1. Who composed Maina Satwanti.
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2. Charminar was constructed by
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9.12 SUMMARY
The Qutb Shahi Sultans ruled the Golconda kingdom for nearly 175 years. They
encouraged agriculture, trade, industry, literature and architecture. They donated several villages
for development of the temples and mosques in different parts of the kingdom. The Sultans also
read and wrote the Telugu. They patronised Telugu poets and writers. They encouraged Deccan
in Urdu. Sultans constructed Charminar, Mecca Masjid, Charkaman, Daru-us-Shifa and Badu
Shahi Ashurkhana etc.

1. Sultan Quli Qutb Shah
2. 1565

1. Gawasi
2. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
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1. Explain the economic development in Golconda Qutb Shahi Kingdom.
2. Discuss the cultural conditions during Qutb Shahi rule.
3. Analyse the socio-religious conditions during Qutb Shahi rule.

1. Explain the role of Mohammad Quli in the development of the Qutb Shahi Kingdom.
2. Analyse the development of Urdu literature in the Golconda Kingdom.
3. Discuss the important features of the monuments that were constructed by Qutb
Shahis.

1. Abdul Masjeed Siddiqui : History of Golconda, Hyderabad, 1956.
2. Bendri, V.C : Qutb Shahis of Golconda, Poona, 1956.
3. Moreland, W.H : Relations of Golconda in the early seventeenth century,
London, 1931.
4. Sherwani, H.K : History of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, New Delhi, 1974.
5. Satyanarayana, K : A Study of the History and Culture of the Andhra, New
Delhi, 1983
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BLOCK - IV
MODERN PERIOD: ASAF JAHIS

Asafjahi dynasty ruled the princely State of Hyderabad for 224 years. Nizam-
Ul-Mulk was the founder of this dynasty. Total seven Nizams ruled the Hyderabad State
between 1724 C.E. and 1948 C.E. Modernisation of Hyderabad began under the
stewardship of Diwan Salar Jung-I. Sixth Nizam Mir Mahaboob Alikhan established many
educational institutions, along with Medical School. After India gained independence in
August 1947, the last Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan decided not to join the Indian Union.
Ultimately, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, then Minister of Home Affairs and Deputy Prime
Minister of India, initiated the Police Action on Hyderabad. The State was taken over and
merged into Indian Union on 17th September, 1948.
They established Agriculture Department. They constructed several projects in
different parts of the State. Osman Sagar, Himayat Sagar, Wyra, Kadem, Musi, Palair
and Munnair Projects were constructed by the Nizam rulers. They established Aurangabad
Mills, Osman Shahi Mills, D. B.R Mills and Azam Jahi Mills limited in the State. The
Industrial Trust Fund was established to financially support the industries. They encouraged
trade. Madras and Bombay ports exported and imported several article of Hyderabad
State.
Mir Osman Ali Khan took keen interest in architecture. The architecture of his
period depicts the ideas and thoughts of the people and culture and civilisation of the time.
Osmania University, Osmania General Hospital were built in Mughal and Indo-Saracenic
style. The High Court was built in Indo-Saracenic style. The Legislative Assembly building
is in Saracenic Rajastani style and other buildings like the City College, Pubic Gardens,
Unani Hospital, Asafia Library, Hyderabad and Secunderabad Railway Stations, Town
Hall, Eden Bagh, Jubilee Hall all are built in Hindu-Islamic and Western style.
Unit - 10 : Asaf Jahis: Polity, Society and Culture.
Unit - 11 : Economic Conditions under the Asaf Jahis.
Unit - 12 : Modernisation during Asaf Jahi Period.
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UNIT - 10: ASAFJAHIS: POLITY, SOCIETY AND
CULTURE
Contents
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Political Developments
10.2.1 Nizam-ul-Mulk (1724–1748)
10.2.2 Nizam Ali Khan (1762–1803)
10.2.3 SikandarJah (1803–29)
10.2.4 Nasir-ud-Daula (1829–1857)
10.2.5 Afzal-ud-Daula (1857–1869)
10.2.6 Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan Bahadur (1869–1911)
10.2.7 Mir Osman Ali Khan Bahadur (1911–48)
10.3 Polity
10.6 Summary
10.8 Model Examination questions
10.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know briefly the political developments during the AsafJahi rule.
2. Explain the administrative features under the AsafJahis
3. Discuss the social conditions of the AsafJahi period.
4. Describe the cultural contribution of the AsafJahis.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The establishment of the AsafJahi rule in the 1724is a great landmark in the history of
modern Deccan. The Mughal emperor Aurangazeb annexed the State of Golconda in the year
1687 CE. Since then, this region remained as one of the Provinces of Mughal Empire till the
year 1724 C.E. Mir Qamruddin–chin-killich khan, then viceroy of Deccan, declared independence
and established the Hyderabad State in 1724. He is popularly known with his titles Nizam –Ul-
Mulk and AsafJah that were bestowed by the Mughal emperors Faruk Siyar and Muhammd
Shah. The State of Hyderabad included the areas of Telangana region, Marathwada and
Karnataka. Nizam-Ul-Mulk and his successors ruled the erstwhile princely State of Hyderabad
for 224 years.
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After India gained independence in August 1947, the last Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan
decided not to join the Indian Union. Ultimately, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, then Minister of Home
Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister of India, initiated the Police Action on Hyderabad. The
State was taken over and merged into the Indian Union on 17th September, 1948. During the
rule of AsafJahis Hyderabad State underwent considerable growth, both politically and culturally.
It has also emerged as one of the important princely States under colonial domination.
10.2 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Total seven Nizams ruled the Hyderabad State between 1724 C.E. and 1948 C.E.
10.2.1 Nizam –Ul-Mulk (1724-1748)

Nizam–Ul-Mulk was the founder of the AsafJahi dynasty. His original name was Mir
Qamruddin Chin Qillich Khan. His ancestors came from Samarkhand and served in the court
of ShahJahan and Aurangzeb. Nizam–Ul-Mulk was the eldest son of Shihabuddin, Mughal
governor of Berar and Gujarat. At the age of six, he was appointed as mansabdar by Aurangazeb,
and gradually risen to various administrative positions. After the demise of Aurangazeb, Mir
Qamruddin became the viceroy of Awadh under FarukhSiyar, who bestowed the title Nizam –
Ul-Mulk on him. His allegiance to the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, he was conferred
with got him the title AsafJah. Though he accepted the Mughal authority, practically he ruled
the Deccan independently. Thus, Hyderabad State virtually came into existence since 1724
under the rule of AsafJahis.
During his tenure, Nizam –Ul-Mulk came into conflict with the Marathas. Peshwa
Baji Rao defeated him in the battles of Phalkhed and Bhopal. Nizam compelled to grant permission
to Marathas to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in Deccan Province. Nizam-ul-Mulk played
a key role as a mediator during Nadar Shah’s invasion of India in 1738C.E. With his military
talents, Nizam extended the Deccan territories from the river Tapti to Mysore and from
Karnataka to Tiruchinapally. He died at the age of 76 in 1748. He was also a poet and fluent in
Persian and Turkish. He gave patronage to scholars of Urdu to enrich the language.
The death of Nizam –ul-Mulk was followed by a civil war. Between 1748 and 1762,
three contestents came to the throne. They are Nasir Jung(1748-50), Mujaffar Jung (1750-51)
and Salabat Jung(1751-62). Both the English and the French used this internal rivalry among
the successors as an opportunity for their colonial expansion. As a result of such rivalries, three
Carnatic wars took place between 1748 and 1762. Though they ruled for some time, these
three rulers are not considered as Nizams.
10.2.2 Nizam Ali Khan (1762-1803)

Nizam Ali Khan was the fourth son of Nizam-Ul-Mulk. He was the first ruler of
Hyderabad State to use the title “Nizam”. He saved the AsafJahi dynasty from both internal
and external forces. Further, he strengthened the administration of the State. Recognising the
importance of strategic location, Nizam Ali Khan shifted the State capital from Aurangabad to
Hyderabad in 1763. It proved to be a turning point in the rule of the AsafJahis. He also entered
into alliances with the British and the French to deal with the Maratha and Mysore rulers. He
was the first Indian ruler who signed the treaty of Subsidiary Alliance with the British. As a
result of this, he has come under the military protection of the British. For that, in lieu of cash
payment, he ceded the Kadapa, Kurnool, Bellary and Ananthapur Districts to the British. During
his tenure, the English gained supremacy over coastal Andhra and Rayala seema region by
forcing him to conclude treaties.
10.2.3 Sikandar Jah (1803-1829)

He was the second son of Nizam Ali Khan. His succession was ratified by the Mughal
emperor Shah Alam II and his father’s titles were also conferred on him. During his tenure,
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Second Anglo-Maratha war (1803-1805) took place. British forced him to participate in that
war on their side to defeat the Marathas. In 1806, on his name, Secunderabad city was
constructed. During his reign, the British resident Henry Russell started a separate force called
as ‘Russell Brigade’. Later, it was evolved as Hyderabad Contingent. This Brigade involved
unbearable expenditure. To meet this expenditure, he made an agreement with Palmer and
Palmer company to take loan. He appointed European officers to improve the administration.
They controlled the military and financial administration by getting appointed their favourable
persons as the Diwans of the Nizam. However, the kingdom went through a severe financial
crisis due to mal administration. Sikandar Jah died on 21st May, 1829.
10.2.4 Nasir-Ud-Doula (1829-1857)

Nasir-Ud-Daula was the eldest son of Sikandar Jah. He ascended the throne in 1829
and inherited a financially weak State. More over, several natural disasters such as cyclones,
epidemics, floods and drought had taken their toll on the State. The economic position of the
Nizam gave the British a chance to follow their imperialistic designs. In 1853, the Nizam was
forced to sign the treaty of Berar. As per the norms of the treaty, he has to cede the province
of Berar and the districts of Osmanabad and Raichur to the British Company towards meeting
the expenditure of Subsidiary force of the British as a permanent measure. He made Hyderabad
the first princely State to ban the practice of Sati in 1856.
During his tenure, Wahabi movement got spread into the Nizam dominion.
Mubarizuddaula, the third son of Sikandar Jah and the Nawab of Kurnool played vital role to
spread the movement. But, British arrested both of them and suppressed the movement. It is
said that, Wahabi movement was a prelude to 1857 movement in India. The Nizam realised that
earlier revenue systems and treaties had begun to weaken the efficient functioning of his State.
With the support and guidance of Prime Ministers Siraj-ul-Mulk and Mir Turab Ail Khan Salar
Jung I, he implemented a modern and just system of revenue administration. Salar Jung took
measures not only towards financial consolidation of Hyderabad State, but also in modernising
it. Soon after his death in 1857, the outbreak of 1857 revolt took place.
10.2.5 Afzal-Ud-Dowla (1857-1869)

After Nasir-ud-Dowla, his son Afzal-ud-Dowla came to the throne on 18th May 1857
CE. He was served by an efficient Diwan Salar Jung -I. During his tenure, 1857 revolt started
and spread to Hyderabad. Nizam stood for the British and suppressed the Revolt with the help
of Salar Jung-I. After the Mutiny, Queen Victoria presented the title (Grand Commander Star
of India) on 31st August 1861 to the Nizam.
The Nizam gave land to the Bombay – Madras Railway line passing through the
Hyderabad State in the Raichur Doab. The Railway line later was extended up to Wadi. The
introduction of Railway line in Hyderabad contributed much to the economic development of
the State. Salar Jung reforms led to the modernisation of Hyderabad. He constructed Afzalgunz
Mosque, and Afzalgunj bridge. He died at, an young age of 42. He was succeeded by his son,
Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan.
10.2.6 Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan (1869-1911)

Mahaboob Ali khan was just around three year old when he became the ruler of
Hyderabd in 1869 C.E. He learnt many languages. Salar Jung –I became his regent till he took
over the responsibilities of administration. During his tenure, Salar Jung-I introduced many
administrative reforms for financial and administrative consolidation of Hyderabad State. Asafia
State Library in 1891 and Madrasa-I-Alia, Nizam college, Mahaboobia girls school and many
more educational institutions, along with Medical school were established. In 1885 Queen Victoria
gave him the title “Grand Commander Star of India”. He also died like his father at an early age
of 46 years.
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10.2.7 Mir Osman Ali Khan (11911-1948)
Mir Osman Ali Khan was the son of Mahboob Ali Khan. Born on 6th April 1886, he
ascended the throne as seventh Nizam in 1911. He was a scholar in many languages. After
assuming the charge, he continued the process of modernisation of Hyderabad. It is said that,
financial stability of Hyderabad State was achieved during his tenure. There was a rapid
industrialisation in Hyderabad State during his period. Omania University, Osmania Medical
College, High court, Assembly and many more marvel buildings were constructed during his
tenure. His rule witnessed the growth of Hyderabad economically and culturally. Electricity,
railways, roads and airways were developed. Major Irrigation projects were also taken up.
During his reign, Police Action on Hyderabad State has taken place and it was merged into
Indian Union. He was the last Nizam.

1. Write about Russell Brigade ?
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2. Who suppressed the1857 Revolt in Hyderabad State ?
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10.3 POLITY
Princely State of Hyderabad comprised eight Telangana districts, five Marathi-speaking
districts and three Kannada-speaking districts. The type of rule of the Nizam over the territories
varied from time to time depending on the conditions that prevailed at different times. In Nizam-
ul-Mulk’s period, he was engaged in continuous wars. That is the reason why he did not
concentrate to bring any changes in the administrative setup. During his period, the entire
administration was military-oriented. Nizam was all powerful and his firmans were the laws of
the land unquestioned by his subjects. The revenue officials such as zamindars, Jagirdars,
Iqtadars, and tahuddars played an important role in the collection of revenue.
However, the situation changed, in course of time, considerably. Immediately after the
rule of Nizam-ul-Mulk, there was instability and turmoil over a decade, because of the rivalries
among his descendants. During this period of turmoil, the importance of the monarch has come
to be reduced. Subsequent Nizams also faced political conflicts and severe financial crises.
Taking full advantage of the situations, British Residents interfered in the administration with
the support of Diwans or Prime Ministers.
The territorial jurisdiction of the Mughal Deccan was divided into six Subas such as: 1.
Aurangabad 2. Bidar 3. Khandesh 4. Berar 5. Bijapur and 6. Hyderabad. Each of these six
Subas were sub-divided into a number of Sarkars. Each Sarkar was further sub-divided into
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Paraganas, also called Mahals from the fiscal point of view. Each Paragana or Mahal consisted
of several smaller territorial divisions called deh or qasba or Mauza. The deh was the smallest
administrative unit. In 1905, when Zillabandi system was introduced, the Districts were
reorganised. It is continued with minor changes till 1948.
It is observed that, initially AsafJahis followed the Mughal administrative system and
they also made some changes from time to time. After assuming the charge as Prime Minister,
Salar Jung he introduced many reforms to strengthen the administration and financial stability
of the State.

The society was classified into different classes and the gulf between these classes
was irreducible. There were differences in caste structure. During the period, society is divided
as brahmins, kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras. In the beginning, there were only four castes.
In due course, these got multiplied and the structure became complex. Brahmins enjyoed the
highest status in the society. They were engaged in administrative posts and religious practices.
In the caste system, kshatriyas occupied second position. They have different lineages and
mainly engaged in administration. Vaishyas held the third position in social order. Their chief
occupation was commerce and trade. Apart from this, they also practiced money-lending
business. Shudras belonged to fourth category. They formed majority of the population. Most
of them got engaged in agricultural and traditional occupations. It is observed that, over a period
of a time, occupations got turned into castes. Lambadi or Banjaras, Erkalas, Chenchus, Gonds,
Koyas and Konda Reddis, formed the important tribesmen that inhabited in the Nizam State.
Regarding the Muslims, Iranians, Turanians, Turks and Arabs are distinct groups hailing
from foreign countries. Muslims from North India were Rohillas, and Pathans also settled at
Hyderabad. Despite the meagre differences, Muslims were broadly divided into two sects,
Shia and Sunni. Most of them were non indulged vegetarians and in drinking. Muslims of
foreign origin are called as Afakies and the local Muslims as Deccanis.
In the official hierarchy the Nizam enjoyed great respectable position followed by
Paigah Nobles. Next rung consisted of jagirdars, deshmukhs, deshpandeys, patels, patwaris
and other village servants. Higher class of the society used to have a luxurious life style, in
contrast to the very simple life of the lower classes.
During the AsafJahi period, there were number of social evils and inequality all over
the State. “Vettichakiri”, is the biggest social evil during this period. Washer men, barbers,
potters, tambali and other backward classes persons had to work in the houses of jagirdars,
watandars and deshmukhs. Another important evil refers to bhagela. When the farmers
were unable to clear their debts to the landlords, their lands were seized and made to work in
their own farms as bhagela (bonded labourer). The farmer and his family had to work for the
landlord till their debts are settled. It is practiced in villages. Similar practice which is practiced
in towns and cities is known as begari. Further, other social evils such as child marriages,
polygamy, dowry, prostitution, purdah, devadasi and aadapapa systems also remained very
much in vogue in the society.
Condition of women
In the Nizams period, condition of women was not as bright as it should be. In this
period irrespective of rich and poor, women were confined to the four walls and their role was
to look after the family members, particularly the children. Some women from the lowest
classes of the society use to work in agriculture-related works or traditional occupations to help
their husbands. Royal families and wives of Nawabs had financial freedom to some extent, but
they never had individual liberty. After Salar Jung reforms and establishment of educational
institutions, women’s position improved gradually. Educated women actively participated in
social and cultural movements during the tenure of Mir Osman Ali Khan.
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Food and Dress Patterns
The Hyderabad composite culture is mirrored in varied dressing patterns, food habits,
customs and traditions. Regarding food, jawar, bajra, rice, wheat, maize, pulses and vegetables
formed the common food. Hyderabadi biryani has its own remarkable identity. Dhoti and
sherwani became common dress among Hindus and Muslims respectively. While Christians
had short coats and trousers, Parsis had long caps and turbans. The custom of wearing pagdi,
dastar, Turkish caps and saleem Shahi shoes prevailed without any distinction of caste or
creed. In rural areas, most of the public carried kambal or blanket. Hindu ladies got accustomed
to wear saris and cholis (blouses). However, Muslim ladies usually wore a lehanga or
underskirt, with a choli (blouses) and dupatta (long scarfs or stoles that are basically a part of
South Asian ladies attire). In Telugu community, langaohni (half sari) was really outstanding
apparel of young ladies and women. Parda was strictly observed among the Muslims. Hindu
aristocracy followed Muslim nobility in dress patterns. Public of high profile used gold and
silver ornaments. Lavish hospitality was another special feature of social culture of Hyderabad
people under the Nizams.

Compared to other princely States, Hyderabad had a unique culture, known as Ganga-
Jamuna Tehjeeb from a wide variety of religions, different languages and different cultures.
Here, many religions and castes intermingled and flourished jointly together. Rulers were Muslims
and the subjects were Hindus. Important festivals are celebrated by one and all, without any
communal tinge or preference. Religious synthesis of Hindu and Iranian Islamic cultures can
also be seen in art and architectural aspects like depiction of cultural themes in paintings and
construction of a blend of Indo-Islamic architectural styles making Hyderabad tradition rich
and unique.
AsafJahis rule is very well noted for its composite and cosmopolitan culture. Persian,
Urdu, Telugu, Marathi and Kannada are the primary languages that prevailed in Nizam’s dominion.
Domestically spoken Hyderabadi Urdu or Deccaniboli includes part of humour, as its speciality.
Besides these, Hindi and English were also spoken. Because of the cosmopolitan nature of
Hyderabad city, people from all parts of India and foreign lands flocked to it and lived
harmoniously. The literacy rate in Hyderabad State was very low at 4.8%, while the literacy
rate among the Telugu people was 3.3%. Urdu used to be the language of instruction in Primary,
Middle, High schools as well as university, because of which Telugu people were educationally
backward. After Salarjung reforms, literacy rate slightly improved.
Among performing arts, music, qawwali, Kuchipudi, dramas, painting, and calligraphy
became popular. Shadow puppetry is another famous art performed with leather puppets and
bamboo sticks. All these indicate that Hyderabad remained as a city in which many cultural
strains are intermingled. The paintings of Hyderabad are noted for their brilliant colours, exquisite
gold decoration in the background, fine arabesque flowering trees, gorgeous costumes, sweeping
postures, etc. The production of large-size painting on cotton cloth is the most remarkable
feature of Deccan.
Architecture
The buildings constructed during the rule of the Nizams portray rich and imposing
architecture, synthesising medieval and modern styles. Legislative Assembly in Saracenic-
Rajasthani style, the aristocratic High Court in Indo-Saracenic style, and the regal Osmania
General Hospital in Mughal style, and other buildings like Purani Haveli, Chowmahalla, Arts
College, Jubilee Hall and the Falaknuma Palace are also classic representations of AsafJahi
architectures. Most of these buildings were constructed during the tenure of Mir Osman Ali
Khan. Thus, he is the creator of new Hyderabad in many ways. In the construction of houses,
129
western culture, mainly due to the impact of Europeans, was introduced. As a result, there is a
blend of western motifs with Deccani culture and ethos.

1. What were the important social evils that become prevalent in AsafJahi period?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
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.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. What are the important buildings constructed by the AsafJahi rulers?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
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.................................................................................................... ..............................
10.7 SUMMARY
Asafjahi dynasty ruled the princely State of Hyderabad for 224 years. Nizam-Ul-Mulk
was the founder of this dynasty. Total seven Nizams ruled the Hyderabad State between 1724
C.E. and 1948 C.E. The death of Nizam–ul-Mulk was followed by a civil war and Britishers
took advantage. Nizam Ali Khan, was the first Indian ruler who signed the treaty of Subsidiary
Alliance with the British. Sikendar Jah was the 3rd ruler, and on his name, Secunderabad city
was constructed. During Nasir-ud-Dowlas tenure, Wahabi movement got spread into the Nizam
dominions.
After Nasir-ud-Dowla, his son Afzal-ud-Dowla came to the throne. During his tenure,
1857 Revolt started and spread to Hyderabad. Nizam stood for the British and suppressed the
Revolt with the help of Salar Jung-I. As a Prime Minister, Salarjung introduced many reforms
to strengthen the administration and financial stability of the State. Modernisation of Hyderabad
began under the stewardship of Diwan Salar Jung-I. Sixth Nizam Mir Mahaboob Alikhan
established many educational institutions, along with Medical school. After India gained
independence in August 1947, the last Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan decided not to join the
Indian Union. Ultimately, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, then Minister of Home Affairs and Deputy
Prime Minister of India, initiated the Police Action on Hyderabad. The State was taken over
and merged into Indian Union on 17th September, 1948.

1. British Resident Henry Russell started a separate force called as ‘Russell Brigade’.
Later, it was evolved as Hyderabad Contingent.
2. Nasir-ud-Dowla suppressed the 1857 Revolt in Hyderabad State with the help of Salar
Jung-I
130
1. Vettichakiri, bhagela, begari, child marriages, polygamy, dowry, prostitution, purdah,
devadasi and aadapapa
2. Legislative Assembly, High Court, Osmania General Hospital, Arts College, Purani
Haveli, Chowmahalla palace, Jubilee Hall and the Falaknuma Palace.

1. Analyse the changes in polity under the AsafJahis?
2. Discuss the social conditions during the AsafJahi period.
3. Write about the cultural conditions during the AsafJahi period.

1. Write a brief sketch of Nizam-Ul-Mulk.
2. Explain the rule of Nizam Ali Khan
3. Discuss the contribution of Mir Osman Ali Khan

1. Raza Alikhan : Hyderabad 400 years
2. Sarojini Regani : Nizam- British relations
3. Sherwani, H.K & Joshi. P.M.(e.d.) : The History of the Medieval DeccanVols,I-II
Khusrou, A.M. : Economic and Social Effect of Jagirdari
Abolition and Land reforms in Hyderabad
State1958
4. Ramesan.N : The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad
5. Munshi.K.M. : The End of An Era – Hyderabad Memories
131
UNIT - 11: ECONOMIC CONDITIONS UNDER THE
ASAFJAHIS
Contents
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introductions
11.2 Agrarian conditions in Hyderabad State
11.2.1 Land holdings
11.2.2 Pattern of Land distribution
11.2.3 The Soils.
11.2.4 Sources of Irrigation
11.2.5 Potential and actual Irrigation.
11.2.6 Reason for low utilization of Irrigation Resources.
11.2.7 Seeds, their supply and utilization
11.2.8 Manures and their extent of usage
11.2.9 Agricultural implements
11.2.10 Money-lenders and their contribution to agricultural credit
11.2.11 Agricultural Indebtedness and relief measures
11.2.12 Land Transfers
11.2.13 Effects on Agriculture and Industry
11.2.14 Crop Conditions
11.3 Industrialisation
11.3.1 First phase (1870-1919)
11.3.2 Second phase (1919-1939)
11.3.3 Third phase (1939-1948)
11.4 Trade
11.5 Summary
11.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the agrarian conditions in Nizam’s Hyderabad State.
2. Explain the irrigation development in Nizam’s Dominion.
3. Discuss the Industrial development in Nizam State.
4. Analyse the trading system in Nizam’s State.
5. Describe the Economic development under Nizam’s Rule.
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11.1 INTRODUCTION
Nizam rulers encouraged agriculture sector in Hyderabad State. They established
Agriculture Department. Irrigation facilities were provided to the fields. New seeds and manure
were supplied to the cultivators. Large- scale and small -scale industries were established in
different parts of the State. Industrial Development Trust Fund was established. Trade flourished
in the State. Mir Osman Ali Khan’s rule occupied an important place in the history of Deccan.
11.2 AGRARIAN CONDITIONS IN HYDERABAD STATE

Hyderabad State occupied a prominent place in the History of India in general and
Sothern India in particular. The State depended mostly on agriculture sector. Hyderabad State
was predominantly rural and agrarian as 86 percent of the population lived in the villages and 55
percent of them depended directly on agriculture. Out of the total area of 53,000,000 acres of
land, only 30,000,000 acres i.e., about 60 percent, were under Governmental land revenue
system, (called Diwani or Khalsa area); about 15,000,000 acres, i.e., about 30 percent, was
under the Jagirdari system, and about 10 percent was field as the Nizam’s own direct eState,
i.e., Sarf-i- Khas area. Agriculture depends on vivid aspects, such as soil, irrigation, seeds,
agriculture implements and manures. All these played a major role in the development of
agriculture. Nizam rulers provided loan facilities for encouraging agriculture in the State.
Agriculture for us an important sector in Hyderabad State. In Hyderabad State, the Marathwada,
Karnataka and Telangana regions are principle regions. These regions cultivated agriculture in
big way. For development of agriculture, land is most important in every region in Hyderabad
State. Utilization of land and other things would be discussed.
11.2.1 Land Holdings

