Module 06 - Materials & Hardware

HINDUSTAN
AVIATION ACADEMY
Bangalore
Module 6
Materials and Hardware

6.1 Ferrous Metals
For Training Purposes Only

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Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.2

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft
Maintenance Licence
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Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
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LEVEL 1
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 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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LEVEL 2
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 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.

 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
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 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
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subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
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 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
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and specific examples.

 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
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instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.
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Table of Contents
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6.1 Ferrous Metals __________________________________________________________ 9
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(a) ________________________________________________________________________ 9
Properties and Terminology _________________________________________________ 9
Ferrous Metals ___________________________________________________________ 13
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Wrought Iron ___________________________________________________________ 13
Modern Iron Production ___________________________________________________ 13
Pig Iron _______________________________________________________________ 14
Cast Iron ______________________________________________________________ 15
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Microstructure ___________________________________________________________ 16
Steel ___________________________________________________________________ 17
Open Hearth Process ____________________________________________________ 18
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking ________________________________________________ 19
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The Composition of Steel __________________________________________________ 21
Plain Carbon Steel _______________________________________________________ 22
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Metal Condition _________________________________________________________ 23
Alloy Steel _____________________________________________________________ 23
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Identification of Steels ____________________________________________________ 27

Uses of Steel ___________________________________________________________ 28
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Heat Treatment __________________________________________________________ 29

Critical Points ___________________________________________________________ 29
Annealing and Normalising ________________________________________________ 31
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Hardening and Tempering _________________________________________________ 32

Surface Hardening _______________________________________________________ 34
(b) Testing of Ferrous Materials ______________________________________________ 39
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The Tensile Test _________________________________________________________ 39

Stress_________________________________________________________________ 39
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Strain _________________________________________________________________ 39
Tensile Test Pieces ______________________________________________________ 42
Creep _________________________________________________________________ 42
Hardness Tests __________________________________________________________ 45
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The Brinell Hardness Test _________________________________________________ 45

The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test _________________________________________ 46
The Rockwell Hardness Test _______________________________________________ 46
The Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test _______________________________________ 48
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Impact Tests ____________________________________________________________ 49

Fatigue Tests ____________________________________________________________ 51
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Module 6.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
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These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of CAR 66, and the associated Knowledge
Levels as specified below:
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Licence
CAR 66
Objective Category
Reference
A B1 B2 B3
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Ferrous Metals 6.1
Characteristics, properties and identification of (a) 1 2 1 2
common alloy steels used in aircraft;
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Heat treatment and application of alloy steels.
Testing of ferrous materials for hardness, tensile (b) - 1 1 1
strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance.
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6.1 Ferrous Metals
(a)
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Properties and Terminology
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Before studying the different types of metal and alloy it is necessary to define the terminology that
describes their properties. The properties which are important in engineering terms are;
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Tensile Strength
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Tensile Strength or Tenacity describes the ability of a material to resist breaking under a tensile
(stretching) force. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) is a measure of the maximum pulling stress which a
material can endure before breaking. UTS is rated as a given load across a unit area.
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Compressive Strength
This is a measure of a materials ability to withstand compressive or squeezing loads without splitting or
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cracking.
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Shear Strength
Shear Strength is the ability to resist off-set (scissor action) loads.
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Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to resist fracture under impact load. It is the opposite of brittleness
and should not be confused with strength.
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Elasticity
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Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after deformation. The extension or
compression of a spring is a good example.
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Plasticity
Plasticity is the opposite to elasticity and is the ability of a material to retain any shape imposed by a
force when that force is removed. A good example of this is the stamping of images on medals and
coins.
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Ductility
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Ductility is the capacity of a material for plastic deformation under tensile loading without fracture. A
ductile material may be worked into shape without loss of strength and may be drawn into wire form. If
subjected to a shock load, the material will yield and become deformed.
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Malleability
Malleability is the capacity of a material for plastic deformation and forming under compressive load
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without cracking. It should NOT be confused with ductility.
Note: These qualities are similar when selecting material for forming into sheet or strip, but not when
wire drawing, e.g. lead is malleable and can be beaten or rolled into sheet, but it is not ductile enough for
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making wire. Malleable materials are those used for forging, stamping or pressing.
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Hardness
The ability of a material to withstand scratching, abrasion, indentation or permanent distortion and wear.
Hardness may be increased by cold working the metals and, in the case of many alloys, by heat
treatment.
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Brittleness
Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture when subjected to a shock loading or blow. There is
no permanent deformation before fracture to act as a warning of failure.
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Rigidity
confused with strength and rigid materials are often brittle.