During the 37 year period between 1913 and 1950, land holdings, especially relating to
dry lands, suffered a reduction in size amounting to not less than 30%. For a peasant and his
family to lead a reasonable life of comfort in Telangana, Kesava Iyengar, after detailed enquiry
in 24 villages in 1929-30, opined that 15 acres of dry land or 5 acres of wet land should be the
minimum or economic holding and the Agrarian Reforms Committee, after detailed enquiry in
1949-50, came to the conclusion that 8 or 10 acres of wet land and 50 acres of dry land would
constitute an economic holding. Viewed in the light of these expert recommendations, land
holdings, throughout the 37 year period (1913-50) in Telangana and also in the State, excepting
the dry holdings during 1913-14 and 1922-23 were far below the minimum level required for the
cultivators to lead a normal life.
Land holdings, besides being uneconomical or insufficient, began, due to several other
reasons, becoming still smaller in size. Break-up of the joint family system, irregular expansion
of cultivation over waste lands, purchases and sales and division of property amongst a large
number of distant relatives in case of the absence of direct heirs of families, were all responsible
for accentuating fragmentation of lands. Small and fragmented holdings had their definite impact
on agricultural production and also the condition of the cultivator to invest profitably on well
construction, better seeds and fertilisers and commercial crops. The cost of production per
acre was higher than in the case of larger farms. Even resources that existed in the shape of
man-power, bullocks, carts, etc., could not be put to sufficient and full use, due to the meagre
holdings. This compelled many such small farmers owning insufficient holdings to leave their
fields during the off-season and serve themselves as agricultural labourers. But, the worst of all
the effects of these unprofitable holdings was that, they formed one of the basic causes of debt.
This hand-to-mouth existence, with little surplus in crop yield, put them in such a delicate and
precarious condition that any slight adversity in the form of rainfall, water supply or other crop
conditions, threw them fully into the hands of village money-lender who invariably aimed at land
grabbing and thereby reducing the hapless peasant to the status of a serf.
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11.2.2 Pattern of Land Distribution
Pattern of land distribution during the AsafJahi period has gone in such a manner that,
there were good many small or uneconomical holdings on one hand (see the above section on
land holdings) and excessive monopolisation or concentration of greater percentage of lands in
few hands, on the other. For instance, whereas big Pattedars owning more than 100 acres
formed only 4.15 percent, 4.45 percent and 4.81 percent out of the total number of Pattedars in
the Districts of Warangal, Karimnagar and Adilabad respectively, on the other hand, those
Pattedars who held land from 5 acres to 10 acres formed 60.21 percent, 58.02 percent and
46.49 percent in the respective Districts. In terms of land, the pattern concerning Warangal
District was clearly brought out in 1929-30 Survey in 12 villages which Stated that 1.7 percent
of the occupants held more than 35 percent of the total dry land and 2.5 percent of the occupants
held more than 50 percent of the total wet area.
This inequality in land distribution had its adverse effect on agricultural growth. On one
hand, the holdings of small farmers were so meagre in size, frequently characterised by
fragmentation also, that they did not possess sufficient economic wherewithal to contribute
their mite for the increase of agricultural production This was further affected by the various
disabilities like the extraction of vetti, collection of illegal cesses etc., inflicted on these small
ryots by big landlords, village officials and revenue officials. On the other hand, excessive
monopolisation of land led to absenteeism and diminishing returns in productivity. The big landlords
got their huge lands cultivated either by bhagelas or by tenants. But, high rents coupled with
insecurity of kowls incapacitated the latter from taking up cultivation on an intensive and profitable
level. Further, holdings which ranged from 500 to 5, 000 acres and even above, became so
unwieldy and difficult to supervise effectively, that, after a stage, with every increase in the size
of the holding, the yield per acre tended to decrease. As such land holdings extended from one
village to several villages, supervision and yield were further affected.
11.2.3 The Soils

The soils of Hyderabad State are divided into two main groups according to the parent
rocks. The two main groups are I) Black Cotton Soils and laterites and 2) Sandy loams. The
basic rocks viz. Deccan Traps and some gneisses give rise to black cotton soils, locally known
as “regur” and to the residual laterites after being leached of the soluble materials. Sandy
loams are formed after the decomposition of acidic granites, dolerite dykes, Quartz veins and
epidiorites.
The block cotton soil Districts are Aurangabad, Parbhani, Nanded, Bhir, and Osmanabad
with scattered patches in Medak and Nizamabad. Transported black soils are to be seen in the
southern part of Gulbarga District, Raichur Doab, southern portion of Mahaboobnagar, Nalgonda,
eastern parts Warangal, and Khammam Districts and southern part of Adilabad District. The
black soils of the State, as in other parts, also vary from deep black soils to medium black soils.
The regur or black soil is very important for the commercial crop cultivation in the
Hyderabad State. This soil remain soil facility could be increased moisture by manures. . Black
cotton soils need has rainfall or water facility. Block Cotton in the Gulbarga, Raichur Bidar,
Parbhani, Nanded, Aurangabad, Osmanabad and Bhir regions in Hyderabad State during Mir
Osman Ali Khan rule. Cultivated nearly 80 percent of the cotton crop in these Districts. It
remained leading commercial crop of the State. Particularly in Telangana region, the Northern
Telangana Districts of Adilabad, Karimnagar and Warangal Districts contributed 85 percent of
the total cotton crop which was cultivated in Telangana region.
11.2.4 Sources of Irrigation

In Hyderabad State the irrigation source are wells, tanks and river projects. The
Government of Nizams had taken several steps for the construction new projects, tanks and
134
wells for the development of agriculture. Large number of cultivators depended on both wells
and tanks in Telangana region. These two sources are very important in the region.
Well irrigation is happened to be the best irrigation system in Hyderabad State, particularly
in Telangana region. The total number of wells in Hyderabad State was 5,92,753. Government
could be renew the digging of new wells both in Marathwada and Telangana region.
In Telangana region large number of tanks were constructed by the Kakatiyas rulers.
They ruled Telangana region from 1000 A.D. to 1326 A.D. They constructed Ghanpur lake in
Ghanpur Mandal in Mahaboobnagar District, Sanigarm Lake in Karimnagar and Ramappa lake
in Warangal Districts. This path was followed by the Qutb Shahi rulers and AsafJahi rulers.
The Nizam rulers constructed several tanks in Hyderabad State. The tanks in Telangana are
Nallavagu, Viranavagu, Suddavagu, Mandamarri, Jowlynala, Erravagu, Mathadivagu, Chiklivagu,
Kalanodi and Peddavagu in Adilabad District, Nakkavagu and Haldi in Medak District, Koilsagar,
Saralasagar, Mangnoor and Amistapur in Mahaboobnagar District, Kothapallivagu and Pariginala
in Rangareddy District, Kalikota, Lankasagar, Edullavagu, Patha Cheruvu, Peddavagu, Nallavagu,
Chintala Cheruvu and Bethampudi in Khammam District, Nallavagu, Kappalvagu and
Chintalurvagu in Nizamabad District, Bhimanpalli, Vemuleru, Gurka Bavi Bandam, and Adavi
Devulapalli in Nalgonda District, Bandlavagu, Salivagu, Jangalnala, Hussainimiyavagu,
Kesavapatnamvagu, Peddavagu, Mohdimada, Mullavagu, Ellammacheruvu, Rallavagu and
Anatharam Cheruvu etc in Karimnagar District, Gowraram and Konareddy Cheruvu etc in
Warangal district.
The Nizam rulers restored several tanks in Telangana region, such as the Dharmaram,
Jakaram, Kesamudram, Pakhal, Laknavaram, Ramappa tanks, In Hyderabad State there are
370 large tanks before the year 1909. In Atraf- i-Balda district large tanks are 139 and small
are 310; in Nizamabad District large tanks are 635 and small tanks are 837(including kuntas),
in Medak District large tanks are 351 and small tanks are 1,658, in Mahaboobnagar district 505
large tanks and 1,863 small tanks (including Kuntas), in Nalgonda district large tanks are 352
and small tanks (including Kuntas) 1,110, in Warangal district large tanks are 1,433 and small
tanks(including Kuntas) are 3,826, in Karimnagar District large tanks and small tanks put
together are 5,694, in Adilabad District the large and small tanks put together are 223. The total
number of large and small tanks in Telangana region is 18,936. These tanks supplied water for
cultivation.
In the early 20th century, Mir Ahmed Ali (later Ali Nawab Jung) became Chief Engineer
and consultant Engineer till 1948. He was responsible for the preparation of a comprehensive
development plan and exploitation of water resources, from major rivers ad their tributaries in
the State. In consultation with Moksha Gundam Vishvesvarayya, the State developed a number
of irrigation projects and completed Osman Sagar in 1920, and Himayat Sagar in 1926 to
safeguard the city of Hyderabad from floods and also to provide safe drinking water. From
1928, the Irrigation Department started an intensive drive for the construction of large and
medium- sized reservoirs and projects. Some important projects constructed during this period
Nizamsagar, Dindi, Paler, Wyra, Pendlipakala, Singhabhupalem, Baithpally and Chndrasagar
projects. VIIth Nizam spent 4,26,00,000 rupees only on Nizamsagar project in Nizamabad
District. On Maneru project he spent 76,00,000 rupees. Lakhs of acres are cultivated in this
project. Pocharam, Palair, Wyra, Nizam Sagar, Dindi and Maneru supplied water to thousands
of acres in Telangana region during Nizams rule.
11.2.5 Potential and actual Irrigation

Though wells far outnumbered other sources numerically, yet, in the actual area irrigated
in Warangal Suba, tank irrigation formed as much as 78.32 percent of the total area irrigated
and far exceeded other sources including well irrigation which accounted for only 9.91 percent.
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Canal irrigation managed by Government formed only 7.13 percent and others were still behind.
In both tank and wellirrigations as well as in the total area irrigated, Karimnagar led the other
Districts and also the State. In Medak Suba (consisting of Nizamabad, Medak, Mahaboobnagar
and Nalgonda Districts), Nizamabad District, with Nizamsagar Project having the irrigation
potential of 2,75000 acres, occupied premier position. Siddipet and Medak Taluqs in Medak
District; Mahaboobnagar, Makhtal, Nagarkurnool and Kalwakurti Taluqs in Mahaboobnagar
District, Suryapet, Bhongir and Nalgonda Taluqs in Nalgonda District, Armoor, Kamareddi and
Niamabad Taluqs in Nizamabad District; Mahaboobabad, Pakhal and Khammam Taluqs in
Warangal District; Sirsilla, Karimnagar and Jagityal Taluqs in Karimnagar District; and Nirmal
and Chinnoor Taluqs in Adilabad District, remained as major irrigated areas in Telangana.
However, if the percentage of irrigated area out of the total cultivated area is taken
into consideration, it looks very much meagre and insignificant.
11.2.6 Reasons for Low utilisation of Irrigational Resources

Among the reasons for the low utilisation of irrigational resources, the most important
one happened to be that, vast wet lands were there under the big Pattedars who did not themselves
cultivated their lands. Pinal Pratap Reddy had a holding of 2,113 acres out of the net ayacut of
3,001 acres and 39 guntas that remained after deducting Inam land under Ghanpur Project in
Warangal Taluq and 1,899 acres and 37 guntas out of a net ayacut of 4,927-32 guntas that
remained after deducting Inam land under Ramappa Project. The respective percentages worked
out to 70.38% and 38.53%. Under Pakhal project, Mr. Mahaoob Reddy, another big Pattedar
alone possessed about 10,000 acres, which amounted to total monopolisation of the ayacut (as
settled ayacut consisted of 8,910 acres, he might have had extensive unsurveyed or forest
lands under his control). These landlords, who never stayed on these lands, took no interest in
cultivation. When other cultivators with small or no holdings came forward from local villages
to cultivate these lands on double crop basis and consequently First Taluqdar (District head)
and also Subedar of Warangal proposed to the Government for compulsory introduction of
‘do-fasla’ under these ayacuts and most important of all, redistribution of these absentee lands
among small and needy cultivators. Such attempts, time and again, were prevented by absentee
landlords like Pingal Pratap Reddy whose influence and leverage at higher Governmental circles
was so complete that even Subedar could do nothing but express his anguish. Thus, available
water resources could not be utilised to the possible extent, due to the vested interests of the
dominant feudal section of the area.
Baithpally tank in Madhira Taluq of Warangal District was restored in 1938, and ayacut
of 3,300 acres was not taken up until 1948. Serviceability of tanks and kuntas very much
depended on the removal of alluvial deposits that got accumulated in tank beds, cleaning or
removal of silt in feeders and field chnnels and instant repair of sluices and bunds that went out
of order.
The spending by the State on this nation-building service throughout the period did not
speak much for its keenness in this regard. It rose from 23.27 laks in 1911-12 to 30.17 lakhs in
1948-49, an increase of 6.90 lakhs over a period of 37 years, with of course, wider falls in
between amounting to 9.36 lakhs in 1934-35 and 8.01 lakhs in 1935-36. The financial stringency
of the Government in this respect could well be gauged from the fact that the Manair River
Project, the only one of its kind in electricity at an estimated expenditure of Rs.35,80,000,
though earnestly submitted by the First Taluqdar for the sanction of the Government in 1928,
was approved by the P.W.D., only in 1939 and the actual work commenced only in 1945 to be
completed towards the end of 1949 (The Deccan Chronicle, 15.08.1949).
11.2.7 Seeds, their Supply and Utilisation

Agriculture Department conducted research on seeds for growth of production in
different parts of the State. The Government established farms for conducting research on best
136
seeds for suitable cultivation in the State and growth of production. The farms improved seeds
and experimentally cultivated in some selected parts of the State.
In rice cultivation the seeds are Pichori, and Ambaru are fine quality seeds that are
cultivated in Medak, Nizamabad, Atraf-i-Balda and Bidar District. In medium quality, the seeds
are Kasha Pichori or Nankram, Kichidi or No.24 Kichidi Sambhal or Kichidi Sannal cultivated
in Nalgonda and Warangal Districts. The Pala Sannal and the Pocha Sannal seeds are cultivated
in Nizamabad, Warangal and Karimnagar Districts. The Nizam Goad, Tekasannal, Mota,
Konamani, Ramsagar, Daka Gaudal or Akati and Kusma and Masral are coarse quality seeds
that are cultivated in all Telangana Districts. In wheat, the seeds are Sharbati, Bansi, Peela
No.1, Peela No.2, Lal, and Jod Gahoon are important. The Sharbati seeds are cultivated in
Maharashtra region and Nizamabad district in Telangana region. Bansi seeds are cultivated in
Medak and Adilabad Districts. The Lal and the Jod Gahoon cultivated throughout the State.
The variety seeds in Jawar are Kharif White, Thaingni, Dhendi, Ramkhel, Pachha Jonna, Kharif
Yellow, Kharif Red and Rabi White cultivated mostly in Telangana Region. In groundnut varieties
such as Bombay Bold, Coromandel, West Africa, Virginia Runner, Philippine white, Mauritius,
Khandesh, Ranchi, Big Japan, and Desi are important in the State. In Hyderabad State there
are eight varieties of cotton cultivated, such as Oomra, Hyderabad Gaorani, Western, Cocanada,
Mungari Raichur, Kumpta Raichur, Namri or America and Jarila.
11.2.8 Manures and their extent of usage

Bulky organic manures like farmyard manure, sheep manure and compost, oil cakes
such as of groundnut, castor and pungam, green manures like sunn-hemp, daincha, pillipesara,
wild indigo, glyricidia and pungamia and inorganic fertilisers like ammonium sulphate, ammonium
sulphate nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, nitro-phosphate, super
phosphate, urea muriatic of potash and bone meal or bone super are commonly used in Telangana
region. All these manures are heavily used for paddy and garden crops. The ryots generally
apply chemical fertilisers in combination with green manures. Rain-fed crops are manures
once in four or five years. Farmyard manure is generally applied prior to the commencement of
preparatory cultivation. The manure generally used is that obtained from the village cattle, and
the sweepings from the village, and from leaves and branches of trees. Jowar and wheat in the
regar receive no manure. Even with regard to wet and garden crops, peasant depended mostly
on that which was collected from his backyard or farmyard. Oil-cake or an artificial fertiliser in
farmyard manure will prove a profitable combination to Telangana ryots.
11.2.9 Agricultural Implements

These remained mostly of traditional pattern only. Bullock-drawn wooden ploughs and
carts continued to be the prime possession of the cultivators. Improved implements, such as
iron ploughs, Persian wheel water lift, power-pumping plants, oil engine, tractors etc., were
supplied by the Department of Agriculture. Though the cultivators came to appreciate the
advantage of some of the new implements like iron ploughs and power-pumping plants in the
sense that the former helped in the ploughing of more acreage at great depth than the wooden
one and the latter helped in quick extraction of water from wells, avoiding at the same time
great amount of exertion for weak-bodied bullocks in drawing the mote of the country type, yet
their cost was beyond the reach of most of them. Besides the cost, the operational mechanism
of some of these improved implements like oil engines and water pumping sets proved beyond
the grasp of the ordinary ryot. The lack of repair and replacement facilities that existed in the
case of traditional implements, was also a strong factor that turned the ryots against these new
appliances. Love and strong attachment to the traditional implements, born out of inbred
conservatism, also very much prompted the ryots not to opt for the improved implements.
137
11.2.10 Money-lenders and their contribution to agricultural credit
There are three classes of money-lenders – professional, cultivating and non-professional
and non-cultivating. Together they provided credit for as much as 91 percent of the total Districts
as a whole, and the same was 95 percent in Warangal Suba and 83 percent in Medak Suba
(percentages are calculated). Among them, the cultivating families who took to money-lending
as a subsidiary occupation led the others in the volume of credit supplied. The difference in the
volume of credit supplied by them and other categories of indigenous bankers was the highest
in Warangal District among all the other Districts in the State. Whereas 50.43 percent of the
total debts in that District were due to cultivating families, the respective percentages for the
categories of professional money-lenders and non-professional – non-cultivating money-lenders
were only 19.37 percent and 21.89 percent respectively. In respect of Medak Suba, whereas in
Mahaboobnagar, Medak and Nalgonda Districts professional money-lenders have, in the main,
given loans to the agriculturists, in Nizamabad District, on the other hand, money-lenders from
the cultivating families have provided highest amount of loans to the agriculturists. As this
District, compared to others, was agriculturally rich and strong, this different characteristic has
taken place. Marwaries, Reddy and Telangana ryots and Komties (essentially trading community)
were the significant communities who carred on the trade in the three categories respectively.
As early as the year 1937 itself, this became so thriving a business that it attracted as many as
22,343 persons in the State, of whom 10 percent were there in the city of Hyderabad. The point
of importance was that these money-lenders were in preponderance in the rural areas where
grain-landing got clubbed with cash-lending.
The fact that credit supply in these areas was made by those persons who held vast
landed States and also the watans of Deshmukh, Patel and Patwari had added new dimensions
to the situation. They found it profitable to indulge in grain-cum-money-lending as well as rents-
receiving rather than cultivate the lands by themselves. The rates of interest ranged from 12
percent to 18 percent in cash and 25 to 125 percent in kind. Whether the loan was given in cash
or kind, the sowkars (locally, big money-lenders are called so) preferred always to get it back
in kind only for by this, they not only received the usual rate of interest, but also had the added
advantage of receiving the grain at the rate of Rs.5/- per Khandy (measure of 20maunds of
grain) less than the prevailing market price which was in turn sold if high prices prevailed in the
market or else was given on loan again that fetched him higher interest than advanced. If the
ryots returned or else was given on loan again that fetched him higher interest than advanced.
If the ryots returned cash loans in cash only with 12% interest, then the money-lender not to get
deprived of his additional benefit, demanded payment of extra interest at the rate of Rs.5/- per
Khandy, the number of Khandies calculated being the equivalent of the amount of the cash loan
taken at the prevailing market rates of the produce. These transactions worked in such a grind-
like manner that a ryot who once got involved in them which became rather inevitable in view
of the fact that other sources of credit were extremely limited, it became extremely difficult,
with his small holding and frequent failure of crops, to get out of them without losing his only
piece of land. In case of alienation, he was not even allowed to remain at least as a tenant on his
land.
Money-lending proved, under the circumstances, such a profitable calling that whenever
ryots joined as members of Cooperative Societies, it came to be strongly resented by the
concerned village Patels and Patwaris who tried to dissuade the members by suing them in the
civil court for the payment of their dues, which became more than enough for the ignorant and
poor peasants to get back from the influence of the Societies. Though Money-Lenders’ Act
was passed in 1940 requiring them to obtain licenses, maintain correct accounts, not to molest
the debtors for default and even reduce the rates of interest to 6 percent and 9 percent in
respect of secured and unsecured debts, its implementation rather became inadequate and
ineffective. Even in 1949-50, one-third members carried on unlicensed. Further, necessity made
138
the ryots to tolerate any amount of breach of the provisions of the Act. Thus, the irony that lay
in the credit situation for agriculturists was that agencies which provided cheap credit could
supply only a fraction of what was required and those that gave at mere asking, put a great
premium on the independence and enterprise of the farmers. It had an unsettling and weakening
effect on the growth of agriculture.
11.2.11 Agricultural Indebtedness and Relief Measures

The seriousness or the importance of the problem of agricultural indebtedness in the
Hyderabad State could be judged from the fact that, by 1949 about one-third of the agricultural
land had gone out of the possession of the owners into the hands of sowears and money-
lenders in the Diwani area and many of the former were thenceforth made to cultivate their
lands as tenants-at-will. It has gained added dimension in view of the development that greater
percentage of debts, amounting to as much as 50.43 of the total debts in Warangal District as
against high percentage in Nizamabad District and 38.30 in respect of the State, was provided
by members of the cultivating families, such as Reddys and Kapus, whose primary interest
remained to grab the lands of the debtors t the earliest opportunity and then get their huge
landed States cultivated, as absentee or mostly non-cultivating landlords, either by tenants or by
bhagelas (agricultural labourers bonded to the owners). Besides land transfer or dispossession,
indebtedness of the agriculturists led to poorness of agriculture, for the debt burden little enabled
them to spend on inputs. The practice that the indebted ryots were bound to sell their produce
at 20 percent less than the prevailing market prices to their creditors and thereby get their debt
commitments fulfilled at least partially through not fully in a crop year, left little income remaining
over and above their needs of subsistence. The occurrence of only one good crop year in a
cycle of five years on the average had rarely allowed the cultivator to extricate himself entirely
from his debt burden and consequently, it kept on recurring and rather increasing, in view of the
frequent adverse crop conditions and violent fluctuations in commodity prices and demand,
occasioned by wars and trade cycles.
11.2.12 Land Transfers

Among the effects of indebtedness, the most significant one was of course, large-
scale land transfers. The wave of land transfers alternated between rise and fall during
Depression, post-Depression and Inflationary periods. Among these three, higher percentage
occurred during the post-Second World War period. If the surveyed villages of 1949-50 are
taken, these land transfers had been of the order of 112,63 and 43 in the respective Districts of
Adilabad, Warangal and Karimnagar, which ranked respectively, first, second and fourth, third
being Gulbarga (located in Gulbarga Suba of the State), among all the Districts in the State. As
much as 787.32 Acres and 670.16 acres of dry land had been transferred from Adilabad and
Warangal Districts respectively that had put them again, in first and second places in the State.
Similarly, in respect of wet lands also, Warangal and Adilabad Districts which recorded transfer
of 65.9 acres and 53.16 acres respectively came to occupy first and second places among the
Districts in the State. Further, it is significant to note that Warangal Suba taken as whole,
contributed for as much as 50 percent of the dry land, 81.25 percent of wet land and 20 percent
of garden land that was transferred towards adjustment of prior debt in the surveyed villages of
all the Districts in the State. This, in fact, proved the highest among all the four Subas in the
State.
Majority of the peasants and labourers could not take advantage of the prevailing
raising commodity prices for they had been more than offset by the increasing costs of cultivation
and further, the scarcity of foodstuffs and articles of daily use experienced during most of the
period, affected their condition further. This iniquitous situation, coupled with not infrequent
crop failures, forced the indebted farmers to dispose off their few land bits for meager amounts
139
in order to get freed from the debt burden, however small or big it was (Warangal Subedari
Files of 1350-1358 Fasli (1941-1949), numbering 100, related to land sales which are spread
over all three Suba Districts of Warangal, Karimnagar and Adilabad and among these, greater
percentage was there in Warangal District). These conditions have put the ryots in such a
helpless condition that, in order to clear off their debts, some farmers in Mahaboobabad and
Khammam Taluqs of Warangal District were forced to sell, during 1944 and 1945, 30 acres of
land for Rs.840/- and 29 acres for Rs.1450/- In land sales like these, the price of dry land per
acre varied from Rs.28/- to Rs.215/- while 29 guntas or 3/4th acre of wet land in 1945 stood at
the price of Rs.500/-
11.2.13 Effect on Agriculture and Industry

The effect on agriculture was diversified. Whereas the indebted peasants found
themselves incapable of investing on agricultural inputs that contributed for efficient production,
the landlord and sowcar creditors, on the other hand, emerged as the controllers of the levers
of production and distribution in the countryside. The latter, in fact, always tried to ensure that
the debtors, though alienated their land, had not fully cleared their debt for this became the
instrument though which they exercised their domination over the peasantry and extracted
maximum service obligations from them in their agricultural operations, mostly free and even if
paid, only very nominally. Ultimately, things have taken such a turn that the ryots rarely got
freed from the stranglehold of the moneylenders.
In the case of industrial workers, loans were given on weekly basis. But, these were
given at a very high rate of interest ranging from 75 percent to 380 percent per annum.
Consequently, the amounts of loan remained smaller, but generally these were contracted for
unproductive purposes like spending on marriages, funeral rites, and festivals and hence turned
into a drag on their limited puse. But, the most dangerous practice that affected them was that,
due to their ignorance and illiteracy, no debt and repayment accounts were kept and hence, the
debts continued to remain unpaid, life-long, irrespective of the repayments that these workers
used to make from time to time. In the case of artisans who manufactured goods on home or
cottage basis, on borrowed capital either from bigger sowkars or master-craftsmen, the former
by paying interest of not less than 12 percent was obliged to sell products to the capitalists or
the creditors who paid them far less than market rates prevailing. Whenever the demand for
their products suffered either due to war, depression, external competitions etc., their debt
burden increased further. As a result, these home industries continued in a famished condition
for most of the time during the period.
11.2.14 Crop conditions

In 1944-45 (1353 Fasli), out of the total crop area, percentage of the land that was
irrigated in Medak Suba stood at 37.3 in Nizamabad District and the same in Mahaboobnagar
District remained at 5.1 and the remaining sown or cultivated area in the Districts which stands
at 62.7 percent and 94.9 percent depended entirely on rainfall. For that matter, even the river
and tank projects and wells which were the sources of irrigation, if they have to attain their full
capacity ad prove useful to the cultivators, sufficient rainfall has to be there in the catchment
areas. Apart from crops, even for the grass to grow in banjar lands for providing fodder to the
cattle, enough rain has to be there in those areas. Whereas rains from the Southwest monsoons
occurred between June and October months, Northeast monsoons gave rains between November
and February months. In a year, whereas 70 to 80 percent rainfall was received from the
Southwest monsoons, only 4 to 7 (inches) rainfall was received from the Northeast monsoons.
However, the volume of rainfall used to vary from one district to another and from one year to
another year.
140
The total food crop cultivation during 1943-44 is 18,89,614 acres and in 1944-45 it is
19,57,614 acres. The non- food crops in 1943-44 is 9,56,969 acres and in 1944-45 acres is
8,20,665 acres. The food crops cultivation is double compared it with the non- food crops in
1943-44 and in 1944-45.
In food crops, Jowar, Bajra and rice cultivation dominated in Telangana region. Castor,
Maize, Cotton and Sesamum cultivation and production occupied an important place in Telangana
region during Nizams rule. Cereals and Pulses, Fodder crops, the fruits and vegetables cultivation
also occupied an important place in the Telangana region during 1930-31 to 1934-35. In Telangana
region Jowar occupied first place in food crops and in commercial crops the Castor. Cultivation
of major crops like Rice, Bajra, Jowar, Maize, Cereals & Pulses, Groundnut, Castor, Cotton and
Fodder Crops is more in Telangana. Slowly the commercial crops cultivation increased in the
region.

1. How many acres of land was there under Government Land Revenue system in the State?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. Himayat Sagar was built in the year.
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
11.3 INDUSTRIALISATION
Nizam rulers encouraged industries in the State and provided financial assistance to
them. The share of the State was four percent or more in cotton, matches, sugar, liquor, coal,
cement and other products. Considerable development in industry was made possible by the
distinctive role played by the State in making available infrastructural facilities for its growth.
The industrialisation of Hyderabad can be traced in three distinct phases. The First
phase began during the Prime Ministership of Sir Salar Jung I from the 1870s and ended with
the end of World War I in 1919. The Second phase started between the two World Wars i.e.
from 1919-39. The Third phase began with World War II in 1939 and continued till the end of
the Nizams rule in 1948. The division of industrial development into these three phases in
Hyderabad was based on the role of the State in industrial development by partial patronage
through ITF (Industrial Trust Fund).
11.3.1 First Phase (1870 – 1919)

The first phase started during the Diwanship of Salar Jung-I (1853-83). After the
implementation of reforms in the socio-economic, culture and administrative fields in the
Hyderabad State, and reforms introduced in transport and communications, the way was paved
141
for the commercialisation of crops and growing of commercial crops in the Dominion with the
cultivation of cotton crop in Marathwada and oil seeds in Telangana. The restructuring of the
agrarian economy was undertaken simultaneously with the modernisation of the State apparatus.
The efforts made by the Public Works Department (PWD) by providing water and irrigation
facilities also helped this process.
Hyderabad-Godavari Valley to Manmad railway line which was opened in 1899 helped
to establish cotton and ginning and pressing mills in those areas. During this period silk, carpets
and other small-scale industries were encouraged. The Hyderabad Deccan Spinning and Weaving
Mills Ltd, (1877), the Mahaboob Shahi Gulbarga Mills (1884) and Aurangabad Mills (1888)
power mills were established. Further the opening of railway line from Dornakal Junction, to
Singareni Collieries helped to transport coal from Singareni. By 1901, there were 68 large
industrial establishments of all kinds employing an average daily labour of ten or more. From
1911 to 1921, industries increased from 121 to 200 and employed 24,317 and 32,857 persons
respectively.
11.3.2 Second Phase (1919-1939)

In the second phase, the Nizam Government had taken an initiative to provide institutional
support for the development of industries. Financial and technological aid to industries helped in
the development of local industries, both small-scale and large-scale. In 1917, the Industrial
Laboratory was established for undertaking research and developmental work. Further a separate
Commerce and Industries Department (CID) was established in 1918. The year 1929 marked
an important landmark in the history of industrialisation in Hyderabad State. In this year, the
State owned Industrial Trust Fund (ITF) was created with a corpus fund of rupees one crore
initially and later it was raised to three crore rupees. This was invested in a number of large
industrial establishments in the form of shares and debentures and as loans for large-scale
industries, initiated research, provided training to students (through scholarships) and encouraged
businessmen to produce goods by improved methods and sponsored research centers and
market centers.
The technological and financial assistance of the Government attempted to provide
market facilities for artisan industries. The first attempt was to conduct or participate in industrial
exhibitions to promote the sale of these products. In Hyderabad, this tradition dates back to the
early years of Salar Jung’s Prime Ministership. Thereafter, the Government participated in a
number of such exhibitions held in India and abroad. From 1930, a permanent industrial exhibition
was setup in Hyderabad city. The Osmania University Graduates Association which organised
this exhibition with the assistance of the State also published a journal, Mulki Industries for
encouragement of small scale industries. The Cottage Industries Institute (CII) was also organised
with its own sales depot for the encouragement of the industries. The Depot acted as an
intermediary between village artisans and consumers.
In this period, the railways became a completely State-owned undertaking and came
to be known as the Nizam State Railway. It had the Mechanical Road Transport Service and
Civil Aviation under its wings. Hydroelectric power generation from the Nizam Sagar Canal
began in the late thirties. Power generation reached a peak of 20 million KW in 1938-39. Coal
production increased from an annual average of 0.65 million tons during the period 1916-19 to
over one million tons during the period 1936-38. Large industrial establishments increased from
about 200 in 1921 to 387 in 1931. Oil, rice and flour mills, small-scale motor and engineering
workshops, button factories, matches, textile mills, two cigarette factories (Charminar, VST)
two glass factories and a sugar factory were established. Sugar Factory established at Bodhan
under Nizam Sagar Project was biggest in Asia at that point of time.
The Diwan Bahadur Ramagopal Mill is called as D.B.R.Mill. It was established on
14th February, 1920 at Lower Tank Bund in Hyderabad by Diwan Bahadur Ramgopal with
encouragement of the Nizam Government.
142
11.3.3 Third Phase (1939-1948)
During the last phase between 1939-1948, the Nizam Osman Ali Khan made all possible
attempts to bring changes in the industrial policy resulting in the establishment of many industries.
Various industries were established by the last Nizam between 1920-1948.
Singareni Collieries (1921): It was named after the village Singareni in Khammam
District where the coal mines were first noticed. The Hyderabad Deccan Mining Company, a
London-based Firm began extracting coal at the Singareni Coal fields. Later in 1920, a new
company, Singareni Collieries Company (SCC), financed by the Government took over the
coalfields and started mining at Sasti and Paoni.
Allwyn Limited was established in January 1942 as Allwyn Metal Works. It was started
as joint venture of Industrial Development Trust of Nizam’s Hyderabad Government and Alladdin
Company. Praga Tools was established in May 1943 to manufacture machine tools with its
head quarters at Kavadiguda, Secunderabad. It was renamed as Praga Tools Limited in 1963
and was transferred to Defence Ministry. Paper Mill was established in 1946 at Sirpur
Kagaznagar, named as Sirpur paper Mills (SPM). The Sirpur Paper Mill Limited is an integrated
pulp and paper mill in one of the earliest mills in the county, situated in the district of Adilabad,
Telangana. It began production in 1942. Hyderabad Asbestos was established in the Princely
State of Hyderabad on 17th June, 1946. It produced cement sheets. It was renamed as Hyderabad
Industries.
Vazir Sultan Tobacco factory was started by late Vazir Sultan in 1916 at Vittalwadi.
After the advice of Mokshagundam Visweswarayya, the Vittawadi site was shifted to present
Hyderabad VST site i.e., Mushirabad – Azamabad area of Hyderabad city in 1930. The Company
manufactures and distributes cigarettes under the brand names of Charms, Charminar and
Gold Moments, etc. The two hundred acres of Mushirabad-Azamabad area was selected and
reserved for industries in 1930 on the advice of Mokshagundam Visweswaryya. Karkhana
Zinda Tilismath manufactured the popular Zinda Tilismath, Farooky tooth powder and Zinda
balm. It was introduced in Hyderabad State in 1920 by a well known Hakeem late Mohd.
Moizuddin Farooqui. Azam Jahi Mills, Warangal was established in 1934. Deccan Airways
Limited (1945) was a commercial airline founded in Hyderabad as the joint venture of Nizam
Government and Tata Airlines. It was launched with a fleet of three aircrafts. Later, in 1953, it
was merged with Indian Airlines. In 1941 Mir Osman Ali Khan established his own bank, the
Hyderabad State Bank (now State Bank of Hyderabad) as the State’s Central Bank, which
managed the Osmania sicca, the currency of the Hyderabad State. It was the only State which
had its own currency, the Hyderabadi rupee, which was different from the rest of India.
Hyderabad was the only State in the British India where the ruler was allowed to issue his own
currency notes. A 100 rupee note was introduced in 1918.
11.4 TRADE
The Hyderabad State is importing several commodities from the coastal Andhra,
Madras, Mysore and Bombay regions. The commodities such as salt, sugar, spices, metals and
ores, cinema films, apparels, paints and colours, tea and boots and shoes, the textiles, grains,
oils, wood and animals etc. were imported. British Company and English traders imported
various articles into Hyderabad State. Local traders also played an important role in trade.
Hyderabad State exported several articles. The articles such as grains and pulses,
cotton, linseed, oil seeds, groundnut, castor seed, indigo, oils, wood, cotton goods, hides and
skins, cattle and sheep and other articles were exported. Cotton, food grains, linseed, sesamum,
livestock and oils occupied an important place in exports. Cotton occupied first place in exports.
The region Marathwada contributed a lot for the exports of cotton to different parts of the
143
State. Foodgrains are chief exports from the State. Telangana region exported largely foodgrains
to different parts of the India. The above -mentioned commodities occupied first four places in
exports. Exports increased year by year from the State, commodities like cotton, linseed, castor
and oil etc.
In Telangana region there are a vide variety of markets that are located in different
places and supplied vivid articles for everyone in the region. The markets such as weekly fair
(Santa), Mandis, Ganjis, Regulated Markets, Periodical Bazaars and Cattle Bazaars are
important in this region. Weekly bazaar is very famous in Hyderabad State. Weekly bazaars
are in Atraf-i-Balda 35, Nizamabad 35, Medak 36, Mahaboobnagar 69, Nalgonda 11, Warangal
10, Karimnagar 18, and Adilabad 63. The total weekly bazaars in Telangana region is 277.
Warangal was the biggest marketing centre. Nizamabad, Khammam and Badepally are very
important markets. Warangal, Nizamabad and Khammam markets occupied first, second and
third places in trade and sold lakhs of value commodities. These markets supplied huge articles
to surrounding areas and distant areas in Telangana.
Hyderabad State had direct trade relation with Bombay, Madras, Central Province,
Berar, and Mysore. All these States are surrounding Hyderabad State. The ports in Bombay
and Madras Presidency were very much useful for Hyderabad exports and imports. Hyderabad
State exported 67 percent articles to abroad from Bombay port in 1935-36. Hyderabad State is
the largest oil seed producer in India and sent nearly 75 percent oil seeds to abroad through the
Bombay and Madras ports in 1935-36.

1. D.B. R Mills was established in the year
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. The Azam Jahi mills was established in the year
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
11.5 SUMMARY
The AsafJahi rulers encouraged agriculture sector. They constructed several projects
in different parts of the State. Osman Sagar, Himayat Sagar, Wyra, Kadem, Musi, Palair and
Munnair Projects were constructed by the Nizam rulers. They established Aurangabad Mills,
Osman Shahi Mills, D. B.R Mills and Azam Jahi Mills limited in the State. The Industrial Trust
Fund was established to financially support the industries. They encouraged trade. Madras and
Bombay ports exported and imported several article of Hyderabad State.
144
1. 30,000.000 acres.
2. 1926.

1. 1920.
2. 1934.

1. Explain the Agricultural development in Hyderabad State.
2. Assess the industrial development in Hyderabad State.
3. Analyse the Agrarian conditions during Nizams rule Rule.

1. Explain the irrigation development in Nizams Hyderabad.
2. Analyse the development of large-scale Industries in the State.
3. Discuss the trade activities in Hyderabad State.

1. Bilgrami, S.H. and Willmott : Historical and Descriptive Sketch of H.E.H. the
Nizam’s Dominion, Bombay, 1883.
2. Narayana, B.K : A Survey of Industries in Telangana, Secunderabad,
1962.
3. Ramakrishna Reddy, V : Economic History of Hyderabad State (Warangal
Suba, 1911-1950), New Delhi, 1987.
4. Sheela Raj : Medievalism to Modernism, Mumbai, 1987.
5. Subba Rao, C.V : Hyderabad, the Social context of Industrialisation,
Hyderabad, 2007
145
UNIT - 12: MODERNISATION DURING ASAFJAHIS
PERIOD
Contents
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Modernisation of Telangana under Salar Jung
12.2.1 Financial Reforms
12.2.2 Reforms in trade and commerce
12.2.3 Establishment of Public Works and Forest Department
12.2.4 Legal Reforms
12.2.5 Administrative Reforms
12.2.6 Salar Jung Reforms on Education
12.3 Development of Irrigation Facilities
12.4 Development of Transport and Communication
12.4.1 Postal and Telegraph Communications
12.5 Industrialisation
12.5.1 First phase (1870-1919)
12.5.2 Second phase (1919-39)
12.5.2.1 D.B.R.Mill (1920)
12.5.3 Third phase (1939-48)
12.6 Hyderabad State Bank
12.7 Educational Changes, 1884-1948
12.8 Administrative Changes during the period, 1884-1948
12.8.1 Rural Local Boards
12.8.2 Historical Monuments
12.9 Summary
12.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the Salar Jung-I reforms in Hyderabad state.
2. Explain the irrigational facilities under the last two Nizams.
3. Discuss the development of transport and communications in the State.
4. Analyse the growth of Industrialisation in the last Nizam period.
5. Describe the Educational reforms from 1884 – 1948.
146
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Prior to the appointment of Sir Salar Jung-I in 1853 as Prime Minister of Hyderabad
State, the financial and economic conditions in the State were chaotic. The State was under
severe financial crisis. Payment of salaries of officials of every branch were in arrears for a
long period. The Government was unable to carry on its day-to-day administration. Even the
Nizam was unable to meet his own personal expenses. Hence, he mortgaged his own jewellery
at high rate of interest. There was neither central public treasury nor control over minting and
no regular record of accounts. The income of the State was 1/5th of the its expenditure. Every
office was purchased in bidding and corruption prevailed everywhere.
Under such circumstance, a Western-educated 24 years-old young man, Mir Turab Ali
Khan, populary known as Salar Jung-I, was appointed as Prime Minister of the State on 31st
May, 1853, and continued in service till his death on 8th Februry, 1883. He had an opportunity of
serving under three Nizams viz., Nasir-ud-Daula (1829-1857), Afzal-ud-Daula (1857-1869)
and Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan (1869-1911). He enjoyed the confidence of the British due to his
policies like supporting the British during the critical years of 1857 Sepoy Revolt. Further, his
modernisation measures were much suited to colonial interest. Hence, they supported all his
reforms. From 1869 onwards, he acted as a regent of 3-years old minor ruler, Mir Mahaboob
Ali Khan and took control over the administration and took up several steps for the process of
modernisation.
12.2 MODERNISATION OF TEANGANA UNDER SALAR

JUNG-I
He has taken several steps for the purpose of the modernization.
12.2.1 Financial Reforms

Initially, he focused his attention to improve the financial condition of the State. To start
with, he introduced first set of reforms in 1855 by appointing paid Collectors in the place of
revenue farmers at districts, and thus liberated the districts from the rule of the corrupt contract
Talukdars. Second, credit facility was extended and introduce a reasonable rate of interest to
reduce the outstanding debts of the State on the one hand, and on the other hand, mortgaged
Government lands were liberated and brought back under the government control, which increased
its revenue tremendously. Third, he introduced the official ‘Hali sicca’ rupee in the place and
Government mint was established at Hyderabad, and private miniting was abolished. In the
fourth place, an Accountant generally, office was created to maintain the accounts of the
income and expenditure of the State. In the fifth plae, the different types of lands that were
under the control of tax farmers till then, were taken possession by the Government, which
increased the revenue of the Government. In the sixth place, the earlier system of village as a
unit for revenue collection was abolished. The tax was collected directly from the ryots by the
Government. This was the Bombay model of Ryotwri land revenue system and it was introduced
in the Nizam kingdom. It led to an increase in the government income or revenue. Further, the
Survey and Settlement of land were undertaken and rights were granted to Ryots individually
resulting in the stabilisation of land revenue administration.
12.2.2 Reforms in Trade and Commerce

Salar Jung aimed to promote trade to commerce and these by increase the government
revenue. He appointed Government customs officers for the collections of duty or highway
tax. These officials were to collect the duty at two places, one at borders where the goods
were entering the state and another at where the goods were sold. These reforms were useful
147
to release the trade from the control of the middle men and thereby there was improvement of
the trade and increase of revenue.
12.2.3 Establishement of Public Works and Forest Departments

Salar Jung brought about the establishment of Public Works Department under the
government control to take up the construction and Repairs of roads and irrigation facilities of
the State, which paved the way for agricultural development in the State. Further, a separate
Forest Department was established and brought the entire forest wealth under the government
control.
12.2.4 Legal Reforms

To improve the law and order in the State, a Police Department, called Mahkam-i-
Kotwali, was established at Hyderabad, and Police Stations at Districts, called the Choukies.
The Superintendents of Police and inspectors incharge of choukies were appointed to control
the law and order in the State. Further, he strengthened the Judiciary by establishing the High
Court at Hyderabad and appointed Munsiffs and Hiradils at districts to decide cases and render
justice.
12.2.5 Administrative Reforms

In 1865, Salar Jung introduced “Zilbandi” system. The entire State was divided into
uniform districts and appointed paid Collectors, Sub-Collectors and Tahasildars at Districts,
Taluqs and Patwaris respectively and Patels at villages for revenue collection and maintenance
of law and order. This led to further stabilisation in administration. Further, in 1868, the entire
government machinery was brought under the control of four ministers. They are:
i. Revenue
ii. Judicial
iii. Police
iv. Education, Health, Local Establishments, Rural Development and Public Welfare. These
ministers were called Sadar-ul-Mahams were responsible to the Diwan.
12.2.6 Salar Jung Reforms on Education

Sir Salar Jung-I also tried to introduce Western and modern English education in
Hyderabad State, so that he could get trained personel to run his administration. Hence, he
established a number of schools in the State. In 1855 Darul-ul-Uloom High School was established
with English as one of the compulsory subjects. The City High School was established in 1870.
The School of Engineering School was established in 1870 to produce the required technical
force to man the Public Works Department. As a result of these schools, small but very articulate
and intellectual elite group was created in the city of Hyderabad. In order to improve the
administrative standards of the State, he recruited talented personel from all over the country.
Thus, he laid strong foundation for the modernisation of administrative system in the state.
12.3 DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION FACILITIES

The rulers of Hyderabad State realized the importance of water resources development
from the second decade of 20th century, particularly during period of Mir Mahaboob Ali khan
the VII Nizam. The seventh Nizam, Osman Ali Khan appointed an able engineer, Nawab Ali
Nawaz Jung Bahadur, as chief engineer of Nizam’s kingdom. He prepared a comprehensive
water resources development plan for the exploitation of vast water potential available in the
major river basins of Godavari and Krishna and their tributaries. Further he undertook construction
148
of some new projects and tanks and repaired old lakes, canals, and tanks. These included
drinking water sources such as Mir Alani Tank, Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar, and irrigation
projects such as the Nizam Sagar Project, Palair, Wyra, Manair, Ramappa, Pakhal, Dindee,
Ghanpur and Singabhupalam projects. These provide water for producing Rice, Maize,
Sugarcane, Turmeric, Chillies and Groundnut crops.

1. Zilbandi System was introduced by?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. City High School was established in the year?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
12.4 DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT AND

COMMUNICATION
The development of modern means of transport such as rail, road, airways, postal and
telecommunication facilities form the basis for the Hyderabad State’s agricultural, industrial
and commercial growth, as well as facilitating administration and maintaining of relations with
the neighboring States of British India. The British government for promoting its military, economic
and political interests, encouraged the construction of railways in the Nizam’s State. With a
private British company coming forward to invest in the State’s railway construction, important
lines such as Bombay to Madras via Wadi, Wadi to Secunderbad, the latter’s extension to
Warangal and from Warangal to Ghanda, its further extension to Singareni coal fields and
Hyderabad Godavari Valley railway line, running from Manmad via Aurangabad to Secunderbad
etc. have been laid between 1874-1899. Nampally and Kachiguda Railway Stations have been
built for the convenience of rail passengers of the capital city. By the end of the First World
War, three broad gauge lines (352 miles) and three meter gauge lines (620 miles) connected
Hyderabad city with different parts of the State.
Road ways followed the railways. Prior to 1868, there were trunk roads leading from
Hyderabad to Sholapur, Gulbarga, Kurnool, Masulipatnam, Hanamkonda and Nagpur. Some of
these roads were originally built by the British for facilitating the movement of their troops.
These were later on takeover by State Government in 1867. Later on, the Nizam government
undertook and constructed many trunk roads connecting the capital city of Hyderabad with the
districts and other Indian provinces. Till the year 1932 road transport was operated by private
individuals and companies. As the latter caused lot of inconvenience to the public by irregular
and non-punctual service with higher charges extracted arbitrarily. Hence the Nizam’s
Government took it over and entrusted it to the Railways Roads Department in 1932. It came
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to be services known as Nizam’s State Railways Road Transport Department (NSR-RTD). It
was able to open bus depots in all the district headquarters and operate buses from the capital
city to the districts by 1936.
Hyderabad State has the distinction of being the airways for the first time with
headquarters at Begumpet. It was started in 1938 and air traffic was brought under the control
and operation of Nizam’s Government State Railway Board.
12.4.1 Postal and Telegraph Communications

Postal services, prior to 1869, was under private management through a contract system.
When it was brought under Government control, this Department was modernised and organised
on the model that was prevailing in British India. All district and taluq headquarters and important
towns and business centres have been provided with Post Offices and personel to maintain.
The Telegraph Department was administered by the Postal Department.
Last but not the least, telegraphs service was introduced in Hyderabad city in 1885. To
start with, there was only one Telephone Exchange with lines at Baradari in the City. Though
initially it was put for Government use, it was thrown open to the public afterwards. To cope up
with the demand, Exchanges were opened at Narayanguda and Secunderabad. Trunk lines
were installed in 1926 and 1927 connecting Hyderabad capital city with the district headquarters
and important towns of the State. Between 1922-1945, there were 10 Telephone Exchanges
with 2004 telephone connections.
12.5 INDUSTRILISATION
Before the Hyderabad State was intergrated into Indian Union, a wide range of industrial
goods were being produced in Hyderabad. By that time, the population of the State was about
4% of the total population of India has 3% of the country’s factory labour,7 % of factories and
about 6% of the paid-up value of its capital in the corporate sector. The share of the State was
four percent or more in cotton, matches, sugar, liquor, coal, cement and other products.
Considerable development in industry was made possible by the distinctive role played by the
State in making available infrastructural facilities for its growth.
The industrialisation of Hyderabad can be traced in three distinct phases. The first
phase began during the Diwani or Prime Ministership of Sir Salar Jung-I from 1870s and ended
with the end of World War-I in 1919. The second phase lasted during the years between the
two World Wars 1919 – 1939. The Third phase began with World War-II in 1939 and continued
up to the end of Nizam’s rule in 1948. The division of industrial development into these three
phases in Hyderabad was based on the role of State in industrial development by partial patronage
through ITF (Industrial Trust Fund), whereas it was purely private enterprise in rest of British
India.
12.5.1 First phase (1870-1919)

During the first phase, wide – range of measures were initiated by the state for
restructuring the economy and polity during the Diwanship of Mir Turab Ali Khan, by the
Prime Minister Salar Jung-I (1853-83). This marked the beginning of industrialisation in Hyderabad
State. After the implementation of reforms in the economic, social, education and administrative
fields in the kingdom of Nizam and also the reforms in transport and other communications,
way was paved for the cultivation of cotton crop in Marathwada and oil seeds in Telangana.
The restructuring of the agrarian economy was undertaken simultaneously with the modernisation
of the State apparatus. Efforts were made by the Public Works Department in providing water
and irrigation facilities also helped this process.
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Further, the opening of Hyderabad – Godavari Valley to Manmad railway line in 1889
helped to establish cotton and its related ginning and pressing mills in those areas. During this
period silk, carpets and other small-scale industries were encouraged. As a result, the Hyderabad
Deccan Spinning and Weaving Mills Ltd, (1877), the Mahaboob Shahi Gulbarga Mills (1884)
and Aurangabad Mills (1888) were established. Further, the opening of railway line from Dornakal
junction to Singareni collieries helped to transport coal from Singareni. By 1901, there were 68
large industrial establishments of all kinds employing an average daily labour of ten thousand or
more. From 1911 to 1921, the number of establishments increased from 121 to 200 and employed
24,317 and 32,857 persons, respectively.
12.5.2 Second phase (1919-39)

During the second phase, the Nizam’s State took the initiative to provide institutional
support to industry. Financial and technological aid to industries helped in the development of
local industry, both in small scale and large-scale sectors. The industrial laboratory was established
in 1917. The year 1929 marked an important landmark in the history of industrialsation in the
Hyderabad State. In this year, the State owned Industrial Trust Fund (ITF) was created with a
corpus fund of rupees one crore initially and later it was raised to three crore rupees was
established. This was invested in a number of large industrial establishments in the form of
shares and debentures and as loans for small-scale industries, initiated research, provided training
to students and encouraged businessmen to produce goods on improved methods and sponsored
researched centers and market centers. The Industrial Trust Fund (ITF) also acted as a managing
agent for a number of companies in the State.
Along with technological and financial assistance, the Government also attempted to
provide market facilities to artisan based industries. The first attempt was to conduct or participate
in industrial exhibition to promote the sale of these products. In Hyderabad, this tradition dates
back to the mid-nineteenth century during the early years of Salar Jung’s Prime Ministership.
Thereafter, the Government participated in a number of such exhibitions held in India and
abroad. From 1930, a permanent industrial exhibitions was set up in Hyderabad city. The Osmania
University Graduate’s Associated which organised this exhibitions with the assistance of the
State, also published a journal, Mulki Industries for the encouragement of small-scale industries.
In later years, the Cottage Industries Institute (CII) was also organised with its own sales depot
for the encouragement of the industries. The depot acted as an intermediary between village
artisans and consumers.
During this phase, the railways became a completely state-owned undertaking and
came to be known as the Nizam State Railway. It had the Mechanical Road Transport Service
and Civil Aviation under its wings. Hydro-electric power generation from Nizam Sagar Canal
began in the late thirties. Power generation reached a peak of 20 million KW in 1938-39. Coal
production increased from an annual average of 0.65 million tons during the period 1916-19 to
over one million tons during the period 1936-38. Large industrial establishments increased from
about 200 in 1921 to 387 in 1931. Oil, rice and flour mills, small-scale motor and engineering
workshops, button factories, matches and tanneries increased substantially. In the corporate
sector (joint stock companies), three more textile mills, two cigarette factories (Charminar,
VST), two glass factories and a sugar factory were established. Sugar factory established at
Bodhan under Nizam Sagar project was the biggest in Asia at that point of time.
12.5.2.1 D.B.R Mill (1920)

Diwan Bahadur Ramagopal Mill is called as D.B.R Mill. It was established on 14th
February, 1920 at Lower Tank Bund in Hyderabad by the Diwan Bahadur Ramgopal with the
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encouragement of the Nizam’s Government. It was a cotton industry producing the cloth from
the raw material brought from outside. Now it is closed.
12.5.3 Third phase (1939-48)

During the last phase between 1939-1948, the Nizam Osnam Ali Khan made all possible
attempts to bring changes in the industrial policy resulting in the establishment of many industries.
Singareni Coleries mining company at Singareni village in Khammam District in 1921, Nizam
Sugar Factory at Bodhan in Nizamabad District in 1937, Allwyn Metal works at Hyderabad in
1942, Karkhana Zinda Tilismath at Hyderabad in 1920, Charminar cigarette factory (1925) by
Vazir Sultan Tobacco Company (1930) at Hyderabad, Azamjahi Mills, Warangal(1934),
Hyderabad Asbestos at Hyderabad (1946), Praga Tools company at Kavadiguda,
Secunderabad(1943) Sirpur Kagaznagar Paper Mill at Adilabad in 1942, have been established.
Thus, the last Nizam encouraged industrialisation in the State.
12.6 HYDERABAD STATE BANK (1941)

In 1941 Mir Osman Ali Khan established his own bank, the Hyderabad State Bank
(State Bank of Hyderabad) as the State’s Central Bank, which managed the Osmania sicca,
the currency of the Hyderabad State. It was the only State which had its own currency, the
Hyderabad rupee, which was different from the rest of India. Hyderabad was the only State in
British India where the ruler was allowed to issue his own currency notes. A 100 rupees note
was introduced in 1918.
12.7 EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 1884-1948