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Rigidity or stiffness is the ability of a material to withstand a load without deflection. It should not be
Hot Shortness
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Hot shortness is an undesirable property of certain metals and alloys
whereby they are brittle in some elevated temperature range.
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Cold Shortness
When a metal is brittle in the cold state.
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Physical Properties
Other important physical properties include;
 Fusibility, the ability of a material to be easily liquefied by heat for welding purposes,
 Thermal Conductivity, a measure of the ability of a material to conduct a certain amount of heat
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within a given time, Copper is a good example,

 Electrical Conductivity, a measure of the efficiency of a material to conduct an electrical
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current,
 Electrical Resistance, a measure of the ability of a material to impede the flow of an electrical
current through it.
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Ferrous Metals
Metals which contain mostly iron are known as Ferrous Metals from the Latin “ferrum” meaning iron.
Pure iron is too soft and reactive to be used on its own, but when alloyed with other elements it is one of
the most important metals to the engineer.
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Iron and the technology to produce it first came into use over three thousand years ago in Asia Minor
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and slowly spread throughout the world, replacing the earlier stone, copper and bronze ages. By five
hundred BC the Greeks were making steel (perhaps accidentally) by working iron in a charcoal furnace.
Iron ores such as magnetite (Fe3O4 - 72% iron) and haematite (Fe2O3 - 70% iron) are quarried or mined
from the earth‟s crust and converted by a series of processes into iron.
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Wrought Iron
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Wrought (worked) iron is one of the oldest forms of purified iron. Early wrought iron was made in the fire
from ore and charcoal. The heat was sufficient for the charcoal to reduce the iron oxide to iron, but not to
melt it or allow it to absorb carbon. As a result the silicate slags were not refined away as is done now,
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but entrained in the material to produce a fibrous structure. For this reason, old wrought artefacts have
lasted for hundreds of years. Iron may corrode, but not its coating of silicate slags.
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In the Aston process for mass production of wrought iron, pig iron is refined by modern methods and
then poured into molten iron silicate slag. The resulting semisolid mass is passed between rollers that
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squeeze out most of the slag. The wrought iron has 5% siliceous (glassy) slags which take the form of
linear fibres giving the metal the characteristic grain running through it. It is tough, malleable, ductile,
corrosion resistant, and melts only at high temperatures.
It is used to make rivets, bolts, pipes, chains, and anchors, and is also used for ornamental ironwork but
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due to its high production cost and comparatively low strength, wrought iron is now only used for
specialist applications.
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Modern Iron Production

Today Pig Iron is produced by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace similar to that illustrated. The 100 foot
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tall steel body of the furnace is supported in a framework and lined with refractory material.
The charge material consists of iron ore which is first washed and then added to the blast furnace
together with high quality coke - low in sulphur content, and limestone which melts and combines with
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impurities and forms a slag. During charging, the double bell arrangement forms an 'airlock' and prevents
gases escaping. The furnace may be filled to the stock line and the charge material takes about eight
hours to reach the bottom.
The blast furnace gases are cleaned of particles and burned as fuel in the hot stove, a cyclic heat
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exchanger, used to heat the compressed air entering the blast main, to about 1000°C at 50-60psi. This
reduces by half the amount of coke required.