Christian missionaries happened to be the pioners in imparting Western education in
the princely state of Hyderabad as they had done in other parts of the country. St. George’s
Grammar School was opened in Hyderabad city in 1834 by a clergyman of the Church of
England. As a welcome measure, a separate Education Department was created and kept
under the Director of Public Instruction. Nizam College of 1887 had its origins in the Chadergaht
English High School of 1872 and School of Engineering of 1870, and stood affiliated to Madras
University. Between 1870-1880, two important schools were opened in the Hyderabad city for
education of students for higher classes in the society. These happened to the Madarsa-i-
Aliya as an English school for the education of the children of the nobility, and the one being
Madarsa-e-Aizza for the sons of the royal family. Further, by the year 1882, there were three
aided English High Schools. St. George’s Grammar School, All-Saints School, Mahboob High
School and a few English medium schools for girls, such as the Dharmvant High School near
Charminar and Keyes High School in Secunderabad etc, came into existence for the usage of
the people.
It is significant to note that throughout the Nizam period, the medium of instruction in
Hyderabad State was mainly Urdu and English at all other levels of education. Throught it was
agreed that Primary Education should be in the mother – toungue of the pupil, no arrangements
were made for its practice.
In accordance with the general design of the educationists and educating parents, Mir
Osman Ali Khan, the VII Nizam, has issued a farman on 28th August, 1981 for the establishment
of Osmania university in an area of 1400 acres. The medium of instruction was Urdu, but
English was a compulsory subject in both Arts and Sciences. A special feature of the University
was the establishment of Translation and Compilation Bureau in 1918 which successfully
translated European Science books into Urdu language to cater to the needs of the students. It
has the distinction of being the first university with non-English language (Urdu) as the medium
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of instruction. The starting of this university was followed by the opening of new colleges in the
city in the form of City College in 1921, Zenana Intermediate College, Engineering College,
Teacher Training Colleges one for the boys and the other for girls, and the Warangal Intermediate
College came into existence during 1929-1930. As Urdu was made compulsory for government
job, there was a great demand for the University and its affiliated colleges.
It has be noted that Primary Schools, Secondary Schools and even Intermediate
Colleges, have allowed to open in districts. Degree colleges and beyond are allowed only in the
capital city. The main reason begin non-permitting of opening of private Schools with regional
language as medium of instruction.
12.8 ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS DURING THE PERIOD,

1884-1948
An important decision was taken in the year 1921 which was the separation of Judiciary
from the Executive or from Revenue officials. The Judiciary was strengthened by appointing
Judges at all levels with full powers. In this respect, Hyderabad became pioneer in the entire
country.
The system of local bodies was first introduced in the Hyderabad State for administration
in 1869, when Salar Jung-I was the Diwan. He removed the City Municipal Administration
from the City Police Commissioner’s supervision and, consequently a new branch which came
to be known as the Municipality and Road Maintenance Branch, was placed under a Municipal
Committee. The Municipal Committee had Government representatives, non-government
representatives elected from different groups and their term was three years. In 1881 in order
to improve the efficiency of the Municipalities, it was bifurcated into two units viz., the City
Municipality and the Chadarghat Municipality for the suburbs, each placed under a separate
Municipal Secretary. By 1903, the City and Chadarghat Municipalities were again amalgamated
and placed under one Secretary and a Municipal Committee.
12.8.1 Rural Local Boards

Local bodies were created during Lord Rippon’’s period in 1884. The Nizam of
Hyderabad too had issued a promulgation of the Dastur-ul-Amal or Local Fund Rules Act in
1888 and the Act came in to effect from 1889. The Act provided for the establishment of three
kinds of Local Boards viz., (i) Central Board, (ii) District Boards at district level, and (iii) Taluq
Boards at the Taluq level.
Each of these Boards was required to hold at least one ordinary meeting every month
and as many extraordinary meetings as are necessary. The members of the District and Taluq
Boards held office for a period of three years. These boards were constituted with all related
officials of all branches and nominated non-officials. Central Board headed by the President of
Executive Council or Revenue Minister, District Board was headed by Taluqdar or Collector,
Taluq Board was headed by Tahasildars and they were responsible to inspect the expenditure
and works which were allotted under Local Fund Rules to find out whether the Local Fund
Rules were carried properly or not and supervise at the subordinate level.
The Ayyanagar Committee recommended the establishment of village Panchanyats
for covering a population of 1000 to 5000 and a new Legislative Act of 1942 was introduced by
the Nizam’s Government to establish village Panchayats for the first time in the Dominion.
Provision was made for the nomination of Panchayatdars ranging from 5 to 11 for each
Panchayat by the first Taluqdar (Collector) out of the list of persons furnished by the Tahasildar.
The Collectors or First Taluqdar was also empowered to nominated the Sarpanch from among
the members of the Panchayat. The term of Panchayat was three years.
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12.8.2 Historical Monuments
Mir Osman Ali Khan took keen interest in architecture. The architecture of his period
depicts the ideas and thoughts of the people and culture and civilisation of the time. Osmania
University, Osmania General Hospital were built in Mughal and Indo-Saracenic style. The High
Court was built in Indo-Saracenic style. The Legislative Assembly building is in Saracenic
Rajastani style and other buildings like the City College, Pubic Gardens, Unani Hospital, Asafia
Library, Hyderabad and Secunderabad Railway Stations, Town Hall, Eden Bagh, Jubilee Hall
all are built in Hindu-Islamic and Western style. The City Improvement Board was set up at this
time laid out gardens, built markets, widened streets and provided for underground sewerage.
Mir Osman Ali Khan, Nizam-VII was a versatile personality and a progressive ruler.
He was visionary and a knowledgeable diplomat and a great administrator. He was great
linguist and had command over six languages. Besides Urdu, he was well-versed in English,
Turkish, Arabic, Persian and Telugu. The great and far-reaching changes brought forth by him
in the field of education, public health, city improvement, rural upliftment, agriculture, industries,
trade and commerce, transport and communications not only changed the fate of the State but
also laid strong foundation for its growth and its onward march into a progressive future.

1. When the Telegraph services introduced in Hyderabad City.?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
2. The Mahaboob Shahi Gulbarga Mill setup in the year. ?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
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12.9 SUMMARY
In Nizams Hyderabad State served reforms introduced by Sir Salar Jung. He was
established several educational institutions in Hyderabad City. Nizam rulers established textile
power looms in different parts of Hyderabad State. They were encouraged industries and
developed transport and communications in the state.
Modernisation of Hyderabad and Telangana began under the stewardship of Prime
Minister Salar Jung-I during 1853-1883. He reorganised the whole administrative of State by
brining very talented personnel into the State administration and modernised, the administration
on the British model. Further, Land survey and settlement, modernisation of education and
transport communication system were undertaken. His reforms contributed and the beginning
of modernisation. After Salar Jang, the last two Nizams, Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan and Osman
Ali Khan (1911-1948) took vigorous steps have been taken in all the fields which furthered the
process of modernisation and industrilsation in Hyderabad State.

Check Your Progress Answers I
1. 1865.
2. 1870.
Check Your Progress Answers II
1. 1885.
2. 1884.

I. Answer the following question in about 30 lines each.
1. How did the Salar Jung-I reforms helped the process of modernisation of Hyderabad
State.
2. Write about the development of irrigation facilities under the last two Nizams.
3. Write a note on the three phases of industrialisation in the Hyderabad Sate.
II. Answer the following question in about 15 lines each.

1. Discuss the financial reforms of Salar Jung-I.
2. Trace the growth of railways in the Nizam State.
3. Write about the progress of education from1884-1948 in the Hyderabad State.

1. Ramesan. N. : Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad.
2. Sheela Raj. : Medivalism to Modernism, Socio Economic and
Cultural History of Hyderabad. (1969-1911).
3. Bawa,V.K. : The Nizam between Mughals and British, Hyderabad
under Salar Jung-I. S.Chand & Co., New Delhi 1986.
4. Subba Rao, C.V. : Hyderabad, the Social Context of Industrialization
(1875-1948).
5. Rama Krishna Reddy,V. : Economic Development History of Hyderabad State
(Warangal Suba, 1911-1950), Delhi 1987.
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BLOCK - V
POPULAR MOVEMENTS
IN TELANGANA
The Hyderabad Freedom struggle, the last episode "accession movement" (which
was started by Ramananda Tirtha on 7th August, 1947) took place with peasants struggle
in villages, Satyagraha in the towns, demonstrations and protests on one side, diplomatic
consultation outside the Hyderabad State, national level political parties, pressure, in addition
to the methods adopted in the Indian freedom struggle, the Join India Movement was
finally successful.
The Gonds, once the ruling community refused the Nizam oppressive rule and
policies. Revolted against Government. Ramji Gond revolted in 1850 Komaram Bheem's
Jodeghat revolt asserted the independence of Adivasis of Telangana leaders. Mobilised
the public for the abolition of forced labour, untouchability and other evils in the society.
Dalit leaders demanded equal educational and economic opportunities and equal rights to
them. Peasant Struggle fought for land to tiller, wages and liberation of people from
feudal oppression. From 1946 till1950 Communist Party supported it and provided main
motive force for massive mobilisation. The Peoples Movement in Hyderabad was historic
and showed the collective strength.
During the period from 15th August 1947 to September 1948, the Nizams
Government printed its own Postal stamps bearing 'Azad Hyderabad'. In November 1947,
Hyderabad signed a Standstill Agreement with the Dominion of India, continuing all previous
arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the State. However, with the
rise of militant Razakars, India found it necessary to station Indian troops and invaded the
State in September, 1948, to compel the Nizam Subsequently, the Nizam signed an
Instrument of Accession, joining India
Unit - 13: Freedom Movement in Telangana.
Unit - 14: Tribal, Dalit, Peasant and Women's Movements.
Unit - 15: Integration of Hyderabad State into the Indian Union.
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UNIT - 13: FREEDOM MOVEMENT IN TELANGANA
Contents
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Public Awakening Events
13.2.1 Activities of Arya Samaj
13.2.2 Library Movement in Telangana
13.3 Socio – Economic Divide
13.4 Growth of Public Opinion: Contributory Developments
13.5 Swadeshi Movement in Hyderabad State
13.6 Khilafat Movement in Hyderabad State
13.7 The formation of the Andhra Jana Sangham
13.8 The Role of Andhra Maha Sabha
13.9 Formation of Hyderabad State Congress and 1938 Satyagraha
13.9.1 Aims and Objectives of State Congress
13.10 Osmania University Student’s Strike: Vandemataram Movement
13.11 Majlis-e-Ittehad-ul Muslimeen
13.12 Communist Party
13.13 Developments during 1940s
13.13.1 Join Indian Union Movement
13.13.2 Standstill Agreement
13.14 Summary
13.17 Further Reading
13.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the Freedom Movement in Telangana.
2. Explain the Socio-Economic background and other factors responsible for the
Movement.
3. Discuss the formation of Andhra Jana Sangham and Andhra Mahasabha.
4. Analyse the formation and activities of Hyderabad State Congress.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
First Nizam or founder happened to be Mughal Viceroy in the Deccan. Hyderabad
gradually became the first Princely State to come under British paramountcy signing a Subsidiary
Alliance agreement. They ruled with the help of hereditary Jagirdars and subordinate kings.
Jagirdars were given control of dozens and even hundreds of villages. The rest of the kingdom
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was ruled directly by the Nizam. The Nizam of Hyderabad State were Muslims who spoke
Decani Urdu. Majority of people of the State were Hindus who spoke Telugu, Kannada and
Marathi. Urdu was the official language and more than 90% of all high officials were Muslims.
The Nizams wanted to retain the old system in which the king and his nobles controlled all
resources and ruled as they wish. They did not allow any democratic system like local bodies or
legislatures. The Nizams opposed the Congress-led nationalist movement and passed several
farman’s or Royal orders curtailing political activity in the State. The Princely State of Hyderabad
has come under the influence and impact of the historic National Freedom Movement. The
people of the native States were impressed by the ideals of the leaders of the Indian National
Congress which was established in 1885. Andhra Jana Sangham, Andhra Mahasabha and
Hyderabad State Congress had played very crucial role to get freedom from the feudal rule of
the Nizam.
13.2 PUBLIC AWAKENING EVENTS

The Chanda Railway Scheme protest which took place in 1883 in the Nizam’s State
could be regarded as the first event in this regard. Aghoranath Chatopadhyaya and Mulla Abdul
Khayyum who led this protest movement, expressed the opinion that this Scheme was against
the interests of the people of Hyderabad State and demanded that the Government should put
the details of the Scheme before the people. Though the Government has, inspite of this protest
of the people, implemented the said Railway Scheme in toto yet, as bowing interference and
investments are opposed, it could be regarded that first step has been taken towards the
implementation of Swadeshi policy. In 1892 the Arya Samaj commenced its activities by
establishing branches in the State to highlight The Hindu heritage and culture and opposed all
those activities which brought insult to them. Thus, the Arya Samaj in due course became a
prominent organisation to protect the rights of Hindus.
13.2.1 Activities of Arya Samaj

Stalwarts like Keshavrao Koratkar, were Prominent Among the leaders who sought
for the promotion of Swadeshi Ideas in the Nizam State in 1883. Damodar Satwalekar, and Dr.
Agoranath Chattopadhyaya of Hyderabad city supported the activities of Arya Samaj. They
made efforts to spread nationalistic feelings among the people by organising Ganesh festivals
on large scale in 1895 as Bala Gangadhar Tilak did so in Bombay.
The establishment of Arya Samaj in 1892 in the Hyderabad city marked the beginnings
of cultural revival. The Arya Samaj leaders were prosecuted by the Government for their
alleged anti-Muslim activities. Yet the activities of the Arya Samaj continued. Falling in line with
the all-India pattern set by BalaGangadhra Tilak in Maharashtra, the Ganesh festival celebrations
were also started in Hyderabad in 1895. The other evidence of a cultural and social renaissance
during this period were the foundation of Osmania University on 28th August, 1919, the publication
of Telugu Journals and the starting of the Hyderabad Social Service League. Slowly political
consciousness also flowed into the Hyderabad State. The Maharashtra leaders in Hyderabad
like Pandit Keshev Rao Koratkar, Vaman Ramachandra Naik and GanpatRao Hardikar founded
Vivekavardhani Patasala in 1906, which later on developed into a leading educational society
in the State, known as the Vivekvardhini Educational Society. In 1907,Vithal Rao Deulgaonkar,
Keshav Rao Koratkar and Garuda Rao started the Nutan Vidyalaya High School at Gulbarga.
The Nutan Vidyalaya played a prominent role in spreading education in the Karnataka region of
the Hyderabad State. The founding of the above institutions marked the beginning of the cultural
revival in Hyderabad State.
Aryasamaj Movement in Hyderabad State Swamy Dayananda Saraswathi founded
the Arya Samaj organisation in 1875. Its main objective was to revive the Vedic religion and
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unite the Hindus and also reconvert those people into Vedic religion who were forcibly converted
into Islam religion due to circumstances. This Arya Samaj influence was there in Hyderabad
State also. In the year 1892 Arya Samaj was established in Hyderabad. Arya Samaj served as
a training ground for workers in constructive activities and helped to rouse public opinion and
build socio-religious awareness. It has provided many leaders to the nationalist movement in
Hyderabad State. Pandit Keshava Rao Koratkar, Hyderaabad High Court Advocate continued
as President of Hyderabad Arya Samaj up to 1932. In 1921, the Hindu religious treatise
‘Satyartha Prakash’ was translated into Telugu. Arya Samaj got spread in Hyderabad State
through schools and libraries.
In 1934, the Central Council of Arya Samaj in Delhi requested Hyderabad Government
to allow Aryasamaj programmes in Hyderabad, but, Government imposed strict conditions and
rules on the programmes of Arya Samaj. In 1935, Government of Nizam banned the Urdu
weekly ‘Vedic Adarsh’, which was started by Arya Samaj in 1934. According to Gazette
No.53, Arya Samaj’s Programmes and literature were banned.
After 1940 onwards, Arya Samaj undertook the constructive programmes in Hyderabad
State. On 20th July 1940, Pandit Keshava Rao Memorial School was inaugurated. Many Arya
Samaj meetings were held in different places in Hyderabad State to protect their rights. Till the
integration of Hyderabad State with Indian Union on 17th September 1948, starting from August,
947, the Razakars indulged in destroying the properties of Hindus and also committed murders,
molestations and created terror among Hindus. Many Hindus from Telangana region migrated
to neighbouring places as refugees in order to protect their lives. To help these refugees, Arya
Samaj constructed camps around the border cities in Telangana like Sholapur,Pandarpur, Barsi,
Bijapur, Umarkhand, Buldhana, Amaravathi and Vijayawada.Arya Samaj tried its best to protect
the Hindus of this State.
13.2.2 Libraries Movement in Telangana

Libraries established in Telangana brought renaissance to Telugu language with the
efforts of the prominent personalities like Komarraju Laxman Rao, Ravichettu Ranga Rao,
Gadicharla Harisarvotham Rao, Munagala Raja Venkata Narasinga Rao and so on. Their efforts,
made the Telugu-speaking people to develop love and attachment for their own language and
all this paved the way for Library Movement in Telangana.
During this period several cultural and literary associations came into existence, leaders
like Komarraju Laxman Rao, Gadicherla Harsarvotham Rao and A. Kaleshwer Rao wanted to
forge strong cultural links with the people of Telangana. Due to the efforts of Komarraju
Laxman Rao, the first Telugu Library, viz., Sri Krishna Devaraya Andhra Bhasha Nilayam
was started in 1901. In 1906 they established a literary association called the Vignana Chandrika
Mandali to promote the publication of popular books in Telugu on science, literature and history.
Apart from this, two more Telugu libraries, viz., Sri Raja Raja Narendra Bhasha Nilayam
and Andhra Samvardhini Library were established in 1904 and 1905 at Hanmakonda and
Secunderabad respectively. Komarraju Laxman Rao laid the foundation for the cultural revival
of Telangana and also received the cultural contacts between Andhra and Telangana regions.
The News Papers like the ‘Hyderabad Record’ which came into existence in the last quarter of
the 19th Century also played a creditable part in awakening the people of Hyderabad.
‘NilagirPatrika’ and ‘Telugu Pathrika’ also played important role.
13.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC DIVIDE

Hyderabad was the biggest Princely State in India both by virtue of its size and its
population. The Nizam’s dominions included three distinct linguistic areas: Marathi-speaking,
Kannada-speaking and Telugu speaking regions. Hyderabad State was divided into four broad
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divisions as Warangal, Medak, Aurangabad and Gulbarga Subas. Osman Ali Khan, who became
Nizam in 1911 and continued till 1948 ruled the State as an unrivalled autocrat. Sarfikhas, the
Nizam’s own estate, which accounted for ten percent of the total area of the State, became the
privy purse or the Royal preserve. Another thirty percent of the State area was held as Jagirs
by various categories of the nobles whose people got heavily burdened by a whole gamut of
illegal levies and exactions. The condition of agriculture and the agricultural tenants was pathetic
to the extreme. The big landlords known as Deshmukhs, Deshpandyas, Maktdars, Patels
and Patwaris subjected their ryots tenants to serfdom and slavery known as baghela and
begari or vetti.
Education was at the lowest ebb. The percentage of literacy in the entire State was
only 4.8%. Out of this, the percentage among the non-Urdu speaking people was 3.3%, though
they constituted 89% of the total population. Urdu was the medium of instruction from Primary
School to the University. Even technical text books were translated and made available in
Urdu. The Nizams were slow in setting up schools in their kingdom. Many Jagirdars did not
even allow setting up of schools in their areas. The Nizams were also suspicious of private
schools that they would become centres for the propagation of anti-Nizam ideas. They actually
discouraged the setting up of private Telugu medium schools. The Nizam’s administration
increasingly tried to project Hyderabad as a Muslim State, and the process was accelerated
after 1927 with the emergence of the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, an organisation that based itself on
the notion of the Nizam as the ‘Royal Embodiment of Muslim Sovereignty in the Deccan’.
13.4 GROWTH OF PUBLIC OPINION: CONTRIBUTORY

DEVELOPMENTS
In the third quarter of the 19th century, Salarjung made a beginning to impart Western
education in the State. He established several educational institutions and even invited talented
persons from all over the country to manage them. By 1880, a small but very articulate intellectual
elite had grown up in Hyderabad which used to take interest in public affairs.
The growth of public opinion in the Hyderabad State could have started in 1883 with
the agitation over ‘the Chanda Railway Scheme’. The agitation was started by some intellectual
elite like Dr.AghoranathChattopadhyaya, the father of Sarojini Naidu, Mulla Abdul Qayum and
others. These intellectuals felt that ‘the Chand Railway Scheme’ was not in the interests of the
Hyderabad State and they insisted that a committee should be set up to make an enquiry about
the Scheme. The agitators were arrested and later released by the autocratic Government of
the Nizam. This incident reveals that a certain section of the hitherto docile population of
Hyderabad State found the courage to question an act of the autocracy of the Nizam. Thus, this
incident may be considered as the beginning of the growth of public awakening in the Hyderabad
State.
The Indian National Congress which was founded in year 1885 attracted the attention
of few citizens who were the intellectual elite drawn from the upper middle class strata of the
society. They welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress. Among these, Mulla
Abdul Qayum, Ramachandra Pillai, and Dr.Aghoranath Chattopadhyaya played a prominent
part in building up public opinion among the educated few in the State of Hyderabad. In October
1888, a small committee of influential persons held a meeting to popularise Indian National
Congress. Mulla Abdul Qayyum of Hyderabad became a great champion of the Congress. He
attacked the nobility, and opposed the special favours granted to them in the Nizam’s State. He
was also responsible for organising Anjumen-e-maref which aimed at developing social,
intellectual and economic life of the people. Papers like Hyderabad Record, Deccan Standard,
Golconda Patrika etc. propagated nationalism.
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13.5 SWADESHI MOVEMENT IN HYDERABAD STATE
Swadeshi Movement was started by Bala Gangadhara Tilak in the Maharashtra region.
This movement had its effect on Hyderabad State. The Maratha people living in Hyderabad
were influenced more. Keshava Rao Koratkar was having intimate relations with the leaders
of Maharashtra. During the period of 1906-1907, many meetings were conducted at different
places in Hyderabad State about Swadeshi Movement and its relevance. It was pleaded in
these meetings to boycott the foreign goods. Arya Samaj, Ganesh Uthsava Committees and
other cultural organisations promoted the Swadeshi Movement. When Balagangadhar Tilak
was arrested and sent to jail in 1908, people strongly reacted. The News Papers in Hyderabad
also condemned the British action. Starting from 1901 to 1909 Arya Samaj organized many
programmes in Hyderabad State. A Sanskrit Pandit, Sripada Damodar Satyalekar visited the
entire Telangana and gave lectures. In these lectures, he used to explain about Swadeshi
movement. Gym Clubs also were started in Telangana which helped to inspire the young people
to think about Swadeshi Movement.
13.6 KHILAFAT MOVEMENT IN TELANGANA

After the First World War ‘Sevres Treaty’ became important one. According to this
treaty, Turkey will loose part of its territory to Britain and its allies. After this development, the
Muslims all over the world started the movements favouring Calipha and opposing the Britain’s
monarchical policy. This Khilafat Movement had impact on Hyderabad State. A series of meetings
were conducted at various places. Some meetings were also held in the regions of Jangaon,
Medak and Karimnagar. The leaders of this movement were Barrister Azgarh, HaskariHasna,
Kari Vijjamaan, Md.Murthuza, Humayun Murthuza, Pandita Keshav Rao, Raghavendra Sharma,
etc.,.
The Khilafat agitation brought the Hindus and the Muslims together. The meetings
were addressed by both Hindus and Muslims. The Nizam’ Government, perturbed by these
developments, issued a Farman forbidding the holding of political meetings in the State and the
entry of British Indian political leaders.
13.7 THE FORMATION OF ANDHRA JANA SANGHAM

The Nizam’s State’s Social Reforms Conference was held in Hyderabad on 11th and
12th November, 1921. The Conference was presided by Maharshi Karve. The proceedings of
the Conference, for the most part, were conducted in English, Urdu and Maratha. But, one of
the delegates at the Conference, Allampalli Venkatarama Rao wanted to move a resolution in
Telugu. His attempts to move the resolution in Telugu were hooted down by the audience and
more vociferously so, by the Maharashtrian section. A resolution in Telugu getting hooted down
in the very capital of the Telugu people, was taken as a great affront by those Telugu members
who happened to be present at the Conference. That very night they formed an association
called the ‘Andhra Jana Sangham’, with an initial membership of only twelve members. Very
soon, the membership of the Andhra Jana Sangam rose to hundred and its first meeting was
held at Hyderabad under the chairmanship of Konda Venkata Ranga Reddy on 14th February
1922. At this meeting, the name of the Andhra Jana Sangham was changed to that of the
Nizam’s State Andhra Jana Sangham and MadapatiHanumantha Rao proved to be the guiding
spirit of the movement for the social and cultural upliftment of the Telangana people.
The Andhra Jana Sangham aimed at the social, economic and cultural revival of the
people of Telangana by establishing Telugu Libraries, Reading Rooms and Private Schools. It
encouraged scholars and historians to write books that would throw light on the ancient history
of Andhra people. To encourage the efforts of the Andhra Jana Sangham, newspapers like
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Nilagiri Pathrika, the Telugu Pathrika, and the Golconda Pathrika also came into the field.
The library movement started by the Andhra Jana Sangham spread rapidly and its first
conference was held at Madhira in 1925. The Andhra Jana Sangham from 1928 onwards
took up the cause of women’s education. Due to its efforts, Andhra Balika High School was
started in 1928. and the first batch of girls studying in the Telugu medium were made to appear
at the Matriculation Examination in 1934. In the beginning, the Osmania University refused to
recognise the Andhra Balika High School stating that the policy of the Osmania University
was no doubt to encourage the pursuit of education in the mother tongue, but according to their
statute, mother tongue meant Urdu. However, Maharshi Karve came to the rescue of the
Andhra Jana Sangham and the first batch of girl students in the Telugu medium appeared for
their examination in the Karve Institute. By 1930, the movement started by the Andhra Jana
Sangam spread rapidly gaining in strength day by day. In 1930 at Jogipet Conference in Medak,
the Andhra Jana Sangham converted itself into the Andhra Mahasabha and the use of the
word Andhra was quite objectionable to the Nizam Government, but Telangana leaders stuck to
it and refused to substitute it by the word Telugu or Telangana.
13.8 THE ROLE OF ANDHRA MAHA SABHA

The leaders of various sections decided to unite into one large organisation and thus
the Andhra Maha Sabha (AMS) was formed in 1930. Its initial objectives were for more
educational facilities. They submitted prayers and requests to the Government seeking the
establishment of schools and redressing grievances of the people. Andhra Mahasabha stuck
to its goals to create awareness for education and to propagate a proper understanding of the
time through the establishment of village libraries in this direction. They conducted periodic
conferences. In an atmosphere of illiteracy, ignorance and feudal rule, there were only s few
enlightened social workers in the City who worked hard to spread awareness among the people.
Some of them were Unnava Venkataramaiah, Madapati Hanmantha Rao, Suravaram Pratap
Reddy, Ravi Narayana Reddy and T. Anantha Venkat Rao. The aim of the Maha Sabha
during the period was also to eradicate the Parda system that was prevailing in Hyderabad and
other areas of the Telangana, which had no basis in the Dharma Shastras. They felt that,
emphasis on the need for female education and banning of child marriages were also equally
important. Besides these social issues, Andhra Maha Sabha has also represented or raised its
voice for the establishment of a responsible government, abolition of vetti, establishment of
private scholars for providing teaching through the medium of regional languages other than
Urdu, etc.
In all thirteen conferences of Andhra Maha Sabha were held in different parts of the
State under the patronage of local landlords, merchants and other elite. In the initial stages, it
faced great difficulties even to secure permission for conducting routine meetings. It is also
significant to note that along with the Andhra Mahasabha Conferences, Andhra Mahila
Conferences were also held in 1930. This feature of holding the two conferences simultaneously
continued up to 1942. During the 9th conference at Dharmavaram, the women members felt
strong and confident enough to have their own and separate conference.
The second conference was held at Devarakonda in 1931 under the presidentship of
B.Ramakrishna Rao. The interesting feature of this conference was that most of the delegates
spoke in Telugu.After the second conference, the Hyderabad Government adopted hostile
attitude towards the activities of the Andhra Mahasabha. It imposed several restrictions to
curb its activities. Therefore, it took three years for the Sabha to get permission to hold its third
conference at Khammam in 1934. Apart from the Government, many reactionary elements
tried disrupt the conference, but due to the tact and tenacity of Madapati Hanmantha Rao,
every thing went according to plan. Pulijala Venkata Ranga Rao presided over the conference.
The fourth conference of the Sabha was held at Sircilla in 1935 under the presidentship of
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Madapati Hanmantha Rao. His wife Manikyamba presided over the Andhra Mahila Sabha
Conference. Fifth conference was held at Shadnagar under the presidentship of Konda Venkata
Ranga Reddy. This was held in 1936. Sixth Andhra Mahasabha Session was held in 1937 at
Nizamabad under the chairmanship of MandumulaNarsinga Rao. Resolutions were made
demanding the reduction of agricultural loans along with social reforms.
Seventh Andhra Mahasabha Conference was held in April 1940 at Malkapuram in
Warangal district. Mandumula Ramachandra Rao was elected as President for this meeting.
Eighth Mahasabha which was held on 3,4, and 5th of June, 1941 at Chilkur for which Ravi
Narayana Reddy became the President. With this, Andhra Maha Sabha has gone under the
control of Communists. This meeting passed the resolution rejecting the constitutional reforms.
Till now, Andhra Maha Sabha played the role of a common platform for all groups, but
President being a Communist and priority was given for their programme which made the
members of other groups to criticise the functioning of Mahasabha. Even though, the moderate
leader MadirajuRamakoteshwer Rao was elected as President for the ninth Mahasabha held
on May 22nd to 24th of 1942 at Dharmavaram, the Communists did not get associated.
Tenth Mahasabha was held on May 23rd to 25th 1943 at Hyderabad. Here, for the
first time, BaddamYella Reddy as a candidate from the Communist Party and Konda Venkat
Ranga Reddy from the moderate group contested for the President post.K.V.Ranga Reddy
was elected as President. This Mahasabha passed the resolution to form a popular Government
in Hyderabad as soon as possible. Eleventh Mahasabha was held on May 27th to 29th 1944 at
Bhongir which was completely dominated by the Communists. In the elections, National group
has taken the stand of neutrality and helped the Communists to win. Twelfth Mahasabha was
held on April 26th and 27th of 1945 at Madikonda Village of Warangal district under the leadership
of moderates and nationalists like Madiraja Ramakoteshwer Rao. Communist group under the
name of Nizam Rahstra Andhra Mahasabha conducted their meetings on April 26th and 27th
of 1945 at Khammam under the presidentship of Ravi Narayana Reddy. With this, Andhra
Maha Sabha lost its prominence as a united forum. Telangana was on fire with Rajakars
atrocities on one side and peasant armed struggle on the other.
13th Andhra Mahasabha, being the last and was held on May 10th, 1946 under the
Presidentship of Jamalapuram Keshava Rao at Kandi village in Medak district. Communists
also celebrated the in last meeting under the Presidentship of BaddamYella Reddy in Karimnagar
district. After these final meetings, Congress group merged in to Hyderabad State Congress. In
the same way, Andhra Mahasabha belonging to Communist group continued in the name of
Communist Party. On 3rd December, 1946, the Communist Party was banned and naturally the
activities of Andhra Mahasabha also came to a halt. However, these Mahasabhas took up
the cause of a number of disgruntled elements in the society.

1. Who spoke in Telugu in Social Reforms Conference?
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2. What are the aims of Andhra Jana Sangham?
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13.9 FORMATION OF HYDERABAD STATE CONGRESS AND

1938 SATYAGRAHA
The period between 1935 to 1938 witnessed intense political activity, though moderate
in nature. The efforts of Nizamath Jung Bahadur, ex-Political Member who established the
Nizam’s Subjects League to secure responsible government in the State along with other reforms,
was not allowed to function since 1935.The appointment of Aravamudu Ayyangar Committee
to suggest constitutional reforms in 1937 by the Nizam was a significant move in the direction
of introducing representative government. The leaders of Hyderabad State formed the Nizam’s
State People’s Convention in January, 1938 to help and advise the Ayyangar Committee under
the leadership of K.S.Vaidya. H.R.Dhoot and Burgula Ramakrishna Rao. Subsequently the
Convention was renamed as Hyderabad State Congress on January 29,1938 with an objective
of attaining responsible government.
In the political history of Hyderabad State, the establishment of Hyderabad State
Congress assumed great significance. This gave impetus to the people’s movements which
were fighting for civil rights and responsible government even earlier through the Hyderabad
State Reforms Commission and Nizam Civil Society. The formation of Hyderabad State Congress
was influenced by many factors directly and indirectly. After the establishment of Andhra
Jana Sangham in Telangana, in 1937 Maharashtra Parishad and Karnataka Parishad were
formed. In the Round Table Conferences in 1931-32, held in London, there were certain proposals
for granting fundamental rights to the people of the Princely States. In order to achieve this
goal, Swadeshi Movement was started in Hyderabad. At this time, some youth, who attended
the All India Congress Conference in Haripura in 1938, returned to Hyderabad. Having been
very enthusiastic, they wished to establish a non-communal political association with nationalistic
outlook. They came to know that, there was such an organisation, viz., State Congress in
Mysore. In Cochin also, a small Princely State, a responsible Government was formed. The
ruler of Oudh also had promised to establish a responsible Government in his State. In spite of
many developments in many Princely States, the Nizam Government resorted to the anti-
people activities which hurt the people of Hyderabad Princely State who loved democracy and
civil rights. So, the youth who attended Haripura Conference, held a number of discussions
which ultimately led them to take a decision unanimously to establish a political association with
the name of Hyderabad State Congress. Finally, on January 29th, 1938, the Hyderabad State
Congress was formed unanimously and Swamy Ramananda Tirtha took very active interest in
organising the formation of the Hyderabad State Congress.
But Hyderabad State Congress was banned even before its birth. The Nizam
Government declared the establishment of Hyderabad State Congress as communal. It was
apprehensive of it, as it was part of the Indian National Congress which was outside the
Princely State. The reason of declaring the State Congress as communal was based on its view
that the members who had joined the State Congress were mostly Hindus and those who
demanded the political rights were also Hindus, who were a majority community in the State.
So, the Government which itself had communal feelings, viewed the proposed organisation as
communal. One more reason for declaring the organisation as the outside one was that the
Nizam Government was reluctant of inviting the waves of struggle for independence of the
country to enter the Hyderabad Princely State. On the basis of these pretexts, the Nizam
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Government declared ‘ban’ on the establishment of Hyderabad State Congress in the evening
hours of September 7, 1938. This implies that it had killed the baby of the organisation in the
womb only. Even then, the workers started the movement in the name of Congress, prohibitory
orders were disobeyed and Satyagrahas was started.
13.9.1 Aims and Objectives of State Congress

Hyderabad State Congress formed an adhoc committee and declared its objectives.
This committee was headed by Burgula Ramakrishna Rao. This adhoc committee was demanding
issues like protection of fundamental rights, freedom of speech, freedom for press, removing
the obstacles for the formation of associations with freedom of religion, making of constitutional
reforms in the direction of formation of responsible government in Hyderabad State, creating of
Public Service Commission for recruitment to government jobs, introduction of reservation for
minorities in the Legislative Assembly for a period of ten years. The action committee was
headed by Govind Rao Nanal, with Ramakrishna Dhoot as General Secretary, Ravi Narayana
Reddy, Srinivas Rao Bajikar and Janarthan Rao Desai as members. This committee appointed
Swami Ramananda Tirtha as dictator for the first batch of Satyagrahis got to be commenced
on 27th October, 1938. Congress workers spread in eighteen batches and started the protests
from 24th October to 24th December, 1938 and got arrested. Afterwards, on the advice of
Mahatma Gandhi, these Satyagrahas were suspended.
13.10 OSMANIA UNIVERSITY STUDENTS STRIKE:

VANDEMATARAM MOVEMENT
The Hindu students of the ‘B’ Hostel of Osmania University were found singing the
Vandemataram song in their prayer hall on the eve of the Dasara celebrations in 1938. This
was not liked by the hostel authorities who prohibited singing of Vandemataram song in the
Hostel and outside in the campus premises. Due to this, the Osmania University students
started strike against authority’s restrictions which continued from November 29 to December
10, 1938. This strike rapidly spread to other parts of the State. As a result, many students of the
Osmania University and other colleges of the State were expelled from the rolls of the colleges.
As many as three thousand students had boycotted their respective schools and colleges in the
City as well as the districts, out of whom six hundred students had been rusticated. The expelled
students left the State and continued their studies in Nagpur University located in the Congress
– ruled Central Provinces. This movement was extremely significant because it created a
young and militant cadre that provided the activists as well as the leadership of the movement
in later years.
13.11 MAJLIS-E-ITTIHAD-UL-MUSLIMEEN
Originally formed in 1927, Majlis–E–Ittihad–Ul–Muslimeen aimed at the cultural and
religious promotion of the Muslims. It remained comparatively quiet till about the period of
1938-40. It was during the presidentship of Bahadur Yar Jung, corps of volunteers was opened
throughout the dominions of the Hyderabad State. With Kasim Razvi, who hailed from Uttar
Pradesh and had a small law practice in Latur in Osmanabad district, taking over the presidentship
of Majlis-e-Ittehad-ul Muslimeen in 1946, this organisation began to take on more and more of
the features of a private military body. As a result of the Nizam’s tactical support, the strength
of the Razakars increased voluminously, who then began to terrorise the people all over the
State by plundering, looting, and raiding the Hindu population, and thus disturbing law and order
in the State. This organisation has, tooth and nail, opposed the integration of Hyderabad State
with the Indian Union and wanted that it should continue under Muslim rule, and further more
it propagated that every Muslim should regard himself or herself as a ruler, which in other
words became famous as ‘Anal Malik’ doctrine.
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13.12 COMMUNIST PARTY
The Communist Party had its origins in the latter half of 1939 and the beginning of
1940 with the founding of ‘Comrades Association’, which also began to spread its tentacles
amongst the rural population of Telangana. The Andhra Mahasabha and the Communist
Party began their work in close alliance. The Communist Party of Hyderabad confined itself to
infiltrating the State Congress, the trade unions, and the student associations. When the villagers
were harassed by the Razakars, they needed the strength to resist. Therefore, the Communists
took control of the violent resistance organised by the villagers against the activities of the
Razakars. As the depredations of the Razakars increased in intensity, the villagers invited the
Communists to take the lead and supply them with arms. The Communists tried to win over the
peasants, events and the workers by taking up the causes that they very much desired, such as
distribution of land for landlen tenants removal of frequent hiking of land rents and eviction of
tenants, abolition of extraction of vitti, excesses of Deshmerates and secure conditions of
bhagdes, factory workers, and the removal of the suffering of the people under the rigours of
bantrobs, Rationing and heavy procurement.
13.13 DEVELOPMENTS DURING 1940S

In this period, the Andhra Mahasabha was the main forum of activity in Telangana.
A significant development that occurred around the year 1940 was that, Ravi Narayana Reddy,
who emerged as a major leader of the radicals in the Andhra Mahasabha and had participated
in the State Congress Satyagraha along with B.Yella Reddy, was drawn towards the Communist
Party. Nationalist Andhra Mahasabha was led by moderate leaders like Jamalapuram Keshava
Rao, B.Ramakrishna Rao etc.
The Quit India Movement received considerable response from Hyderabad State,
especially from the youth. Though arrests of the main leaders, including Swamiji, prevented an
organised movement from emerging, many people all over the State offered Satyagraha and
many others were arrested. On October2, 1942, a batch of women offered Satyagraha in
Hyderabad city, and Sarojini Naidu was arrested earlier in the day. Slogans such as ‘Gandhi
Ka Charkha Chalana Padega, Goronko London Jana Padega’ (Gandhiji’s wheel will have
to be spun, while the whites will have to return to London) became popular. But, the Quit India
Movement also sealed the rift that had developed between the Communist and Non-Communist
radical nationalists. After the Communist Party had adopted the slogan of People’s War in
December 1941, The Communists were also facilitated by the removal of the ban on the CPI
by the Nizam, in keeping with the policy of the British Government that had removed the ban
because of the CPI’s pro-War stance. Therefore, most of the nationalists were clamped in jail
because of their support to the Quit India Movement.
As a result of prolonged negotiation with the Government, the ban on the State Congress
was lifted in April 1946. By July 1946, the regional organisations had developed a mindset that
they were part of the Hyderabad State Congress. It was not difficult for them to get merged
with the State Congress. As soon as these merged, the State Congress instantly developed its
well-organised branches in every taluq and district headquarters as working units under the
leadership of the moderate middle classes. Thus, by early 1947, the State Congress under the
Presidentship of Swami Ramananda Tirtha emerged as a powerful political organisation fully
prepared to face the final battle.As Editor of the Golconda Patrika, Suravaram Pratapa
Reddy inspired nationalistic fervour among the people. Kaloji Narayana Rao, Dasarathi
Krishnamacharya, Dasarathi Rangacharya are some of the literary luminaries who fought for
the freedom of Hyderabad State.
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13.13.1 Join Indian Union Movement
The Executive of the State Congress met at Sholapur in 1947 under the presidentship
of Swami Ramananda Tirtha. It formed an Action Committee with Madapati Ramachandra
Rao as its convenor and Jamalapuram Keshava Rao, Digamber Rao Bindu, Govinddas Shroff
and Dr.G.S.Melkote as members. Its Head offices were set up at Bombay and Madras and
regional offices at Vijayawada for Telangana region and Gadak for Karnataka region. From
the beginning, the State Congress had realised that the struggle had to be carried on both from
the inside and outside the State. The Action Committee has set up several border camps to
carry on the propaganda and to organise the struggle. Swami Ramananda Tirtha and other
State Congress leaders toured the neighbouring Provinces and States to mobilise public opinion
in favour of the Hyderabad State Congress and for procuring necessary funds and amenities
for carrying out the struggle.
After satisfying with all the arrangements made, Swami Ramananda Tirtha returned to
Hyderabad and launched ‘Join Indian Union’ Satyagraha on August 7, 1947. Several batches
of Congress men offered satyagraha in the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad,
district and taluk towns and even in villages. On August 15, the Hyderabad State Congress
hoisted the Indian Union tri-colour flag that was given by Jawaharlal Nehru personally to
Swamy Ramananda Tirtha. Dr. G.S.Melkote, Krishnamachari Joshi, Jamalapuram Keshav Rao
and Swmi Ramananda Tirtha were arrested. Even before the Satyagraha was actually launched,
the Government had rounded up thousands of youth and state congress workers. A reign of
terror was let loose by the Government with help of Razakars. Molestation of women, looting
of Congress men’s houses, subjecting them to third degree torture, shooting down persons
found with Congress or Indian Union flags became a daily feature. The whole State had become
a large prison. Thousands of people took shelter in the border villages outside the State. A
number of relief camps were opened by the State Congress leaders in the border districts of
Andhra, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Hayagriva Chary, a young nationalist took up the
challenging task of rehabilitating victims from Hyderabad in the relief camps. Along with the
relief camps volunteer camps were organised to mobilise people to resist the Police and the
Rajakars.
People of the villages in Telangana, such as at Bairanpally in Jangaon Taluq of Warangal
District and Parkal, Taluq headquarters in the same District, dared to open their chests for the
bullets of the Nizam’s Police, Army and Razakars and sacrifice their lives for having the joy of
hoisting the Indian tricolour and declare their heartfelt support for the introgration of their State
with the Indian Union. But for their heroic sacrifices and shedding of blood, things would not
have moved for the events in 1947-48 that led to Freedom of the people from Nizam’s yoke.
They rather remain the undeclared and mostly forgotten heroes of the Hyderabad Freedom
Struggle.
13.13.2 Standstill Agreement

On June 26, 1947, the Nizam issued a Firman that the Hyderabad State would neither
participate in the Constituent Assembly nor join the Indian Union, and also announced that the
removal of British paramountcy entitled him to declare his independence. The Nizam sent a
delegation to Delhi to reach an agreement with the Indian Government which ultimately resulted
in the conclusion of the ‘Standstill Agreement’. The Nizam Government began to violate the
standstill Agreement from the beginning. The Indian Government ultimately decided to despatch
Indian troops into the Hyderabad territory in order to save Hyderabad and its neighbouring
provinces from the chaos. This ‘Operation Polo’ against Hyderabad State by the Indian
Government became famous in history as the ‘Police Action’. By the 17th September, 1948, all
resistance to the Indian forces was completely broken down and the Nizam surrendered to the
Indian Government.
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1. Give the names of members in Hyderabad State Congress Action Committee.
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2. Who was the Editor of Golconda Pathrika?
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13.14 SUMMARY
The Hyderabad State had its own peculiarities in the Freedom Struggle because of the
then prevailing political conditions. Political activity was not allowed in the State and people
were not permitted to undertake any activity in any form to mobilise the masses to launch a
struggle against the autocratic rule of the Nizam. In fact, keeping in view the rigours of the
Nizam’s rule, political mobilisation in the Hyderabad State was initiated through cultural revival.
These cultural organisations were nothing but political organisations wearing a cultural garb.
These cultural organisations slowly emerged as political organisations with clear-cut ideologies
and strategies after 1930’s. Even though this process of political mobilisation was very slow on
account of restrictions imposed by the Government, political activity picked up considerably in
1946. In British India the political scenario had changed. Independence was in the offing. This
situation had electrified the political climate in the Hyderabad State. That was the beginning of
the launch of the final struggle against the Nizam’s rule in the State. The Freedom Struggle had
developed in two separate streams under the Congress and the Communists. Political awakening
in Telangana was very slow when compared to Andhra region. Under the leadership of Andhra
Maha Sabha and Hyderabad State Congress, many activities and different types of struggles
had been undertaken by the leaders which finding culminated in the long-cherished desire of
majority of the people for freedom from Nizam’s rule.
13.15 MODEL ANSWER’S TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Allampalli Venkata Rama Rao.
2. Social, Economic and cultural revival of the people of Telangana by establishing libraries,
Reading Rooms and Private Schools.

1. Hyderabad State Congress Action Committee had Ravi Narayana Reddy, Srinivas Rao
Baijikar and Janarthan Rao Desai as members.
2. Suravaram Pratap Reddy.
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1. Analyse the deliberations of the Andhra Maha Sabah Conferences.
2. Examine the role and activities of Arya Samaj that aided the Freedom Struggle in
Hyderabad State.
3. How did the Hyderabad State Congress fight for achieving the Freedom of Hyderabad
State.

1. Discuss briefly about the activities of Andhra Jana Sangham.
2. Bring out the significance of ‘Join Indian Union Movement’
3. How did ‘Chanda Railway Scheme’ bring about change in public opinion in Hyderabad
State.

1. Department of History, : Studies in Indian History and Culture (Commemorative
Osmania University, Volume in Memory of Prof. Sarojini Regani).
Hyderabad.
2. Kesavanarayana, B : Modern Andhra and Telangana AD 1858-1956 in the
Comprehensive History and Culture of Andhrapradesh,
Volume VII, Telugu University, Hyderabad.
3. Ramesan, N : The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad, Volume III & IV.
4. Vaikuntam, Y. : People’s Movements in the Princely States.
5. Subba Rao, C.V : Hyderabad (1875-1948).
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UNIT - 14: TRIBAL, DALIT, PEASANT, AND WOMEN’S
MOVEMENTS
Contents
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Tribal Movements
14.2.1 Causes for the Tribal Movements .
14.2.2 Tribal Revolts
14.2.2.1 The Revolt of Ramji Gond, 1857-60
14.2.2.2 Kumram Bheem Resistance Movement
14.2.2.2.1 Jal, Jangle, Jameen
14.3 Peasants Movements
14.3.1 Causes for the Peasants Revolts
14.3.1.1 Commercialisation of Agriculture
14.3.1.2 Feudal Oppression
14.3.1.3 Vetti and Begari
14.3.1.4 Role of Andhra Maha Sabha, Congress and Communist Party
14.3.2 Peasants Movements prior to Telangana Armed Struggle
14.3.3 Telangana Peasants Armed Struggle
14.3.3.1 Landmarks of the Movement
14.3.3.1.1 First Phase – Mass Resistance
14.3.3.1.2 Second Phase – Liberation Struggle
14.3.3.1.3 Third Phase – Armed Struggle
14.4 Dalit Movements
14.4.1 Adi Hindu Movement –Bhagya Reddi Varma
14.4.2 Other Dalit Organisations and Leaders
14.4.3 Impact of Armed Struggle on Dalit Movements
14.5 Women’s Movement
14.5.1 Reform Movement
14.5.2 Women’s Organisation
14.5.2.1 Andhra Mahila Sabha
14.5.3 Women in National Movement
14.5.3.1 Women in Satyagraha Movement under Hyderabad State Congress.
14.5.3.2 Quit India Movement
14.5.4 Women in Telangana Armed Struggle
14.5.5 Women in Join India Movement
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14.6 Summary
14.0 OBJECTIVES
1. Know the conditions of Tribal, Peasant, Dalit and Women’s Movements in
Hyderabad State.
2. Explain the rise and impact of Tribal Revolts.
3. Discuss the conditions leading to Peasant Revolts and their impact.
4. Analyse the Dalit Movements and their significance and
5. Describe the Women’s Movements in Hyderabad State.
14.1 INTRODUCTION
From 1724 onwards the first Nizam, Nizam-Ul-Mulk ruled Hyderabad State. In 1901
the Muslim population of Hyderabad State was only 10% of the total population. That is to the
Muslims who came from other States into Hyderabad, the Dalits (lower caste) got converted
later into Islam locally and it increased to 14% by 1948. It is possible to understand with the
understanding of the relation between the construction of the caste system, the power and
dominating policy of the feudal system. The middle class intellectuals and the Aryasamaj followers
have fought against the Muslims as the ruling class.
Many tribal communities lived in the forests of Hyderabad State. They took up hunting,
and gathering of forest produce for survival. The Gonds are the major Adivasi community in
Hyderabad State. Concentrations of land, exploitation of peasants in the name of vetti and
grain-levy were the main causes for the Telangana armed struggle which took place between
1946 and 1951.
The Telangana region historically witnessed different caste relations. The lower castes
of Telangana were subjected to vetti, bhagela, jeetham and jogini (temple girl) practices. It
was through these practices that the sudra upper castes exploited the lower castes. A new
consciousness emerged among the lower castes, challenging these practices. The dalit
community was the first in Telangana to mobilizse and organise itself to challenge traditional
caste practices. Modern education, modern bureaucracy and the Census were fundamental in
forming a new consciousness among the dalits of Hyderabad State. The women of Hyderabad
State were low in the beginning of 20th century. However, the reform movement paved the way
for women’s consciousness. Women got organised and actively participated in national
movements and people’s movement. The present Unit describes the Tribal, Peasent, Dalit and
Women movements in Hyderabad State till 1948.
14.2 TRIBAL MOVEMENTS

Tribal people always relate them with their forests. Due to the historic reasons, their
entire existence depended on forests. It is believed that the economic system of forest is equal
to the tribal economic system. But. in fact, it is different. Not only the economic system, but
also the cultural aspects and beliefs systems were also co-related with the forests.
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In the mid 19th century, the Government decided to extend its powers to every part of
State which was neglected. Due to this extension, landlords were under stress and were
uncomfortable. Government enacted some legislations to assert its control over forest and
forest dwellers to protect the forests. These Acts were similar to the Acts introduced in India
by the British Government.
The First Forest Act of 1865 was the first attempt in the direction of regulation of
collection of forest produce by the forest dwellers. The Forest Act of 1878 was the second step
in the direction of further extension of State’s authority over forests. The control over forests
was further tightened by prohibiting certain activities such as tresspass or pasturing of cattle
and declaring certain activities as forest offences by 1878 Act.
The First Forest Policy of 1894 envisaged for the first time, the regulation of rights arid
restriction of privileges of the users in the forests. The British Government has brought the
Land Transfer Act in 1917. It was the reaction of the Government to the rebellions which
occurred mainly in the Agency areas of Andhra region of the Madras State. This Act has
banned the land transfer between the tribals and non-tribals, but, the Nizam Government did not
take any care for the land rights of the tribals. By using this as an advantage, the non-locals
migrating from the other areas occupied the lands of the tribals and also they were able to
register the lands on their names.
14.2.1 Causes for the Tribal Movements

In continuation of the measures, already taken. This Act of 1917 was an attempt to
regulate further people’s rights over forest land and forest produce.
The Forest Department was established for the first time in Hyderabad State in 1857
in the period of Salarjung-I. Then, the forest policy was declared in 1890 and 1900. The authority
of Government on the forest increased. Revenue of the Government increased through these
policies. But, traditional rights of the tribal people, who are living in the forest for the past
thousands of years, were cancelled. The Government divided the forest areas into two parts.
They were reserved and unreserved. It banned to cultivate the lands and collect the forest
produce in the reserved forest areas. Consequently, large changes occurred in the lives of the
tribal people.
Mainly, the Gonds of Adilabad District in the Nizam’s State suffered more and more
by the unnecessary interference of the non-tribals and the forest officers. They strongly opposed
the tyrannical rule of the Nizam. At the same time they wanted to protect their autonomous
power on the forest areas. They started and continued their struggles under the leadership of
their leaders, Ramji Gond and Kumram Bheem.
14.2.2 Tribal Revolts

Particularly the awareness of the Gonds was amazing and very strong. Most of the
tribal revolts were agriculture-based and also they were related to the forest. Most of the
revolts were against the atrocities and unlawful activities of the local zamindars, moneylenders
and the non-local, lower level Government officers. When the tribal people were unable to pay
debts which they have taken, the moneylenders and landlords used to occupy their lands. And
sometimes they would have to become the rented tenants, bonded labourers or coolies in their
own lands. The Police officers or revenue officers would have helped the poor tribals in those
circumstances. Instead, they committed many atrocities, exactly opposite to their duty. They
used the tribal people for their personal works and public works without giving any remuneration.
It was called as ‘Vetti’ or bonded labour. On the other side the forest contractors, their agents,
businessmen and the people of the plain areas forcibly occupied the forest lands and took away
the forest products and the property of tribal people. These are all the immediate causes for the
tribal revolts in the Hyderabad State. .
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Even the courts also did not have any idea on the critical conditions and problems of
the tribal people. The negligent attitude on the traditions and customs of the tribal people,
especially on their shifting (podu) cultivation method is the primary cause for their revolt The
Munda, Santhal, Kol, Bhil, Warli, Gond etc., tribals in various areas of the country have started
the tribal revolts and emerged strongly in their local areas.
14.2.2.1 The Revolt of Ramji Gond, 1857-60

The present Adilabad District was in Berar State, in those days. Taking advantages of
political changes, the Gonds captured the fort of Manikhgarh. This was the first victory of the
Gonds against the State. Consequently, Sirpur became the ancient seat of the Gond Rajas. In
1853, a treaty was concluded between the Nizam and East India Company. According to that
treaty the Beerar Suba came into the ruling of the British. The treaty was not liked by the
people. From 1853 to 1860 the Gonds and the Muslim people called Rohillas revolted against
the British Government under the leadership of Ramji Gond and Haji Rohilla in the region of
Nirmal and surrounding places of Adilabad District. And they were able to get the suggestions
and cooperation of the National leaders like, Thantia Thope. Ramji Gond, and Haji Rohilla have
prepared the Gond armies and have given military training to them, and led the armies against
the British rule. They made free the whole area in and around Adilabad and made Nirmal as the
capital. Ramji Gond has ruled the area independently for a few days. He arranged himself a
strong army of 300 Gonds. 200 Rohilla Muslims and 500 Telugu and Maratha soldiers.
But, the British Government sent its army with the Nizam army in large number under
the leadership of army officer Col. Robert to Nirmal. The British army defeated the Ramji
Gond’s army. The Gonds fought bravely and finally were defeated. Ramji Gond and over 1000
of his guerillas were killed in the massive execution by the British army. They were hanged to
the branches of a massive banyan tree, which has came to known as ‘Veyyi Urula Marri’.
People worship the tree with honour, where Ramji Gond, and Haji Rohilla were hanged. A
memorial stands for Ramji Gond in Nirmal fort.
14.2.2.2 Kumram Bheem Resistance Movement, 1938-40