Pig Iron
The blast air enters the furnace through the tuyeres and takes four to eight seconds to travel up through
the charge material, undergoing rapid chemical reactions to produce blast furnace gas. The main
reaction is that the oxygen in the air causes the coke to burn fiercely, generating heat which reduces the
ore to metal and slag.
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Iron, which melts out at 1538°C, is the heaviest product and drips to the bottom of the furnace. The
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lighter slag floats on top of the iron. When the iron reaches the level of the slag tapping hole, the slag is
run off. The iron is then tapped out from the bottom of the furnace.
The molten iron may be cast into small moulds known as pigs. If the blast furnace is situated close to a
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steel works, the molten iron is conveyed direct to the steel making furnaces in torpedo cars.
With continuous re-charging a furnace can produce up to 13 000 tonnes of pig iron a day and may run
for many years before it needs overhauling and relining.
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Cast Iron
Pig iron from a blast furnace contains about 4% carbon and small amounts of manganese, silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur and other impurities. It is not refined enough for making castings. In a foundry the
pig iron is re-melted together with coke, broken pieces of scrap iron and some limestone (again to
absorb impurities) in a small blast furnace called a cupola. Different types of limestone can be blended to
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absorb different elements and achieve the desired composition of the iron. Similarly the grade of scrap
iron added can be used to determine the final composition.
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Of the constituents;
Carbon is always present, but takes several forms; combined with the iron to form compounds such as
ferrite and cementite or 'free' as graphite. These forms and the proportions of each control the useful
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properties of the iron.
Phosphorus embrittles the iron by forming iron phosphide and is kept to a minimum, although it does
improve the fluidity of molten iron for intricate castings.
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Sulphur is a natural product of iron ore and forms iron sulphide which seriously embrittles cast iron,
affecting its workability and weldability, for this reason it is kept to a minimum.
Manganese is important for two reasons. Firstly, it readily combines with sulphur to form manganese
the iron.
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sulphide, reducing the damaging effects of the sulphur. Secondly, in controlled extra amounts it hardens
Silicon affects the formation of the different types of carbon and can be used to soften the iron. The
amounts of silicon and manganese must be balanced to achieve the desired properties.
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In the cupola the molten iron, having a melting point of around 1200°C, flows to the bottom of the furnace
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and is tapped directly into ladles or moulds. Cast iron is an important material for the following reasons;
• It is a cheap metal, since it can be produced by simple adjustments to the composition of ordinary
pig iron.
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• Rigidity and strength under compression are good, but not good in tension.
• It is easy to machine.
• It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten.
• Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required.
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Cast iron has a carbon content of between 2 and 6 % and is used extensively to make machine parts,
engine cylinder blocks, stoves, pipes, steam radiators, and many other products.
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Microstructure
The constituents of ferrous metals are mainly crystalline solid solution compounds of carbon in iron, such
as ferrite which contains no more than 0.006% carbon and has softness and ductility similar to pure iron,
and cementite (iron carbide - Fe3C) which contains 6.67% carbon and is hard and brittle. The
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arrangement of these crystals is referred to as the Microstructure of the metal and can be viewed under
a powerful microscope. The addition of other elements and/or heat will alter the microstructure.
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The microstructure of wrought iron is primarily ferrite crystals with inclusions of slag composed mainly of
iron silicate.
Cast iron can contain ferrite, cementite and free carbon in the form of graphite flakes which are brittle
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and weak. Ferrite and cementite tend to form a laminated structure called pearlite which combines the
properties of both.
Gray cast iron, or gray iron, is produced when the iron in the mould is cooled slowly. It has all three
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forms of carbon and is relatively soft and weak in tension due to the effects of the graphite flakes
distributed through the pearlite structure, which form during the slow cooling process. However the
graphite does give the iron self-lubricating and vibration damping properties and it is easy to machine.
White cast iron, or white iron, which is harder and more brittle, is made by cooling the molten iron rapidly.
cooling.
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It is composed of pearlite and a larger proportion of cementite, as graphite cannot form during the rapid
A malleable cast iron can be made by annealing white iron castings in a special furnace. Some of the
carbon separates from the cementite; it is much more finely divided than in gray iron.
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A ductile iron may be prepared by adding magnesium to the molten pig iron; when the iron is cast the
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carbon forms tiny spherical nodules around the magnesium. Ductile iron is strong, shock resistant, and
easily machined.
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Steel
Steel is often described as an alloy of iron and carbon, although all commercially available ferrous
metals contain a proportion of carbon, in fact cast iron contains more carbon than high carbon steel! The
difference is in the form that the carbon takes, steel never contains free carbon (graphite).
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Reliable steel manufacture was first perfected by the Celts, in about AD 200. They cut wrought iron into
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small strips and stacked the strips in a wrought iron container with burnt bone and carbon and then
heated the iron in a charcoal-fired furnace for 10-12 hours at high heat. In the process, carbon was
absorbed into the surface of the metal and impurities removed. They then forge welded the red hot
pieces together and produced blades.
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At around the same time steel was produced in Pakistan, probably by melting iron ore and carbon in a
ceramic crucible and pouring it into ingots which were then exported widely through the middle east.
The mass production of steel was pioneered by Sir Henry Bessemer in1855. Molten pig iron was poured
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into his 'Bessemer Converter', a pivoted, egg shaped container with a charging hole at the small end.
This was tilted upright and air was then blown in through tuyeres at the bottom of the chamber and
bubbled through the molten iron. The oxygen in the air combined with impurities in the iron, some
burning violently (producing heat to keep the metal molten) others oxidising to form slag at the top. The
reaction produced flames, sparks, fumes and smoke at the opening and was both spectacular and
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dangerous . When completed, other element could be added to produce the composition required. The
converter was then tilted to pour out the finished steel into ladles for casting, leaving the slag to be
disposed of.
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This process could produce up to 20 tonnes of cheap, high quality steel in under one hour and was vital
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to the industrial revolution.