Another brave tribal person, Gond Kumram Bheem was born in a village called
Sankepally in the forest area of Jodenghat in Asifabad (Jangama) division of the Old Adilabad
District on 22nd October, 1901. His parents were Kumram Chinnu and Sombai. The whole
Asifabad area was under the rule of the Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan.
Tribals lived in the Jodenghat area by practicing the shifting agriculture or Podu in the
forest. But, they were not under the direct control of the State. Under the 1917 Act brought by
the Nizam Government for the protection of the Adivasi Lands, much disturbance and confusion
initial into the lives of the tribals. That Act brought many limitations and taxes into the tribal
lives. For example, when the tribals feed their cattle in the forest, they have to pay ‘Bancherai
Pannu and pay Dumpa Patti’ for bringing the firewood. The Ghar Patti‘ Nagar Patti, Faisal
Patti, Choubina etc have been other additions to the taxes list . As they don’t know how to use
the money, the tribal people suffered a lot to pay the taxes. Along with these, the Government
established the Forest Revenue or Tahasil office at Utnoor in 1918 to collect the taxes. A paper
mill was established at Sirpurkagaz Nagar area and the Government had occupied a wide
forest area to obtain the raw material for the paper mill. A number of Gonds became the
factory workers in this helpless condition.
In addition to this, the non-locals like, Marathas, Telugu and Muslim people used to
occupy the lands of the Gonds and Kolams with the cooperation of the officers and moneylenders.
Many false cases were filed against them and they were subjected to a variety of troubles. By
observing all these bad conditions, Kumram Bheem began to search for solutions. After the
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sudden demise of his father, the family migrated to Surdapur village. In the mean time, Kumram
Bheem came to know the bravery of the Gond kings, the revolt of Birsa Munda, the courage of
Ramji Gond and the martyrdom of Alluri Sita Rama Raju from his friends, Madaavi Mahadu
and Mothiram. He was higly inspired by the history of Gonds and the tribals. When he was
about to harvest the crop, Patwari Laxman Rao brought Pattedar Siddiq Ali and claimed that
the land cultivated by Kumram Bheem belonged to Siddiq. In that quarrel, Kumram Bheem
killed Siddiq. This incident brought many changes in the life of Bheem. This also paved the path
for unity between the Gond and Kolam tribes dependent on the shifting cultivation as the only
source of their livelihoods. After the death of Siddiq, Kumaram went to Bollarum and from
there to Chandrapur to work in the printing press of Vithoba.
But, the British officers arrested Vithoba accusing him that he was printing the anti-
Government issues. Kumram Bheem escaped from the press and ran away. He worked in the
coffee and tea plantations for five years. Bheem observed that there also the British officers
were exploitating the leaders. Bheem led people against the acrocities of the British officers.
Bheem became their leader., Then, Kumran Bheem escaped from that place also and went
back to his native place and decided to work for his people of Jodeghat in Adilabad District. He
married Sombai of Devadom village.
14.2.2.2.1Jal-Jungle-Jameen
Bheem united his uncles, brothers, relative at first, who were living in Surdapur area.
Gradually, he extended the concept of Jal, Jungle-Jameen to the surrounding areas of Jodeghat.
He explained to them that from many generations, the Jal-Jungle-Jameen (Water-Forest-
Land) belonged to them; so, they should unite and fight against the Government officers, and
continue their shifting (podu) cultivation. Kumram Bheem was successful in his efforts. He
has convinced the people and united them. He established 12 Gond villages. They were:
1. Babezhari
2. Jodeghat
3. Chalbardi
4. Goginmovadam
5. hoyikhan Movadam
6. Bhimangondi
7. Kallegam
8. Murikilanka
9. Ankusalpur
10.Narsapur
11. Demdiguda
12.Patnapur
The Revenue and the Forest officers declared that there was 3000 acres of land in the
limitation of the 12 tribal villages where cultivation was taking place against the regulations of
the Government under the leadership of Kumrmn Bheem. The officers filed cases on the tribal
people. Then, with the support of Kumram Bheem, some of them quarrelled with officers and
were injured. Kumram Bheem was also injured severely by a bullet. He demanded autonomous
powers on their 12 tribal villages.
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Kumram Bheem made correspondence with the Government on the advice of
Janakapuram Panthulu and Ramachandra Rao, the Advocate of Asifabad. He sent many
letters to the Nizam, requesting that the tribal people were asking for land rights on their lands
and they wanted the autonomous power and freedom in their area. But, the Nizam did not give
any answer.
Bheem returned with disappointment from Hyderabad when he saw horror attacks on
the Jodeghat by the Police. He felt that there was no way except war . He declared that all
their 12 villages were liberated. He chose the Jodenhat as the center for his struggle. Immediately,
Bheem prepared the guerilla army with Gond, Kolam, Paradhan, Thoti, Nayak and Podu tribals.
When the conditions were out of hands of the Government at Jodeghat, the officers
befriended Kurdu Patel, associate of Kumram Bheem covertly. With the help of Kurdu Patel,
the Government force climbed the Jodeghat hills under the leadership of Captain Ali Raza
Branden to attack Kumram Bheem, who organizsed a meeting with the people of 12 tribal
villages, on 1st September, 1940 at Goddess Temple of Galgad. It was the night time and the day
was of Ashwayuja Pournami. On the same night, Police attacked Bheem and his followers
without any warning. The Police killed the tribal people who are sleeping. The Police cruelly
killed a number of people at the Neykappi waterfall and the Kariyar Gundam of Jodeghat
valley. In the Police firing, Kumram Bheem died and he has fought bravely until the last second.
Approximately, 140 tribal people became martyrs of this Police firing.
According to the paper Statement released by the Nizam Government on 17th September,
1940, Kumram Bheem and nine followers have died in the incident and afterwards six members
died out of 13 injured persons. But, Baddam Yellareddy has estimated that 138 tribal people
died.
After this incident, Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan appointed the Austrian Professor Christ
von Furer Heimondorf to study the conditions of the Gonds. Based on the suggestions of the
Professor, Nizam Government brought the ‘Dastur-ul-Amal’ Act in 1940. Consequently, the 1/
70 Act was also declared in India. However, Kumram Bheem stood as the hero, worshipped,
and remains as the eternal leader of Gond people. The heirs of the Bheem and the residents of
Adilabad District used to celebrate the Bheem’s death anniversary on the Pournami (Aswayuja
Pournami) after Dassehara festival in October. The Government of Telangana is also conducting
the death anniversary day of Kumram Bheem as the “State Festival’ from 2014 onwards.
14.3 PEASANT MOVEMENTS

Hyderabad State was predominantly an agrarian area. The agrarian structure and the
land system was feudal in nature. There were three types of land tenure, such as Diwani, 60%
of total agricultural land was directly under the land revenue tax system, 30% of the land out of
the total agriculture land was under jagir, in the State. The jagirs are also called as Paigas.
Sanstanams, Jagirdars, Banjardars Muktedars, Inamdars and Agraharanas have their
own Revenue, Police, civil and criminal offices to impose and collect taxes. Local landlords,
called Deshmukhs owned majority of lands and used to oppress peasants. Under Sarfekhas,
10 percent of agriculture land was kept under the control of Nizam for his own expenses. The
peasants were subjected to great sufferings and misery due to these land tenurial systems.
14.3.1 The Causes for the Peasant Revolts

Several factors contributed for the revolts of peasants in Hyderabad State.
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14.3.1.1 Commercialisation of Agriculture
The main crops of Hyderabad State were Jowar, Bajra, Rice and Cereals. From the
beginning of 20th century, commercial crops like cotton, oil seeds, groundnut and castor were
promoted by the rich peasants. The penetration of market economy on a wider scale caused
change in agrarian economy. Reforms undertaken by Salar Jung, such as establishing State
control over agriculture, cash payment of revenue, increase in demand for foodgrains were
some of the factors that led to the peasants unrest. The demand for cash crops grew and the
agriculture economy underwent fundamental changes. Cotton which was largely grown in
Marathwada, and was grown in new areas in Telangana region also. By 1930’s over 60 percent
of cotton was being exported. Oil seed cultivation was prevalent in Telangana in the nineteenth
century which grew predominantly by 1930’s. The penetration of high profile cash crops resulted
in the incorporation of the Hyderabad economy into the world market. The State supported this
by providing more irrigation facilities and introducing improved varieties of seeds.
The commercialisation of agriculture adversely affected the cropping pattern. The
area under foodgrain cultivation declined from 75 percent in 1920-22 to 68 percent in 1949-50.
Moreover, the process of commercialisation, completely defeated the spirit of some measures
introduced by Salar Jung With these measures State revenue increased, but affected the peasants.
The intensification of profit motive of landlords forced peasants to work more to feed landlord
demands. With commercialization coupled by deteriorating tenancy conditions, peasant’s rural
indebtedness increased. The commercialisation of agriculture resulted in the intensification of
feudal exploitation of the peasantry.
14.3.1.2 Feudal Oppression

In Hyderabad State, particularly in Telangana region major portion, of cultivable land
was concentrated in the hands of few landlords, including Jagirdari areas. The Jagirdars
imposed illegal exactions on the peasants. Nearly 82 varieties of such exactions were recorded.
The burden of exactions could be judged from the fact that 110 Jagirdars collected about Rs.
10 crores . The Deshmukhs wieded lot of political and economic power, being rent collectors
and owners of vast lands. The Patels and Patwaris supported the Deshmukhs. The Jagirs
acted like State within the State, having their own rules in their areas. It was the emergence of
this type of powerful landlords that was responsible for the degeneration of the system.
14.3.1.3 Vetti and Begari

The peasants of Hyderabad also fought against Vetti. It was confined mainly to Dalit
communities, but affected all backward castes in the 19th century. Vetti involved forced labour
and exaction. Under this system, Dalits used to clean village, collect forest wood, carry Post
and supply leather items for cultivation and shoes for the doras families. Rest of the communities
in the village were forced to render service to the dora freely. Boyalu and bestalu carried the
dora family members in pallakis and menas to distant places. Goudas supplied toddy, Salolu
supplied cloth, Kummaris supplied pots, dhobis washed cloths and did household work. Mangalis
who were barbars also performed foot massage and gollas and gollakurmas supplied goats and
sheep for all functions. Komatis supplied goods and groceries. This was the kind of Vetti that
was in practia in Hyderabad, particularly in Telangana. The landlords treated the Dalits as
bonded labours and treated them as slaves. Illegal exploitation of labour, and severe punishments
against them became common. The village officials – Patels, Patwaris and Mali Patel used
Vetti labourer for both official and personal works. Another inhuman custom was Bhagela.
Bhagelas were bonded labourers that to the landlord due to debt. They worked freely in the
Doras gadi through debt bondage. The contract was annual, but they became hereditary
labourers. They worked for the doras round the clock and were paid namesake or nil.
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14.3.1.4 Role of Andhra Maha Sabha, Congress and Communist Party
Organisations which raised consciousness of the people were Andhra Jana Kendra
Sangham formed in 1924, and Andhra Maha Sabha(AMS) formed in the year 1930.Initially the
Andhra Maha Sabha was under the control of Congress but in later phase was controlled by
Communists. The main purpose of Andhra Maha Sabha was to educate people against forced
labour, untouchability and other social evils and to impress the Government to abolish such
practices. The meetings of the Sabha also focussed on purdah, child marriage and widow
remarriage. They propagated temple entry of Dalits. The Mahila Sabhas were held parallel to
Andhra Maha Sabha.
Nizam government responded positively towards Andhra Maha Sabha and issued
firmans prohibiting forced labour. Though started with reform motive, Andhra Maha Sabha
became political organisation by 1937. From 1940 onwards Communists Party gained leadership
of Andhra Maha Sabha. In 1940 Andhra Maha Sabha took resolution against land reforms of
Nizam. By 1944, Communists completely took over Andhra Maha Sabha and intensified their
fight against oppression of peasant and agricultural labourers.
In the year 1938, Hyderabad State Congress was established in Hyderabad. Nizam
Government objected to the name and banned it. Govindrao Nanal, Ramanand Tirtha and
others emerged as Congress leaders. The Congress along with members of Andhra Maha
Sabha took part in Satyagraha movement. Workers from Arya Samaj and Hindu Mahasabha
also participated in the Satyagraha. The Vandemataram movement was launched by the
students of Osmania University.
In 1939, Ravi Narayan Reddy under the influence of Communist Party of India took
active role in Andhra Maha Sabha. In the seventh annual meeting of Andhra Maha Sabha held
in 1940, Ravi Narayan Reddy presided and gave call to boycott Nizam reforms. Andhra Maha
Sabha was divided into two groups by 1942. Split took place in Bhongir session in 1944-1945.
Two rival meetings took place at Warangal and Khammam. While liberals joined communist
Party. Communists took the movement to rural areas. Step by step, it took the form of a
peasant struggle by 1946.
14.3.2 Peasants’ Movements prior Telangana Armed Struggle

The first signs of peasants’ resistance can be seen on June 3, 1933, when peasants
numbering almost thousand, belonging to Bhuvanagiri in Nalgonda District came down in a rally
demanding reduction in levies, ban on illegal taxation, ownership rights on the land to the cultivator
and irrigation facilities across the State.
In Mondrayi (between Jangaon and Nalgonda), Lambada farmers numbering 3000,
agitated against Kandaru Narsimha Rao, Deshmukh, under the leadership of the Communist
Party and Andhra Mahasabha. They reclaimed seventy acres of land, thus securing the land
they had been cultivating.
In Suryapet area, Jannareddy Pratap Reddy Illegally retained lakhs of acres under his
control. Almost 3,000 farmers belonging to Edapally, Nutankal and two other villages, led by
Gajula Ramachandraiah and Andhra Mahasabha, revolted against the landlord to reclaim the
land. Similarly, the Andhra Mahasabha led thousand farmers to launch a large-scale revolt
against Kunduru Lakshmikantha Rao who had occupied the lands belonging to the poor in Old
Suryapet. The revolt was successful in reclaiming 1,000 acres of land.
At Huzurnagar, land measuring 500 acres under the illegal occupation of Bhogala
Veera Reddy, a landlord in Bakkavntulagudem in Huzurnagar Taluq, was reclaimed by 1500
armed peasants and people under the leadership of Teegela Linga Reddy of AMS and Balapanoor
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Bapaiah. The village Patel and Patwari of Mallareddygudem had occupied 600 acres of land
under cultivation. The local leaders of AMS guided 4,000 people and reclaimed the land.
In Bethavolu village under Huzurnagar Taluq, the local landlord, Tadakamalla
Sitaramachander Rao occupied 600 acres of land against which Venapally Rangaiah, a leader
of Andhra Jana Sangham, led 5,000 farmers in an agitation. The people rose in revolt against
such oppressions during 1925-1932 for the first time and again in 1934-35.
In Munagala Samsthanam (estate) the British rulers gave the rulers of this eState the
status of zamindars. The Munagala Zamindari being surrounded by the Nizam’s dominion,
had inherited the feudal system and atrocities of the Nizams. The zamindar, , Venkata Ranga
Rao on collected levies from the farmers even when there was no yield at all. They forcibly
annexed the lands belonging to the people. The feud between the Zamindar and the farmers
reached its peak in Kalkova village, where the farmers, under Nanduri Prasada Rao’s leadership,
launched Satyagraha demanding just wages for reaping the harvest. The struggle which was
carried on in three phases during 1930-35, 1937-38, and 1938-39, achieved the abolition of
bonded labour (vetti) and reclaimed the farmers’ lands. The zamindar’s atrocities increased all
the more after the resignation of Congress ministers in October 1939. The peasants’ struggle
continued until 1947. In Telangana region, even before 1920, there were instances of tenant
farmers revolting against the injustice meted out to them, which was settled through an agreement.
in 1951, when the region did not witness any agitation.
Bandagi’s Murder
Ramachandra Reddy, the Deshmukh of Visunuu village in Jangaon Taluk in the then
Nalgonda District gained notoriety for forcible land grabbing. Sheikh Bandagi was a Muslim
youth and a resident of the neighboring Kamareddygudem village. The family distributed its
land amongst the brothers in 1939. Bandagi’s eldest brother, Abbas Ali, sold his share of the
land and started demanding a share from his brothers. The Deshmukh supported Abbas Ali
and tried to intimidate the younger brothers. The dispute landed in court which gave a ruling in
favour of Bandagi after three years. Deshmukh took this ruling as a personal loss and plotted
to kill Bandagi. The clashes between the Deshmukh and Bandagi continued for twelve years.
He was murdered on the night he brought home the papers pertaining to the court ruling.
Though Bandagi’s fight against the Deshmukh was a personal one, the people recognised it as
a fight against extortion, atrocities and hegemony. His fight inspired the people of the twenty
surrounding villages.
All the above struggles and revolts waged by the farmers culminated into the historic
Armed Struggle of the Peasants of Telangana, and armed rebellion against the feudal lords of
the region.
14.3.3 Telangana Peasants Armed Struggle
14.3.3.1 Landmarks of the Movement

We have noted that the Communists took control of the Andhra Maha Sabha around
1940. The Mahasabha slowly gained strength and popularity in the rural areas. Step, by step the
movement took the form of a peasant upsurge culminating in a major uprising between 1947
and 1950. This period of upsurge could be conveniently analysed in three phases.
14.3.3.1.1 The First Phase- Mass Resistance

We have earlier described the socio-economic structure of the State. During the Second
World War a system of levy on foodgrains was introduced. Under this system, each cultivator
was required to give a certain quantity of foodgrains per acre to the Government. While every
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cultivator was expected to perform this duty, the landlords managed to escape somehow or the
other and the burden pushed on to the ordinary peasants.
The Government also forcibly collected money towards the War-Fund. All these
measures seriously affected the peasants. At the same time, the big landlords and deshmukhs
continued their exploitation of the tenants, and agricultural labourer. In many villages of Nalgonda
district, struggle between the peasants and the propertied classes began to take place with the
impact of Andhra Maha Sabha.
Andhra Mahasabha and the Communist Party trained many volunteers to fight the
Police with lathis and slings. Women volunteers used to throw chilli powder, stones and boiling
water at the Police. Nonetheless, the masses could not continue their fight against the army
which established camps in many villages. The Nizam’s Government also banned the Communist
Party in November 1946. Thus, the mass upsurge against the big landlords and the Government
came to a halt.
14.3.3.1.2 The Second Phase-Liberation Struggle

Ban on Congress was lifted in April 1946. The State Congress began to mobilise people
in favour of a struggle for the freedom of Hyderabad State. It began to pressurise the Nizam of
Hyderabad to join the Indian Union in the event of the British granting independence to India.
On 11th June, 1947, the Nizam announced his desire not to join either the Indian Union or
Pakistan and to remain independent
On 7th August 1947, national flag was hoisted all over the State of Hyderabad .Thousands
of satyagrahis were arrested. While all the political parties supported the accession of the State
of Hyderabad to the Indian Union, the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen was opposed to this move,
Political parties of all shades united under the leadership of the Congress led by
Ramananda. Tirth and planned State-wide Join Indian Movement. Except for a small number
of Hindu feudal-lords, all the Hindus and some Muslims supported these activities. The Nizam
Police and Razakars came down violently on the agitators.
The Congress set up its camps on ‘the borders and made counter-raids on the Police
and the Razakars. The Communist leadership made a study of the whole situation and arrived
at the conclusion that the field was fertile for armed insurrection, and procured arms from
various parts of the country and established regular armed squads all over Telangana. Communist
Party raised the slogan ‘land to the tiller’ and began to work against the landlords.
14.3.3.1.3 The Third Phase-Armed Struggle

By the end of 1947, it was believed that the Communists had succeeded in distributing
the land of the rich land. lords to the poor and establish local rule in about 3,000 villages. The
Congress was in favour of agrarian reform, but was certainly not in favour of a class-conflict in
any form.
The Communists increased the number and the strength of their squads. Village squads
‘with about 10,000 members and regular guerilla squads with more than 2,000 members were
formed.
By about June 1948, civic life in Hyderabad State virtually came to a standstill. Between
April 1947 and March 1948, approximately 250 villages in the State had been looted or burnt.
Four thousand houses, were set on fire. 500 persons got killed or wounded and 450 women
molested by the Razakars. A Government Report said that ‘From the 15thAugust 1946, to 13th
September 1948, they (the Communists) brutally murdered nearly 2,000 persons, attacked 22
Police out-posts. Attempted large-scale disruption of communications and lines of supply and
transport and steadily and systematically adopted the technique of guerilla war fighting with the
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resources at their disposal. The Hyderabad Government lifted its ban on the Communists and
put many Congress leaders behind bars. This further led to the growth of Communist power in
the countryside. . It was under these conditions that the Union government took Police Action
on September, 1948 against the Nizam, and made the State of Hyderabad, a part of the Indian
Union.

1. Which types of Gonds live in Adilabad?
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2. What was the period of Telangana Peasant Armed Struggle?
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14.4 DALIT MOVEMENTS

14.4.1 Adi Hindu Movement – Role of Bhagya Reddy Varma
Adi Hindu Movement started in Hyderabad State against untouchability and caste
discrimination. The pioneer of this movement is Madari Bhagya Reddy Varma. Bhagya Reddy
Varma was born on 22nd May 1888 in Hyderabad. He was the second child of Madari Venkaiah
and Rangamamba. Due to some small issue, he left home during his childhood. Joined a Roman
Catholic brothers tennis court as a picker boy. He worked in their family and managed home. In
the year 1912, he joined as Electrical Engineer in Electrical Department. In 1906 itself, he
founded Jagan Mitra Mandali. The important aim of Mandali is to impart education to Dalits.
He is known for establishing several organisations for the emancipation of Dalits.
In the year 1910, he started Vaidika Dharma Pracharam Sabha to create awareness
among Dalits in religion and morality. In the year 1913, Arya Samajist Baji Krishna Rao conferred
him with Varma title for his laudable social services. In order to bring consensus among different
sub-castes, he used to organise preeti bhojanam programmes. He started Swastika Volunteer
Corps in the year 1912 to serve the Dalits.
In the year 1911 Varma formed Manya Sangham. Later in 1913 redesigned it as the
Adi Hindu Social Service League which did yeoman service to enlighten people through public
lectures, Harikatha kalakshepams on themes of Pre- Aryan Culture and publication of literature.
The spirit of Social Service League attracted several caste Hindus and they actively associated
with the League, prominent among them were Justice C.Bal Mukund, Pandit Keshav rao
Koratker, Seth Lalji Meghji, Professor Wellington, R.E. Repouku. Inspired by Brahma Samaj,
Reddy joined several Dalits into Brahmasamaj. In the year 1913, he organised Buddha Jayanthi
for the first time. Padmaja Naidu, Adipudi Samanatha Rao, Chandravark etc participated in
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these celebrations. He conducted this activity every year till his death. The last Buddha Jayanthi
he celebrated was on 25th May 1913 under the chairmanship of Raja Bahadur Rai Biwesomnath.
Bhagya Reddy Varma became pioneer of Dalit self -respect movement in Andhra
also. In 1917 he presided over the first Andhra Desa Panchama Conference at Bezawada. On
the first day itself, he condemned the word Panchama and Stated that this word was not there
in Vedas and Puranas and it is a creation of dominant castes to exercise their selfish motto of
dominance. Also made it clear that Dalits were original inhabitants, and hence replaced
Panchama with Adi Andhra. Bhagya Reddy strongly believed that Dalits were not part of
Hinduism. Due to the consistent efforts of Bhagya Reddy, the Madras Government issued a
Government Order (GO) 817 on January 24th 1922. The Madras Legislative Council adopted a
resolution stating that the council recommends to the Government that the term Panchama or
Paraya used to designate the ancient Dravidian community in Southern India should be deleted
from the Government records and the term Adi Dravida in the Tamil and Adi Andhra in the
Telugu districts to be substituted instead”. In Hyderabad State also, due to his efforts, the term
Adi Hindu was accepted by the Nizam Government and referred all the Dalits (Mala, Madiga,
Dakkali, Dhed, Chamar etc) as Adi Hindu in 1931 Census Report.
Bhagya Reddy Varma made an attempt to bring solidarity among Dalits and Bahujans.
He founded Yadava Sangham under Srugam Sitaram, Sabari Sangham under Durgaiah, Pardhi
Sangham under Hanuman Singh. In 1925 he organised Adi Hindu Sabha under the leadership
of Arundhaitiys leader, Subedar Sayanna. In 1925 itself he organised Matanga Janasabha under
the leadership of Guntimalla Ramappa. Bhagya Reddy founded the Matangi Sabha in 1927 at
Mallepalli. They passed resolutions against liquor and toddy consumption.
He made Secunderabad as centre and toured extensively in Karimnagar, Warangal,
Khammam and Nizamabad demanding rights to Madigas, Mudigonda Laxmaiah, an industrialist,
extensively supported this movement and gave monetary help to poor Madiga Students. In the
year 1937, Jambavarna Seva Samithi made efforts to create awareness among Arundhatiyas.
Matanga Mahasabha leader Guntimalla Ramappa strived hard to bring unity among Dalits in
1932.
On July 10th 1931 in the Adi Hindu Dharmika Sabha, Bhagya Reddy gave a call to
bring amity among different sub-castes among Dalits. He presided over Adi Hindu Conference
held at Nagpur in May 1933.
Bhagya Reddy participated in the meetings of Andhra Maha Sabha and made to adopt
several resolutions to bring reforms in the society. In its first meeting held at Jogipet on 3rd,4th
and 5th March, 1930, Suravaram Pratap Reddy presided over and proposed resolutions on
educational facilities to Adi-Hindus, whereas Bhagya Reddy gave a call to remove untouchability.
Varma also spoke in the second meeting at Hyderabad. In 1934 Khammam conference. Bhagya
Reddy also conducted Adi Hindu gymnastic competitions under the presidentship of Kodi
Ramamurthy .In 1925, to encourage youth, he conducted painting, drawing and craft exhibitions
at Prem theatre, Hyderabad.
Bhagya Reddy attended several meetings and conferences in other parts of India too.
One such meeting he participated was in the Divyajnana Samajam meeting held on 15thDecember,
1917, at Calcutta and spoke how Brahmanism caused the degradation of Dalits. Mahatma
Gandhi was present in the conference and praised him for his interest in the upliftment of
downtrodden. Later, Gandhi visited Adi Hindu Social Service League and Adi Hindu School in
the year 1929.
In 1920 several identity movements took place in Northern India. All India Adi Hindu
(Depressed Classes) conferences were organised in places like Delhi, Allahabad, Lucknow
and Nagpur. Varma attended all these conferences as a delegate from Hyderabad State and
Andhra. He attended the Adi Hindu special conference also held at Delhi on 24th February
1928. In the year 1930, on 16th November Varma participated in the 8th session of All India Adi
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Hindu (Depressed Class) conference held in Mayo Hall at Allahabad. The conference demanded
for a representative from Adi Hindu background in the Central as well as State legislations.
Reddy also participated in Adi Hindu conference and several other meetings in 1936 at
Vijayanagaram. On 22nd September 1937, Nizam Government constituted a committee for
reforms. In the same year, Bhagya Reddy conducted a meeting and requested the Government
to allocate two seats to Adi Hindus.
Bhagya Reddy’s relentless activities and frequent travels affected his health. Krishna
Swamy Mudiraj mentioned in his book that Bhagya Reddy gave as many as 3348 public speeches.
Bhagya Reddy’s life is synonymus with Adi Hindu Movement. He strived hard to create
awareness among Railway employees, Military soldiers, cloth merchants, contractors, workers
and labourers. He breathed his last breath on 18th February, 1939. His death was a major
setback to the Adi Hindu Movement and also Dalits of Hyderabad.
14.4.2 Other Dalit Organisations and Leaders

Arige Ramaswamy
He is the contemporary of Bhagya Reddy Varma. He worked for Dalits and fought
against caste discrimination. . He founded Suneeta Bala Samajam at Secunderabad and Matangi
Mahasabha at Nampalli. He struggled for the abolition of Jogini system. He fought against
superstitions, animal sacrifices and child marriages. He propounded Achala Philosophy, believed
in Brahma Samaj principles. Still he felt that Dalits are separate and not part of Hindu fold.
In the year 1922, he started Adi Hindu Jateeya Sabha, along with J.Papayya as vice -
president and Konda Venkataswamy as president. This organisation worked to bring reforms
among Adi Hindus. It also worked for Devadasi abolition. Arige Ramaswamy rescued a mala
girl from dedication as Jogini and married her with a madiga boy. This marriage was to bring
cordial relations among these two sub castes in later years. He founded Arundhatiya Maha
Sabha and created awareness among madiga castes. Arige Ramaswamy is not only a reformer,
but also a poet.
B.S.Venkat Rao
B.S.Venkat Rao is another Dalit Leader who led the Dalit Movement in the Nizam
State. He is greatly inspired by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar’s movement. He too founded several Dalit
organisations. In the year 1922, he along with his friends Madari Govindarajulu, and Madari
Venkatswamy founded Adi Dravida Sangham. In the year 1922 started Adi Hindu Mahasabha
along with C.S. Yatiraj, K.Ramaswamy and Arige Ramaswamy. He also worked for the removal
of social evils and bring unity among Dalits. Through these organisations, he started a library
and Night school as an affiliation to Adi Hindu Maha Sabha which he founded in 1926 at
Secunderabad.
In the year 1936, he started Ambedkar Youth League for the development of Dalit
Youth. He was elected as Secunderabad Cantonment Board Member in 1938, Municipal
Elections. In 1939 as MLA on behalf of local bodies in Assembly, and finally became Education
Minister in the year 1947. He presided over the Mahar Conference in May 1936 at Poona. He
started City Depressed Classes Association at Hyderabad in 1938. He met the Prime Minister
of Nizam State, Sir Akbar Hydari in the year 1934 and demanded for adequate representation
of Dalits in legislature and separate electorates based on population.
When he was the Education Minister, he changed the Burton High School as Adaiah
Memorial School and upgraded it to High School. He provided an opportunity to Dalit Students
who passed HSC to join in colleges. He prepared the list of eligible Dalit children and sent it to
Nizam Government and British India officers and provided opportunities for perusing their
studies in foreign countries. For the first time in history he convinced, the Nizam Government to
allocate one crore to Scheduled Caste Trust fund for the welfare of Dalits. He led Hyderabad
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Depressed Classes Association by merging all small Dalit organisations. After Hyderabad
accession into Indian Union, he was kept under house arrest and died in the year 1953.
Battula Shyamsunder
B.Shyamsunder emerged as a student leader and later trade union leader. He presided
over Depressed Classes Maha Sabha (Anjuman–e-Fastukhaum) on 30 th May, 1942.
P.R.Venkataswamy in his book “Our Struggle for Emancipation” wrote that B.Syamsunder’s
entry into Dalit Movement is a “Red Letter Day”.
He worked as Secretary to Scheduled Castes Federation, along with B.S.Venkatrao.
He attended All India Scheduled Castes Federation meeting held at Nagpur in the year 1944.
He worked as president of Osmania University Graduates Association. He was a member of
Reconstruction Committee of Osmania University in 1944, Standing Committee Member and
Senate Member. He played a crucial role in taking Dalit issues to Nizam Government. He
demanded for proportionate representation of Dalits in Nizam’s Executive Council. He profoundly
believed in Dalits Muslim Unity. He opined that Dalits are separate entity in Hinduism. He
believed that Dalits should be together to get political and social freedom.
B.Shyamsunder was instrumental in influencing Nizam to grant 5 lakh Rupees to Peoples
Education Trust that started by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar. This institution helped for the advancement
of Dalits and deprived sections. He spoke on the status of Dalits in International forums when
sent along with Moin Nawaj Jung and Jaheer Ahmad by Nizam Government as representatives
demanding separate Statehood to Hyderabad. On 18th July 1942, when the All India Depressed
Classes political Maha Sabha was convened, representatives from Hyderabad such as
J.H.Subhaiah, B.S.Venkar Rao, B Shyam Sunder, P.R. Venkataswamy Ethirajan, P.V.Manohar,
and Arige Ramaswamy decided to form Scheduled Castes Federation. Ambedkar, visit in the
year 1944 to Hyderabad inspired the Scheduled Caste Federation.
14.5.3 Impact of Armed Struggle on Dalit Movement

When the Dalit movement is spreading in towns under the leadership of Bhagya Reddy
and others, Vetti and Bhagela and violence on Dalit women were also increasing in rural
areas. Ravi Narayan Reddy, Puchalapalli Sunderaiah, Devulapalli Venkateshwar Rao, Chandra
Rajeshwar Rao and others spread Communist ideology among the people. Dalits and oppressed
in large numbers joined the “Dalams” formed at village level, to counter their exploitation.
Dalits participated in the liberation struggles against Jamindar system at various places
of Telangana. Under the leadership of John, Dalits participated in large number fighting against
vetti and huge taxes in several villages, viz., Kolanupaka, China Kadkur, Rajampet, Puligalli
and Inkurti villages of Bhuvanagiri Taluk of Nalgonda District. In the year 1944, Dalits of
Pammi Village of Warangal under the leadership of Andhra Maha Sabha struggled and re-
occupied their lands from landlords and liberated themselves from vetti. Dalits of Tellerupalli
village of Khammam District fought against Jagirdar Amjad Ali who was corrupt and got
liberated from vetti. Dalits in Keshavapuram village of Huzurabad Taluk of Karimnagar District
fought unitedly against Deshmuk’s oppression. In the year 1944 in Mahabubnagar too, Dalits
successfully fought against Gadwal Jamindar’s vetti system. As result of Telangana Armed
Struggle, vetti was abolished, but caste system continued. The Communist Party which fought
with class consciousness, could not find solution to caste problem.
14.5 WOMEN’S MOVEMENT

The status of women in the 20th century was not remarkable. In 1935, the President of
Andhra Mahila Sabha, Joginepalli Radhabayamma in her presidential address said that “there
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are a number of social evils in the Telangana society. These evils are the main obstacles for
women’s growth both economically and psychologically. They were kept away from education
for the fear that they may enjoy independent status.” Child marriage is another important social
evil spread in all the areas of Telangana.
Along with child marriages, another evil practice in the Telangana society is polygamy.
Because of this also, the women of those days faced many problems. Apart from Muslim
community, purdah system could be seen in Deshmukh, Deshpande, Reddy, Kamma, Kapu,
Velama and other high caste women.
14.5.1 Reforms Movement

Some intellectuals in Telangana started efforts to eradicate the social evils. M.
Hanumantha Rao from the beginning showed much interest towards social reforms. The
establishment of Sri Krishna Andhra Balika Patasala was done by M. Hanumantha Rao. Followed
by this, the Arya Samaj established Viveka Vardhani Girls School, Bala Saraswathi School and
Kanya Pathasala. Adi Hindu Girls school was founded by Bhagyareddy Varma who worked
hard for girls education. Nizam Government provided scholarships for meritorious girl students.
14.5.2 Women’s Organisation

In order to mitigate the impact of various social evils on women, reformers in Telangana
started several organisations and led reforms movement. In 1878 Aghoranath Chattopadhyaya
started Young Men’s Improvement Association with a reading room and library .The Association
used to conduct various meetings and conferences to discuss social and political issues. Another
reformer Mulla Abdul Khayyam worked for women’s education. Several organisations were
started for women welfare. In 1907 Sitha Bai started Bharatha Mahila Samajam, Yamini
Purnatilakam started Yuvatisaranalayam in the year 1922, Nadimpalli Sundaramma started
Andhra Sodari Samajam in 1925. Organisations for establishing libraries also acted as propagation
centres for adult education. Their role in women’s development was immense.
14.5.2.1 Andhra Mahila Sabha

Andhra Maha Sabha and Andhra Mahila Sabha were started in 1930. Andhra Maha
Sabha conducted 13 Maha Sabhas and 10 Mahila Sabhas. These Mahila Sabhas simultaniously
had the privilege of having the leadership of prominent women, such as Nadimpalli Sundaramma,
Tanguturi Varalakshmamma , Yellapragada Sithakumari , Madapati Manikyamba, Burgula Ananta
Laxmidevi, Nandagiri Indira Devi, Yogyasheela Devi and Rangamma Obul Reddy etc. Several
resolutions about women welfare and women’s education were taken in these Mahila Sabhas
and sent to Nizam.
Nizam Government issued a farman allowing widow remarriage. This might be the
first farman of the social reforms in Nizams State. Later in 1940, the 18th Andhra Mahila
Sabha was convened at Chilkur. In this, the president Rangamma Obul Reddy gave a call to
women to come out of purdah and stop child marriage. Pulijala Kamala Bai, the Secretary
emphasised that women’s movement should be led by women only.
Most of the members of Andhra Mahila Sabha were from middle and upper class
families with nationalist spirit. They took up issues pertaining to women’s education, abolition of
prostitution. Purdah and women’s remarriages etc. Often these issues aroused resentment
from conservative sections within the organisation and people outside. During the 3rd conference
of Andhra Mahila Sabha held at Khammam, conflict took place between the reformists and the
opponents who branded themselves as the protectors of Hindu Dharma. In the year 1937,
Maharastra, and Karnataka Parishads started their own platforms.
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All India Women’s Conference was started in 1945 under the leadership of Prameela
Tai. Members of the Conference were Mankumari Chowrasia, Jaduav Behen, Gita Devi, Leela
Devi Dangoria, Yashodha Devi etc. They were drawn from various linguistic groups. Another
organisation, Andhra Yuvati Mandali was started in 1935 at Hyderabad by Yellapragada Seetha
Kumari and Illendula Sraswathi to discuss about women’s problems. They also started schools
and Sisu Vihars. This organisation also worked for promotion of women’s education.
The consciousness of Muslim women in Hyderabad was reflected in a number of such
organisations. Suegra Humayun Mirza started Anjuman-e-Khavateen-e-Deccan in 1895. Primary
objectives of this organisation were to help poor women, and widows to earn their livelihood,
and remove social evils. Lady Hyderi started Hyderabad Ladies Club. This also worked for
solving women’s problems. In Nizams State education opportunities for women were less.
However, Nizam VI and VII provided many opportunities for women in the city.
In the year 1934, All Hyderabad Students Union was started, by organising people
from various organisations. During those days, women students used to attend the classes in
Osmania sitting behind chilman (Purdah). Three women students joined the executive,
Shakuntala as Secretary, Susheela as Treasurer, and Padma as member in the Executive
Committee.
14.5.3 Women in National Movement

The Nationalist Movement spread in Andhra soon extended to Telangana region also.
When Gandhi visited Hyderabad in 1921, women participated in large numbers in the public
meeting at Vivekavardini school. After seeing the immense response of people, Nizam issued
Gasti Nisan;53 which imposed several restrictions on the freedom of association of the people
in the State. Women participated enthusiastically in the Swadesi Movement. Lectures on Swadesi
Movement were organised at the residence of Dr.Aghoranath Chattopadyaya, where Aryasamaj
leaders like Keshav Rao, Koratkar, Pandit Damodar Satwalaker, Vaman Naik and Appaji
Tuljapurkar used to discuss about the movement and its dynamics.
A special meeting with Gandhi and Kasturbai was arranged at Prem theatre, for the
women of Hyderabad. Gandhi’s speech on the boycott of foreign goods and use of swadeshi
had a deep impact on them. An association under the chairmanship of Padmaja Naidu was
started immediately after the visit of Gandhi to propagate the use of Khadi and Swadeshi
goods, and started charkhas in each and every household. Hyderabad women contributed
generously towards Tilak’s Swaraj fund.
14.5.3.1 Women in Satyagraha Movement under Hyderabad State Congress

The Nizam administration did not pay any heed to the peoples, demand for the
establishment of responsible government. Therefore, people in Hyderabad called for Satyagraha.
Prominent leaders like Sangam Lakshmi Bai, Baddam Yella Reddy, and Nanduri Krishnamachari
led this movement. Sangam Lakshmi Bai along with Durgabai Deshmukh participated in national
movement in Andhra and faced imprisonment. She completed her education and joined as
teacher in 1938 at Hyderabad. During the same year, some of the national leaders decided to
form Hyderabad State Congress. Nizam Government banned the Congress before its birth
through an extraordinary gazette issued in September, 1938. However, under the aegis of
Hyderabad State Congress, Satyagraha Movement was launched on 24th October 1938
.Yellapragada Sita Kumari offered satyagraha and suffered imprisonment. Al together,
450 activists participated in eighteen batches along with local leaders. Women like Gyan Kumari
and others actively participated in Satyagraha Movement .They tried to awaken the women
through Charkha Sanghams.
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14.5.3.2 Quit India Movement
Irrespective of ideologies, all organisations such as Hyderabad State Congress,
Communists and Arya Samaj came together to take part in the Quit India Movement call given
by Gandhi. Women also participated in large number. Educated women such as Padmaja Naidu,
Mrs. Padma Swamy, Vimalabai and others took the lead. Padmaja Naidu faced imprisonment.
Many women, such as Yellapragada Sitakumari and Sumithra Devi suffered detention.
14.5.4 Women in Telangana Armed Struggle (1946-51)

Telangana Armed Struggle was a struggle for land, livelihood and liberation. Poor and
the oppressed participated in this Struggle in large numbers. Puchalapalli Sundariah in his book
“Telangana people’s struggle and its lessons” Stated that the Struggle is for protecting
land, wages and their liberation.
Women participated in large numbers in the Movement who were the victims of poverty,
oppression and sexual exploitation. They participated with their husbands and also suffered
cruelty of Razakars and Nizam Police. They faced their enemies with chilli powder, acted as
secret messengers also and they took part in political agitations. As organisers of people’s
movements and mass organisations, women’s participation can be seen in different ways in
Telangana Armed Struggle. Most of the women participated in the propaganda and mobilising
people against the Nizam’s oppressions. Many women worked inside the dens. They were
trained in writing reports, documents against landlords. Some of them used to participate in the
making of explosives. Telangana Armed Struggle was closely associated with the struggle of
Chityala Ailamma. She was born in a poor washerman family in Jangaon village of Nalgonda
district. She revolted against landlords for grabbing her land. Ailamma’s struggle inspired the
people of neighbouring villages. She died in 1995. Ravi Narayan Reddy, and P. Sundarayya
praised that the struggle of “Ailamma symbolised and signalled the beginning of the mighty
struggle of the Telangana peasants for land”
There are several incidents where women who were not even aware of defence
mechanisms revolted against violence. They got inspired by the Telangana Movement led by
peasants against oppression of Nizam’s landlords. Women collectively stood against the Razakars
and Police.
People revolted against the Police atrocities in Akunuru village. Enraged by this, Police
raped 32 women. Such atrocities were committed in Machireddypalli village also. All these
incidents took place before 1946. After reading about these incidents in newspapers, Gandhiji
wrote a letter to Padmaja Naidu to take action. Ramulamma belongs to Cherukupalli village of
Huzurnagar Taluk. She participated in the peoples struggle against Tadakamalla Seeta
Rammachandra Rao, the maktedar of Betavolu along with her husband in 1946. She went to
forest along with the members of Dalam. She was trained in military action. Another woman,
Savitramma of Penubadu village of Huzurnagar Taluk of Nalgonda district participated in the
struggle against landlord Seeta Rama Rao.
Banala Lingamma of Shilpakuntla village of Suryapet Taluk of Nalagonda District was
in the forefront in the struggle against landlord Jannareddy Pratap Reddy. Mallu Swarajyam,
sister of former Member of Parliament, Bheem Reddy Narasimha Reddy, played an active role
in the People’s mobilisation. Atchamamba belonged to Gollacherla village of Manukota Taluk
of Warangal District. She learnt the basics of first aid and popularly came to be known as
doctor Atchamamba who actively participated in the struggle. Kamalamma of Rampuram of
Manukota Taluk of Warangal District, and Briji Rani Goud, inspired by Sarojini Naidu participated
in the movement. She mobilised women against Razakars and worked as a guard. She suffered
attacks of Razakars and faced torture in jail. Arutla Kamaladevi, wife of Arutla Ramachandra
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Reddy participated actively in the movement. During student days only, she started night school
‘Vantasala’ at Kolanupaka. She joined Communist Party in 1943. The Chollurugutta struggle
led by her is highly inspiring. After Independence, she got elected as MLA from Communist
Party.
Women belonging to the lower castes, such as washermen, barbers, scheduled castes
and tribals participated actively in the Struggle. Lambadi women of Kondrapullula fought against
landlords and got back their lands. Women of Mudulagunta waged a historic struggle. It is
interesting to note that even purdah women of Mallareddygudem fought against levi grain. In
Pudhutur, when military tried to abduct women, they fought against them. Women of Thirumalagiri,
Koyagudem, Nerigela, Manikota, Chetlamupparam and Pammi villages fought against Nizam
Police. Some Koya women of Godavari forest area, such as Nagamma Venkatamma, Pappakka,
Rammakka, Pullakka, Budhakka, Adhamma and Narayanamma worked as couriers and
members of squads. Koya Lachakka killed four Nizam Police. Bhudhamma of Bendalapudu
supplied necessary things to the gorilla squads. Padigepelli Nagamma of Nellacheruvu of
Nandigam and Venkamma of Choppaguntalla village supplied food to gorilla squads. Like this,
many dalit and tribal women actively participated in the Armed Struggle.
14.5.5 Women in Join India Movement

After the end of British rule, Nizam decided to declare independence and not to join in
Indian Union. Responding to this, Ramananda Teertha decided to launch a struggle on 7th July
1947 against the decision of Nizam by calling it as Join India Day. He appealed to the people of
Hyderabad to observe the occasion peacefully and advocated that factories should stop work
and students should boycott schools and colleges. Big demonstrations were held on 15th August
1947. People hoisted national flag defying Nizam’s orders. Police resorted to lathi charge.
Women actively participated in this Movement. Yashodabai, and Birj Rani Goud hoisted national
flag and got arrested. After them, women in four batches participated. Vimalabai Gyan Kumari
Heda, Usha Pangrekar, and Ahalyabai faced lathi charge. Laxmi Radha Bai Deshmukh hoisted
national flag at Itkalamandi. They continued their struggle till Nizam signed Standstill Agreement
with Indian Union on 30th November, 1947.
14.6 SUMMARY
The Gonds, once the ruling community refused the Nizam oppressive rule and policies.
Revolted against Government. Ramji Gond revolted in 1850 Komaram Bheem’s Jodeghat revolt
asserted the independence of Adivasis of Telangana leaders. Mobilised the public for the abolition
of forced labour, untouchability and other evils in the society. Dalit leaders demanded equal
educational and economic opportunities and equal rights to them. Peasant Struggle fought for
land to tiller, wages and liberation of people from feudal oppression. From 1946 till1950 Communist
Party supported it and provided main motive force for massive mobilisation. Though Nizam
suppressed Tribal revolt, it took up the measure of distribution of forest land to Tribals under
laoni (Kowl) Patta, and the Tribal Areas Dastur –ul- Amal in 1946 to protect adivasi from non-
Tribals. Telangana Peasants Struggle resulted in the promulgation of abolition of Vetti by the
Government. The collective efforts of Dalit leaders resulted in certain reforms and institution
of one crore fund for Dalit education by Nizam, and establishment of schools, Women’s
participation in all the movements was noteworthy. The Peoples Movement in Hyderabad was
historic and showed the collective strength.

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1. Which Dalit leader became the Education Minister during the reign of Mir Osman Ali Khan?
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2. Who were the women participants in Join India Movement?
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ANSWERS – I
1. Pradhan, Kolam and Thotis
2. The period of Telangana Peasant Armed Struggle was between 1946 to 1951
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ANSWERS – II

1. B.S. Venkat Rao
2. Vimalabai, Gyan Kumari Heda, Usha Pangrekar, Ahalyabai and Radhabai Deshmukh.

1. Estimate the role of Kumaram Bheem in Tribal Movement in Telanagana
2. Give an account of Adi Hindu Movement of Bhagya Reddy Varma
3. Estimate the role of women in Telangana Peasant Struggle.

1. Write about the revolt of Ramji Gond
2. Write about Arundhatiya Mahasabha
3. Write about Andhra Mahila Sabha

1. Kshirsagar.R.K : Dalit Movements in India and its leaders 1857-1956,
Delhi 1994.
2. Janaki. K. : Role of women in Freedom Struggle in Andhra,
Hyderabad 1999.
3. Barry Parier : The Telangana Movement.
4. Sundaraiah P. : Telangana People Struggle and its Lessons 1992.
5. Bhagya Bhukya : History of Modern Telangana, Delhi 2017.
6. Chinna Rao, Yagati : Dalit Struggle for Identity, New Delhi- 2003.
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UNIT - 15: INTEGRATION OF HYDERABAD STATE INTO
INDIAN UNION
Contents
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 British Relations with Nizam
15.3 People’s Movements in Hyderabad State
15.4 Independence: Consequences
15.5 Standstill Agreement
15.5.1 Violations of the Agreement
15.5.2 Civil Society Requests and Protests
15.5.3 Murder of Shoebullah Khan
15.5.4 Government of India’s Restrictions
15.5.5 Role of Vallabhai Patel
15.6 Case of Hyderabad before the Security Council
15.7 Operation Polo
15.7.1 Pre-Police Action Conditions
15.7.2 Military Preparations
15.7.2.1 Hyderabad Military
15.7.2.2 Indian Army
15.8 The Surrender of Nizam
15.9 Summary
15.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to
1. Know the process of integration of Hyderabad State into the Indian Union.
2. Discuss the chain events that led to integration.
3. Explain the developments relating to ‘Operation Polo’
4. Analyse the entire process of accession by the Indian Government.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
The erstwhile State of Hyderabad was undoubtedly the largest among the Indian States,
occupying a geographical extent of around 81,608 square miles and with a population of over 16
million. In fact, Hyderabad had its own Government, Currency, Posts, Telephone and Telegraph
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system, Civil Service, University, Railways, Industries, Army and Police, which were distinct
from those of the remaining Princely States. Hyderabad State existed for more than a century
under the British suzerainty. It was neither a part of British India nor of British territory, but
was under the protection of the British Crown.
Hyderabad under the Nizam’s rule was feudal, autocratic and medieval in character. It
ignored the political, social, economic and cultural interests of majority of the people and
exploitation became a common feature. The indirect rule of the British through Residents and
the ministers in the State served as constitutional counter weight to the Royal autocracy. Neither
the Princess nor their ministers did ever try to share power with the people. The rulers did little
to improve the socio – economic conditions of the people; the pomp and splendour that could be
seen in the Darbar at Hyderabad was in contrast to the utter poverty, illiteracy and lawlessness
in the countryside.
Under this circumstance, on 15th August, 1947, the people of British India had attained
freedom after a prolonged struggle that extended for over a hundred years. Indian Union and
Pakistan were bifurcated on communal lines. Mir Osman Ali Khan, VII Nizam announced that
the Hyderabad State to be ‘Independent Country’ and it will not be merged in India or Pakistan,
this led to the ‘Police Action’ by the Indian Government on Hyderabad State on 13th to 17th,
September, 1948 and merged the Hyderabad State into India.
15.2 BRITISH RELATIONS WITH NIZAM

The British were guilty of breaches of promises made to the Nizam in their treaties of
1798, 1800, 1852, 1902 and 1936. Further, they exploited Nizam on several occasions. On the
other hand, they benefited themselves throughout the alliance, and in return, they betrayed the
Nizam. In the preparations for the British withdrawal from India, the importance of the States
was largely overlooked and their rights were neglected. At the time of transferring power to
India, Britain unilaterally denounced her treaties with Hyderabad and her obligation. However,
before its withdrawal, Britain had promised an unfettered choice to the Nizam for merging with
either India or Pakistan or to remain as an independent sovereign country. Nizam chose
independence.
15.3 PEOPLE’S MOVEMENTS IN HYDERABAD STATE

During this period, important development happened in the Princely State of Hyderabad.
On one side, the spread of National Movement is there and on another side, Telangana Peasant
Struggle was going on. The economic, political and social conditions that prevailed in Hyderabad
State were more severe than in the provinces ruled by the British. Peasants were oppressed,
land revenue was excessive, education was retarded and there were no health or social services.
In addition to these, in Hyderabad State, slavery, serfdom and forced labour remained common.
The growth of Nationalism in Hyderabad Princely State was rather slow when compared
to the rest of British India. But, People’s movements against the Nizam were an absorbing
encounter. He used different strategies to retain power, but the people were for change in
Governance and demanded a responsible Government. The most intensive phase of the
Hyderabad Freedom Struggle was immediately after the transfer of power to the Indian hands
in 1947. As such, the Freedom Struggle assumed both the characteristics of liberation and
problem of India’s unity, integrity and security, thereby providing a wider canvas. In such a
context, the torch-bearers of the Hyderabad Freedom Struggle, led by Swami Ramanand Tirtha
have to come out with their heart-rendering stories of sacrifice, the inter-linkages, the political
cross currents through which the Struggle had to pass, the important and imaginative turn it
took, leading to a successful culmination of achieving democratic freedom of the people and
strengthening in a larger sense the integrity and unity of India.
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In late 1945, there started a Peasant Uprising in Telangana area, that was led by the
Communists. The Communists drew their support from various quarters. Among the poor
peasants, there were grievances against the Jagirdari system, which covered 43% of land
holding. Initially they also drew support from rich peasants who also fought under the Communist
banner, but by 1948, the coalition had disintegrated. Initially, in 1945, the Communists
targeted Zamindars and even the Hindu Deshmukhs, but soon they launched a full-fledged
revolt against the Nizam. Starting in mid-1946, the conflict between the Razakars and
the Communists became increasingly violent, with both sides resorting to brutal methods.
15.4 INDIAN INDEPENDENCE: CONSEQUENCES

According to the Independence Act, 1947, the British paramountcy over the Indian
States (Princely States) had ceased. This meant that the rulers of these Princely States were
free to choose their future course independently. However, they were advised to accede either
to the Indian Union or to Pakistan. In these circumstance, by the mindful diplomacy of Vallabhai
Patel, ably assisted by V.P.Menon, the Secretary of Home Affairs, some enlightened rulers like
the Maharaja of Patiala, who was the Secretary of the Chamber of the Princes, realized the
necessity of merging their States with the Indian Union. In other cases, firmness and ruthlessness
and Patel’s diplomacy succeeded in bringing the five hundred and odd Princely States into the
Indian Union. But, the question of merging of Hyderabad State into Indian Union proved a little
more difficult. The Nizam wanted the preservation of a special status for Hyderabad and
desired direct links with Britain. Lord Mountbatten made it clear to the Nizam that his State
could not join as a Dominion in the British Commonwealth of Nations. The Nizam consequently
went out of his way to delay the integration into the Indian Union.
At the end, the Governor – General of India, Mountbatten in a speech to the Constituent
Assembly on 15th August 1947, has stated that “The only State of the first importance that has
not yet acceded is the premier State, Hyderabad occupies unique position in view of its size,
population and resources, and it has its problems. The Nizam, while he does not propose to
accede the Dominion of Pakistan, has not up to the present felt able to accede to the Dominion
of India. His Exalted Highness has assured me of his wish to co-operate in three essential
subjects of External affairs, Defence and Communications with that Dominion whose territories
surround his State. With assent of the Government, negotiations will be continued with Nizam
and I am hopefull of reaching a solution satisfactory to all”. As such in pursuance of this policy,
letters and telegrams were exchanged between the Nizam and the Governor – General. After
Indian the Independence, political pressures were mounting on the Nizam for a settlement. The
Nizam in a letter to the Governor- General, dated 18th September, 1947 offered to enter into a
treaty with India and highlighted the important features with regard to the defence, external
affairs and communications.
15.5 STANDSTILL AGREEMENT