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Open Hearth Process
In the open hearth process, developed by the Siemens brothers in the 1860s, the heat required to melt
the pig iron and scrap is obtained by burning a mixture of gas or oil and air over the metal, as shown
below. The fuel and air are pre-heated to a high temperature in regenerators.
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Lime is added to the charge, in order to form a basic slag, and so remove the phosphorous which is
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present in most pig irons. The slag floats on the surface of the molten steel and is drawn off. Carbon is
then added in the form of anthracite which dissolves in the molten steel. Finally the molten steel is
tapped and transferred to a large ladle which in turn pours the steel into moulds to produce ingots each
of several tonnes mass.
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The open hearth process is no longer used in Europe but is still found elsewhere.
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Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
A typical Basic Oxygen Furnace is a modern version of the Bessemer Converter and consists of a steel
cased converter lined with dolomite holding up to 400 tonnes of metal. The charge consists of scrap
steel, lime and molten pig iron. Oxygen is then blown at the surface of the molten charge from a water
cooled „lance‟. This is lowered through the mouth of the converter to within 0.5 metres of the surface of
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the metal. The impurities in the metal are oxidised during the blow which lasts about fifteen minutes.
During this time the temperature is carefully controlled and the molten metal analysed. When the
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temperature and metal analysis are satisfactory, the hood is lifted, the converter tilted and the steel
poured from below the slag into the ladle. The steel is then conveyed to the continuous casting plant and
cast into ingots. Finally the converter is tilted to pour the slag into a slag ladle.
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Electric Arc Steel Making
An electric arc furnace is illustrated as below. The heat required to melt the charge is produced by
electric arcs struck between carbon electrodes and the steel. The impurities are oxidised from the charge
by melting it under a covering of slag which absorbs the oxidised impurities and may then be run off by
tilting the furnace. The charge consists of scrap, iron ore, blast furnace pig iron and limestone.
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When the impurities are oxidised, they combine with oxygen and form a oxides which floats on top of the
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molten steel, together with the slag.
The advantage of the electric furnace is that there is far less of the gas, fumes and impurities which are
present in fuel fed furnaces and which may allow impurities into the molten metal. Electric furnaces are
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used to make high quality steels.
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The Composition of Steel
Plain Carbon Steel

Plain carbon steels are alloys of iron and up to 1.7% carbon although 1.5% is seldom exceeded. Low
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carbon or „mild‟ steel contains up to 0.3% carbon, Medium carbon steel 0.3% to 0.8% carbon and High
Carbon Steel 0.8% to 1.7% carbon. Above 1.7% carbon, the excess is in the form of free (uncombined)
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carbon or graphite, which has very low strength (e.g. cast iron).
Most ordinary steels also contain up to 1.0% manganese, left over during the steel making process. As
with cast iron, manganese dissolves in steel, slightly increasing its strength and hardness, and helps
reduce the sulphur content of the steel. Both sulphur and phosphorous are harmful impurities causing
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brittleness in steels. Most specifications allow no more than 0.06% of either of these elements. High
quality steels would contain no more than 0.04% of each element.
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Plain Carbon Steel
In a low carbon steel, these constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a laminated
structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. With increasing carbon content, the proportion of pearlite
to ferrite increases until, at 0.83% carbon content, the steel is entirely pearlite. Above 0.83% carbon
content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite surrounded by free cementite. Ferrite is soft, ductile
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and not very strong. Pearlite is strong and tough, but soft enough to be worked. Cementite is very hard
and brittle. As the carbon content is increased up to 0.83% the steel gets tougher and stronger. When
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the carbon content exceeds 0.83%, because of the increasing cementite content the steel becomes very
hard and progressively more brittle.
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Metal Condition
Apart from its composition, the properties of steel are affected by the condition of its crystalline grains.
When work is performed on the metal at normal temperatures, such as bending, squeezing and
stretching ('cold working'), the grains become distorted and stressed, and the metal becomes stiff and
brittle. In this state it is said to be 'work hardened'.
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Similarly, hot working, such as forging, hot rolling and extrusion at elevated temperatures, can lead to
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excessive grain growth, which occurs well below the melting point and which again weakens the metal.
Both of these problems can be overcome by recrystallising the metal in a heat treatment process which
will be described later.
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Alloy Steel
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Alloy steels are combinations of iron and carbon with some other element or elements added in varied
proportions. Such additional elements give the steel specific properties, unobtainable to the same
degree in plain carbon steel. To develop the desired properties, more varied heat treatment is required.
This may require the use of special equipment and skills. Alloy steels are used for the following
purposes:
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When it is desired that the steel should have great strength, resistance to wear, springiness or
resistance to corrosion.
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• To obtain mechanical properties by less drastic heat treatment than would be required in a plain
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carbon steel.
• To enable the effect of heat treatment to penetrate uniformly throughout a large mass of steel.
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The most common of these alloying metals are:
Nickel - with varying percentages of nickel, the following effects are produced
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• Prevents grain growth - used in case hardening steels.

• Increases strength and toughness.
• Improves resistance to corrosion.
• Lowers the critical temperatures so that hardening requires a less severe quench.
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• With 25% nickel added, the steel is austenitic at room temperature and thus non-magnetic.
• With 35% nickel added, the steel will have a coefficient of expansion of nearly zero.
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• A high percentage of nickel gives higher magnetic permeability than obtained with soft iron.
• Used in the production of Bolts, Keys, Clevises and Pins
Chromium
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• Increases hardness and strength.

• Increases rate of grain growth, so nickel, which has the opposite effect, is often added with
chromium to control the grain size.
• Increases corrosion resistance. Used to make ball and roller bearings.
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Nickel/Chrome Steels
• Low nickel/chrome steels (3% Nickel/ 1% Chromium) are used for piston engine crankshafts,
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connecting rods and similar applications

• High nickel/chrome steels (18% Chromium/8% Nickel) are the stainless steels.

Manganese
• Increases strength, toughness, shock and wear resistance.

• High Manganese steels (about 12% manganese) are very soft when produced but any cold work
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by rubbing, cutting etc. causes the surface to become very hard and wear resistant.
• Used for rock crusher parts.
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Vanadium - percentage required is very low
• Increases tensile strength and elastic limit.

• Increases shock resistance and fatigue resistance. Used for valve springs, dies.
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Cobalt
• Used in the production of cutting tool materials.
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• Used in the production of permanent magnets.
Molybdenum - percentage required is very low
• Increases resistance to creep at high temperatures.

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Prevents brittleness experienced by some nickel/chrome steels when they are heated.
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Tungsten
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• Improves heat and wear resistance.

• Used in the production of many cutting tool materials.
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Alloy steel is used in undercarriages, engine mountings, joint plates (at wing roots etc.), door latches,
bolts and fasteners etc. where high strength and corrosion resistance is required. Steel is also used to
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make many engine parts.

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The various nickel steels used in aircraft are produced by combining nickel with carbon steel. Steels
containing from 3 to 3.75 percent nickel are commonly used. Nickel increases the hardness, tensile
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strength, and elastic limit of steel without appreciably decreasing the ductility. It also intensifies the

hardening effect of heat treatment. SAE 2330 steel is used extensively for aircraft parts, such as bolts,
terminals, keys, clevises, and pins.
Chromium steel has high hardness, strength, and corrosion-resistant properties, and is particularly
adaptable for heat-treated forgings that require greater toughness and strength than can be obtained in
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plain carbon steel. Chromium steel can be used for such articles as the balls and rollers of antifriction
bearings.
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Chrome-nickel 'Stainless Steel' or 'Corrosion Resistant Steel' (often referred to as SS or CRES) are
the most corrosion-resistant alloy steels. The anticorrosive degree of this steel is determined by the
surface condition of the metal as well as by the composition, temperature, and concentration of the
corrosive agent. The principal alloy of stainless steel is chromium. The corrosion-resistant steel most
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often used in aircraft construction is known as 18-8 steel because it is 18 %chromium and 8 % nickel.
One distinctive feature of 18-8 steel is that its strength can be increased by cold working. Stainless steel
can be rolled, drawn, bent, or formed to any shape.
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Because these steels expand about 50 percent more than mild steel and conduct heat only about 40
percent as rapidly, they are more difficult to weld. Stainless steel can be used for almost any part of an
aircraft. Some of its common applications are in the fabrication of structural and machine parts, springs,
castings, tie rods, and control cables.
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Chrome-vanadium steels are made of approximately 18 percent vanadium and about 1 percent
chromium. When heat treated, they have strength, toughness, and resistance to wear and fatigue. A
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special grade of this steel in sheet form can be cold formed into intricate shapes. It can be folded and
flattened without signs of breaking or failure. SAE 6150 is used for making springs, while chrome-
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vanadium with high carbon content, SAE 6195, is used for ball roller bearings.
Molybdenum in small percentages is used in combination with chromium form chrome-molybdenum

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steel, which has various uses in aircraft. Molybdenum is a strong alloying element that raises the
ultimate strength of steel without affecting ductility or workability. Molybdenum steels are tough and wear
resistant, and they harden throughout when heat treated. They are especially adaptable for welding and,
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for this reason, are used principally for welded structural parts and assemblies. This type steel has
practically replaced carbon steel in the fabrication of fuselage tubing, engine mounts, landing gears, and
other structural parts. For example, a heat-treated SAE X4130 tube is approximately four times as strong
as an SAW 1025 tube of the same weight and size.
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A series of chrome-molybdenum steels most used in aircraft construction contains 0.25 to 0.55 percent
carbon, 0.15 to 0.25 percent molybdenum, 0.50 to 1.10 percent chromium. These steels, when suitably
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heat treated, are deep hardening, easily machined, readily welded by either gas or electric methods, and
are especially adapted to high-temperature service.
Although it is relatively easy to produce very high strength steel, such steels are difficult to manufacture
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into finished components. Maraging steel overcomes these problems.
Carbon is necessary for the hardening of conventional high tensile steels. However, it causes brittleness
and distortion which is difficult to rectify. It also makes welding difficult. Maraging steels contain little or
no carbon and are hardened by adding nickel, cobalt or