The Government of India, after Independence, insisted for accession, ‘involving full
and overt control of the three subjects of Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communications, but
offering Hyderabad autonomy in other matters’. The Nizam’s contention was that in the absence
of the British, he is supreme and was contemplating to acquire the title of ‘His Majesty’. Thus,
he wanted treaty between equals, with regard to the three subjects, and offered any form of
association, except accession. Both the Nizam and the Government of India were adamant on
their respective positions and settlement could not be reached. India realised that this situation
may drift Hyderabad slowly towards separatism. Under the circumstances, an alternative
arrangement was devised in the form of ‘Standstill Agreement’ and negotiations were undertaken.
The Nizam sent several delegations to Delhi to negotiate terms and conditions. On the repeated
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advice of Lord Mountbatten and Nizam’s Constitutional advisor Sir Walter Monckton, compelled
to sign a Standstill Agreement with the Dominion of India for a period of one year. It was signed
by the Nizam and Lord Mountbatten, Governor-General of India on 29th November 1947. The
Nizam, in his letter dated 29th November, 1947 to the Governor-General, wrote : “By executing
this Standstill Agreement I am in no way permanently prejudicing my rights as an independent
sovereign, but I am, of course, conscious that I am in some important respects suspending the
exercise of certain of those rights during the currency of the Agreement”. The text of the
Agreement reads as follows:
1. ‘Until new agreements in the behalf are made, all arrangements and administrative
arrangements as to the matters of common concern, including External Affairs, Defence
and Communications, which were existing between the Crown and the Nizam
immediately before the 15th August ,1947, shall in so far as may be appropriate, continue
as between the Dominion of India(or any part thereof) and the Nizam’.
‘Nothing herein contained shall impose any obligation or confer any right on the Dominion-
(I) to send troops so stationed to be withdrawn from Hyderabad territory within six
months of the termination of hostilities.
2. ‘The Government of India and the Nizam agreed for the better execution of the purpose
of this Agreement to appoint Agents in Hyderabad and Delhi respectively, and to give
facility to them for the discharge of their functions’.
3. (i) ‘Nothing herein contained shall include or introduce paramountcy functions to create
any paramountcy relationship’.
(ii) ‘Nothing herein contained and nothing done in pursuance here of shall be deemed to
ceretain in favour of either party any right continuing after the date of termination of
this Agreement, and nothing herein contained and nothing done in pursuance here of
shall be deemed to derogate from any right which, but for this Agreement, would have
been exercisable by either party to it after the date of termination here of’.
4. ‘Any dispute arising out of this Agreement or out of Agreements hereby continued shall
be referred to the arbitration of two arbitrators, one appointed by each of the parties,
and an umpire appointed by those arbitrators.
5. ‘This agreement shall come into force at once and shall remain in force for a period of
one year’. In confirmation of the above terms, the Nizam and the Governor-General of
India appended their signature on 29th November, 1947. The Nizam first signed it,
accompanied by a detailed letter and the Governor-General later on, with a reply to the
Nizam clarifying certain matters. After signing the Agreement, on 30th November, 1947,
the Nizam through Farman appealed to the people to maintain peace and refrain from
communal strife’.
15.5.1 Violations of the Agreement

The Standstill Agreement, unfortunately, did not fulfill the hopes raised by its conclusion.
India and Hyderabad exchanged charges and counter – charges on various issues, including
India’s breach of its commitment to supply army, weapons and ammunitions urgently needed
for internal security. India had promised to provide all facilities for import and export trade to
Hyderabad but, on the contrary, had imposed a severe economic blockade on the State.
In Hyderabad city there were huge demonstrations by Razakars led by Syed Qasim
Razvi, against the administration’s decision to sign Standstill Agreement. The Indian Government
offered Hyderabad a Standstill Agreement which made an assurance that the status quo would
be maintained and no military action would be taken for one year. But, Hyderabad violated all
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clauses of the Agreement: in external affairs, and in defence, by building up a large semi-
private army; in communications, by interfering with the traffic at the borders and the traffic of
Indian railways. According to Taylor C. Sherman, “India claimed that the Government of
Hyderabad was edging towards independence by divesting itself of its Indian securities, banning
the Indian currency, halting the export of groundnuts, organizing illegal gun-running from Pakistan,
and inviting new recruits to its army and to its irregular forces, the Razakars.”.
Nizam sent Ahmed Sayyed, E.L. Edroos, the Military – General of Hyderabad to
England for the collection of arms and ammunition through Sidney Cotton and Henry Lashviz
and made an agreement with them for supply of weapons. And also made an agreement with
T.T. Moor, the former military officer of the British for the gun – powder. He also made
regulations on usage of ‘Indian Rupee’ in export and import in Hyderabad State. And against
the rule of international affairs, Nizam also gave twenty crore rupees to Pakistan as a loan from
Indian securities.
The administration of the Nizam’s Government, the army, the Police and even the Civil
Service, which was completely dominated by the Muslim middle classes, tacitly supported the
extra-constitutional activities of the Razakars and their atrocities. The Hyderabad Radio and
Press launched a continuous tirade of propaganda against the Union of India and its leader lie.
The atrocities of Razakarsreached a peak. Looting and arson were common.
Innumerable skirmishes took place on all borders of the State. The Razakars intruded into the
territory of the Indian Union to assert their authority. Trains passing through the State were
attacked and looted. Neither the life nor property of the Hindus was safe in the Dominion of the
Nizam. Witnessing these developments, Sardar Vallabhai Patel , the then Minister of Home,
declared in the Constituent Assembly that ‘Hyderabad had become an ulcer in the heart of
India and this had to be operated on’.
Considering the reality of the situation, Mir Laik Ali, the then Prime Minister of
Hyderabad State, later had intensive discussions with V.P.Menon which resulted in a fresh
settlement proposal under the innocuous title of ‘Heads of Agreement’. This Agreement was a
eleven - point programme, which contained several clauses. This attempt also had not given
any positive results.
15.5.2 Civil Society requests and Protests

The representatives of the mercantile community of Hyderabad and Secunderabad
made representations to the Nizam Government to restore law and order and said that if the
Government failed to take firm and decisive action, they might have to close down their business.
Many lawyers in the Hyderabad State boycotted the courts as an act of protest against the
misdeeds of the Razakars. In April, 1948, a Pleader’s Protest Committee was constituted to
draw the attention of the Government to the grievances of the public with Vinayak Rao
Vidyalankar as the Chairman. After that, there were Muslims who were unhappy at the course
of events, who believed that what was happening was wrong, whose heart came out in sympathy
with the victims of the loot, arson and rape committed by the Razakars, and who felt that all this
should stop. They were from politics, services and journalism. They witnessed the vandalism of
the Razakars and attempted to help the victims.
15.5.3 Murder of Shoebullah Khan

Shoebullah Khan, a graduate of Osmania University and an independent rationalist,
was the editor of the Nationalist Paper ‘Imroze’ who criticised the activities of Razakars. He
was killed in the streets of Hyderabad on August 21, 1948. Simultaneously, Owing to the increased
intensity of by atrocities Razakar people began to organise self-defence camps to protect
themselves. In organizing the defence against the Razakars and attack on the Razakar camps,
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the Communists played a very important role, especially in the areas of Nalgonda, Warangal
and Khammam, which were their strongholds. The State Congress too, organised armed
resistance on the State’s borders. Raids were made on customs outposts, Police stations and
Razakar camps. Outside the Communist strongholds in the Telangana areas, it was the State
Congress that was the main vehicle for organising popular resistance.
Under these circumstances, the Government of India issued a white paper on Hyderabad
on July 26, 1948, which read, ‘The Government of India cannot afford to be helpless (mute)
spectator of the orgies of misrule in Hyderabad. If the law and order situation there, which
already is showing signs of collapse, further deteriorates and thereby imperils peace and order
in India, the Government of India would unquestionably be involved’.
15.5.4 Government of India’s Restrictions

From the Independence, the Government of India has taken up intensified actions on
Nizams State in many ways. As part of this, Indian Government banned the ‘Deccan Airways’,
as a result, the transport, information and communication links of Hyderabad State with the
other parts of the world were restricted. In the same way, the Railway track of Madras, Delhi
Grand Trunk express was shifted from the interior part of the Hyderabad State to its borders,
the telephone system was jammed in order to restraint the communication, and restrictions
were passed on the Indian Government Securities which were transferred to Hyderabad State.
Accordingly, they banned the gold, diamond and coin export from Hyderabad State and also
stopped the transactions between Hyderabad State Bank and Imperial Bank of India. As per
the Nehru’s announcement at the Indian National Congress session, there remained only two
ways to Hyderabad State, either it should merge with Indian Union or face the war. By the
above factors, it becomes clear that India has deliberately tried to sabotage the Standstill
Agreement and also got ready for Police Action on Hyderabad State.
15.5.5 Role of Vallabhai Patel

Sardar Patel handled effectively the integration of the Princely State of Hyderabad
with his diplomatic skills and foresightedness. The problem of amalgamating 562 independent
States with a democratic self – governing India was difficult and delicate. But it was essential
to save India from balkanisation, once the paramountcy of British crown lapses. Sardar Patel
took charge of the States Department in July 1947. He sensed the urgent need of the integration
of Princely States. He persuaded them to surrender defence, foreign affairs and communications
to the Government of India.
Sardar Patel with an iron fisted hand subdued the Nizam. When the Nizam boasted
anti-India feelings and let loose a blood bath by the Razakars, Patel decided upon Police Action.
He ordered the army to march into Hyderabad. The Nizam surrendered and Hyderabad got
acceded to India.

1. Who played major role in the integration of the Princely State of Hyderabad into Indian
Union?
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194
2. Who was the Editor of Nationalist Paper ‘Imroze’?
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15.6 CASE OF HYDERABAD BEFORE THE SECURITY

COUNCIL
The Hyderabad Delegation under Laik Ali, accompanied by Monckton, during January-
February, 1948, had several meetings with the Governor – General and discussed several
aspects of the affairs of Hyderabad. Finally, on Mountbatten’s suggestion, it was agreed in
principle between the Hyderabad delegation and the Government of India that a plebiscite be
held in Hyderabad on the issue of accession, under certain conditions. To this Nizam agreed in
principle, but still he wanted to safeguard the independence status of Hyderabad. However, the
negotiation broke down on 19th June, 1948.
Monckton advised that, if ‘Hyderabad Government to decides not to make this offer,
then an immediate application should be made either to UNO or to the International Court of
Justice…. to intervene in the dispute between India and Hyderabad in order to preserve peace’.
He also suggested for including the question of plebiscite about Nizams accession to India to be
put before UNO. Hyderabad was too late to act on this advice and the delegation to the UN,
led by Moin Nawaz Jung, the Minister of External Affairs only reached Paris on 13th September
1948, by then the Indian forces had already entered Hyderabad and changed the whole course
of politics and entire history. Consequently, Sir Walter Monckton resigned as constitutional
adviser to the Nizam, attributing failure of his endeavours due to the Hyderabad policy of ‘too
little, too late’.
After Lord Mountbatten left India gradually on 21st June, 1948, without solving the
Hyderabad problem, the relations with India deteriorated and worsened. Negotiations for
permanent arrangement of the relations through a friendly medium have failed.
The case of Hyderabad before the Security Council was submitted through a cablegram
of Zahir Ahmed, Secretary – General of External Affairs Hyderabad Government, dated 21
August, 1948, and addressed to the President, which reads as follows.
“The Government of Hyderabad in reliance on article 35 paragraph 2, of the Charter
of the United Nations, request you to bring to the attention of the Security Council the grave
dispute which has arisen between Hyderabad and India, and which unless settled in accordance
with international law and justice, is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace
and security. Hyderabad has been exposed in recent months to violent intimidation, to threats of
invasion, and to crippling economic blockade which has inflicted cruel hardship the people of
Hyderabad which is intended to coerce into renunciation of its independence. The frontiers
have been forcibly violated and Hyderabad villages have been occupied by Indian troops. The
action of India threatens the existence of Hyderabad, the peace of India and entire Asiatic
continent the principle abundant documentary evidence substantiating the present complaint’.
Eagleton further writes that, ‘This was followed by a cablegram dated September 12,
1948, in which the Government of Hyderabad, in view of the ‘officially proclaimed intention of
India as announced by its Prime Minister to invade Hyderabad’, asked that the complaint be put
upon the agenda at ‘the earliest possible date such as Wednesday, fifteenth September. On the
following day (September 13), a cablegram informed the Secretary – General that ‘Hyderabad
had been invaded’. Moin Nawaz Jung presented the case in detail to the Security Council and
195
urged for a quick action to safeguard peace and integrity of Hyderabad. Due to certain
technicalities, immediate action was not taken by the Security Council and it was filed on the
agenda. After the ‘Police Action’, the case became an obsolete issue. India’s white paper on
Hyderabad, published on 10th August, 1948, asserted that in accordance with the Standstill
Agreement, Hyderabad’s foreign affairs had to be governed by India. Regarding Hyderabad’s
case at the United Nations, India considered it as domestic issue between Hyderabad and
India.
15.7 OPERATION POLO

By September, 1948, it became clear that all negotiations to make the Nizam accede to
the Union had failed. In the early hours of September 13, the Indian forces marched into
Hyderabad. The invasion of Hyderabad by the Indian army was called by different names.
Popularly it was called Police Action and the operation was called ‘Operation Polo’.
15.7.1 Pre-Police Action Conditions

The month of May 1948, witnessed serious deterioration in the Indo-Hyderabad affairs.
While political contact was maintained between the two Governments and Mountbatten was
active in bringing about a settlement, tension along the borders increased. Economic sanctions
to force Hyderabad to agree to India’s demands had been applied both before and after the
signing of the Standstill Agreement. Thereafter, Mountbatten sent a letter requesting the Nizam
to repose faith in the Indian Government. Within three days of the above breakdown of
negotiations between India and Hyderabad started. Indian intervention to forcibly merge
Hyderabad became inevitable. Although, the Nizam was hoping for Mountbatten’s successor,
Mr. C. Rajagopala Chary, to be more sympathetic to the cause of Hyderabad, his hopes proved
to be illusionary. This was chiefly because the issue of Hyderabad was being directly handled
by the then Home Minister, Sardar Vallabhai Patel, and not the Prime Minister or the Governor-
General. Patel, however, was strongly advocating a swift armed intervention in Hyderabad.
Nehru had his reservations on such a strategy for two reasons – one, he was concerned at the
possibility of communal riots in other parts of India; second, he was equally concerned about
the international impact of India’s intervention in Hyderabad. Nehru was not prepared to
undertake such a drastic action on Hyderabad.
15.7.2 Military Preparations

The period of independent Hyderabad was a period of great turmoil and crises. By the
end of August 1948, relations between India and Hyderabad deteriorated and became critical.
Both sides prepared for final call.
15.7.2 Hyderabadi Military

The Nizam was in a weak position as his army numbered only 24,000 men, of whom
only some 6,000 were fully trained and equipped.These included Arabs, Rohillas, North Indian
Muslims and Pathans. The State Army consisted of three armored regiments, a horse cavalry
regiment, 11 infantry battalions and artillery. These were supplemented by irregular units with
horse cavalry, four infantry battalions (termed as the Saraf-e-khas, Paigah, Arab and Refugee)
and a garrison battalion.This army was commanded by Major General El Edroos, an Arab.
In addition to these, there were about 200,000 irregular militia called the Razakars
under the command of civilian leader Kasim Razvi. A quarter of these were armed with modern
small firearms, while the rest were predominantly armed with muzzle-loaders and swords.
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15.7.2.2 Indian Army
On receiving directions from the Government to seize and annex Hyderabad, the Indian
army came up with the Goddard Plan. The plan envisaged two main thrusts – from Vijayawada in
the East and Solapur in the West – while smaller units pinned down the Hyderabadi army along
the border. Overall command was placed in the hands of Lt.Gen. Rajendrasinghji, DSO.
The attack from Solapur was led by Major General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri and was
composed of four task forces:
1. Strike Force comprising a mix of fast moving infantry, cavalry and light artillery,
2. Smash Force consisting of predominantly armoured units and artillery,
3. Kill Force composed of infantry and engineering units.
4. Vir Force which comprised infantry, anti-tank and engineering units.
The attack from Vijayawada was led by Major General Ajit Rudra and comprised the
2/5 Gurkha Rifles, one squadron of the 17th (Poona) Horse, and a troop from the 19th Field
Battery along with engineering and ancillary units. In addition, four infantry battalions were to
neutralize and protect lines of communication. Two squadrons of Hawker Tempest aircraft
were prepared for air support from the Pune base.
The Specialty of J N Chowdary who has taken the responsibility of ruling Hyderabad
state on 18th September 1948 was that he had worked in the British army at Secunderabad
Bison division, which was the largest military station in India. Because of that he has the
complete understanding and estimation of the strengths and military affairs of the Nizam’s state
and that way in 1948 he succeeded in achieving the victory on Nizam by the Operation Polo.
15.8 THE SURRENDER OF NIZAM

Operation Polo referred to as ‘Police Action’ was the five day long military action that
the Indian Union took against the state of Hyderabad. The battle between India and Hyderabad
began on 13th September 1948 and end on 18th September 1948. On September 17th .1948 the
Ministry of Laik Ali has resigned and power was handed over to the Nizam. The Nizam sent a
message through K.M.Munshi to the Indian Government that he had ordered a ceasefire and
the disbandment of the Razakars. On the same day, the Nizam in a cast broad to the people
declared that he had not only ordered ceasefire, but also gave instructions for the withdrawal of
Hyderabad case from the UNO. Major – General J.N.Choudary took charge as the Military
Governor of Hyderabad State. He continued to carry on the administration, M.K.Vellodi, ICS,
was made the Chief Minister, and the Nizam was given the status of a Rajpramukh. Hyderabad
State became a part of the Union of India.

1. Who was the Prime Minister of Hyderabad State, at the time of Nizam’s surrender to the
Indian Union?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
197
2. Who was the Governor - General of India at the time of Indian Independence?
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
.................................................................................................... ..............................
15.9 SUMMARY
At the time of Partition in 1947, the Princely States of India, which in principle had
self-government within their own territories, were subject to Subsidiary alliances with the British,
giving the latter control of their external relations. In the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the
British abandoned all such alliances, leaving the States with the option of opting for full
independence. However, by 1948 almost all had acceded to either India or Pakistan. One major
exception was that of the wealthiest and most powerful principality, Hyderabad, where the
Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII, a Muslim ruler, who presided over a largely Hindu
population, chose independence and hoped to maintain this with an irregular army recruited
from the Muslim aristocracy, known as the Razakars. During the period from 15th August 1947
to September 1948, the Nizams Government printed its own Postal stamps bearing ‘Azad
Hyderabad’.
In November 1947, Hyderabad signed a Standstill Agreement with the Dominion of
India, continuing all previous arrangements except for the stationing of Indian troops in the
State. However, with the rise of militant Razakars, India found it necessary to station Indian
troops and invaded the State in September, 1948, to compel the Nizam Subsequently, the Nizam
signed an Instrument of Accession, joining India.
15.10 MODEL ANSWER’S TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Sardar Vallabhai Patel
2. Shoebullah Khan

1. Mir Laik Ali
2. Lord Mountbatten

1. Critically examine the ‘Standstill Agreement’.
2. Analyse the People’s Movements in Hyderabad State.
3. What are the problems that arose after Indian Independence.

1. Discuss briefly about the relations between Nizam and the British.
2. Critically examine the violations of Standstill Agreement.
3. Write a short note on Shoebullah Khan.
198
1. B.Kesavanarayana. : Modern Andhra and Telangana AD 1858-1956)
2. Vykuntam. Y. : Studies in Socio-Economic and Political History;
Hyderabad State, Hyderabad 2004
3. Vaikuntam. Y. : People’s Movements in the Princely States.
4. Vykuntam. Y. : State, Economy and Social Transformation:
Hyderabad State (1724-1948), Manohar, Newdelhi,2004.
5. Mir Laik Ali. : Tragedy of Hyderabad.
6. Menon. V.P. : Integration of Princely States, Hyderabad.
199
Dr. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY
UG - VI SEMESTER (BA/ HISTORY) CBCS
Course - 6 History and Culture of Telangana from Earliest Times to 1948
SYLLABUS
Block 1: Introduction to Telangana History

Unit 1 : Sources, Physical and Geographical Conditions.
Unit 2 : Pre-History of Telangana
Block 2: Ancient Period

Unit 3 : Satavahana Age: Society, Economy and Culture
Unit 4 : Ikshvakas, Vakatakas, Vishnukundis and Rastrakutas: Polity, Society, Economy
and Culture
Unit 5 : Chalukyan Age.
Block 3: Medieval Period

Unit 6 : Kakatiya Polity, Society and Culture.
Unit 7 : Musunuri Nayakas and Padmanayaka: Polity, Society-Economy and Culture.
Unit 8 : Bahamani Polity, Society-Economy and Culture.
Unit 9 : Qutb Shahi Polity, Society-Economy and Culture.
Block 4: Modern Period: Asaf Jahis

Unit 10 : Asaf Jahis: Polity, Society and Culture.
Unit 11 : Economic Conditions under the Asaf Jahis.
Unit 12 : Modernisation during Asaf Jahi Period.
Block 5: Popular Movements in Telangana

Unit 13 : Freedom Movement in Telangana.
Unit 14 : Tribal, Dalit, Peasant and Women’s Movements.
Unit 15 : Integration of Hyderabad State into the Indian Union.
200
DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
Department of History
B.A. III YEAR - SEMESTER - VI
MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTION PAPER
Semester-VI: HISTORY AND CULTURE OF TELANGANA FROM
EARLIEST TIMES TO 1948.
Time: 3 Hours [Max. Marks: 100]
[Min. Marks: 40]
SECTION - A
[Marks: 5 x 4 = 20]
Instructions to the Candidates:
a) Answer any Five of the following questions in about 10 lines each.
b) Each question carries Fourmarks.
1. Bring out the salient features of river basins in Telangana.
2. Describe the Rock art culture in Telangana.
3. Expalin the contribution of Acharya Nagarjuna to culture.
4. Briefly write about Vakatakas and their contribution to Telangana.
5. Write about Kanduru Chodas and their contribution to Telangana.
6. Analyse the administrative system of Kakatiyas.
7. Trace the growth of Telugu literature under the Velmas. .
8. Analyse the development of Urdu literature in the Golconda Kingdom..
9. Discuss the contribution of Nizam Ali Khan to the Hyderabad State.
10. Explain the trade activities in Hyderabad State.
SECTION – B
[Marks: 5 x 12 = 60]
a) Answer all the following questions in about 30 lines each.
b) Each question carries 12 marks.
11. (a) Discuss the sources of Telangana history.

or
(b) Write a note on Pre-historic ages in Telangana.
12. (a) Analyse the Socio-Economic conditions during Satavahana period.
or
(b) Write about the Vemulawada Chalukyas contribution to Telangana cultural life.
13. (a) Describe the Socio-Economic conditions during Bahamani rule.
or
201
(b) Discuss the Economic conditions during Qutb Shahi period.
14. (a) Explain the Social conditions during Asaf Jahi period.
or
(b) Asses the industrial development in Hyderabad State.
15. (a) Estimate the role of women in Telangana Armed Struggle.
or
(b) Analyse the People’s Movements in Hyderabad State.
SECTION – C
[Marks: 20 x 1 = 20]
a) Answer all of the following questions.
b) Each question carries Onemark.
A. Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the Correct Answer.
16. Mukkatraopeta inscription gives first epigraphical, evidence of

(a) Asmaka Mahajanapada (b) Magadha
(c) Malla (d) Vajji
17. Suttanipata, mentioned about the

(a) Kautilya (b) Bavari (c) Hala (d) Chandragupta
18. Rakhi hills located in the District of

(a) Mahaboobnagar (b) Nalgonda (c) Karimnagar (d) Adilabad
19. Godavari River enter into the Telangana State at

(a) NIrmal (b) Sirpur (c) Bodhan (d) Kandakurthy
20. Krishna River enter into the Telangana State at

(a) Sidheshwaram (b) Kollapur (c) Somaseela (d) Bichupally
21. Nasik Prasasti issued by

(a) Naganika (b) Gautami Balasri (c) Priyadarshini (d) Yashodara
22. Pragnaparamita Sastra written by

(a) Kalidas (b) Hala (c) Nagarjuna (d) Vishakadatta
23. Hazrat Syed Muhammad Gesudaraz was a

(a) King (b) Administrator (c) Architect (d) Sufi saint
202
24. The founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty was
(a) Sultan Quli (b) Allauddin Hasan (c) Nizam-ul-Mulk (d) Babar
25. Osmania University was established by

(a) Nizam Ali Khan (b) Mahaboob Ali Khan
(c) SalarJung (d) Osman Ali Khan
B. Match the Following :

A B
26. Ehuvula Shantamula a. Asaf Jahi
27. Dantidurga b. Kakatiya
28. Rudrammadevi c. Bahamani
29. Muhammad Gawan d. Rashtrakuta
30. Salar Jung e. Ikshvaku
C. Fill in the Blanks:
31. The founder of independent Chalukyan dynasty was ______________________.
32. Motupalli Abhaya Sasanam issued by _____________________________.
33. The first sovereign king of Recharla Velma dynasty was ______________________.
34. Hyderabad was built by___________________________________.
35. The Nizam Sagar Project constructed by _____________________.
***
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BA621HIS-E

History and Culture of Telangana from

“We may forgo material benefits of civilization, but we cannot forgo

DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR OPEN UNIVERSITY

First Edition: 2020

© 2020, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, Telangana State.

Mail to: info@braou.ac.in

Block/ Unit Title Page

Block 1: Introduction to Telangana History 1

Block 2: Ancient Period 18

Block 3: Medieval Period 66

Block 4: Modern Period: Asaf Jahis 123

Block 5: Popular Movements in Telangana 156

This block is divided into two units:

Unit-1 : Sources, Physical and Geographical Conditions.

1.2 HISTORIOGRAPHY OF TELANGANA

1.3 DIVISIONS IN TELANGANA HISTORY

1.4.2 Numismatic evidences

1.4.3 Epigraphical evidences

1.4.4 Literary evidences

1.4.5 Foreign accounts

1.4.6 Folk studies

1.4.7 Natural Sciences interdisciplinary studies

1. Which inscription mentioned the Asmaka mahajanapada.

2. Which source mentioned about Bavari

1.5 GEOGRAPHY OF TELANGANA : GENERAL FEATURES

1.5.1 Telangana plateau

1.5.4 River basins

1.7 FLORA AND FAUNA

1.8 GEOGRAPHY AS ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - II

1. The Godavari River entered into Telangana State at

2. The River Krishna entered into Telangana State at

Check your progress answers - II

1.11 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines.

1.12 FURTHER READINGS

2.2 SOURCES OF PRE - HISTORY

2.3 STAGES OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

2.4 AGES IN PRE - HISTORY

2.4.1 Palaeolithic Age or Old Stone Age

Lower Palaeolithic Age: (3,00,000 – BC 1,30,000 years)

Upper Palaeolithic Age: (BC 40,000 – BC 10,000 years)

2.4.2 Mesolithic Age or Middle Stone Age (BC 10,000 – BC 3,000)

2.4.3 Neolithic Age (BC 3,000 – BC 1,500)

2.4.4 Bronze age (BC 3,000 – BC 1,000)

2.4.5 Iron Age (BC 1,000 to present age)

2.4.6 Megalithic period: (BC 1,500- BC 300)

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - I

1. Upper Paleolithic Age sites are located in

2. In Telangana Iron Age sites were

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - II

2.7 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.8 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

II. Answer the following Questions in about 15 lines.

2.9 FURTHER READINGS

The Ikshvakus, Vakatakas, Vishnukunds and Rashtrakutas, ruled different parts

This block is divided into three units: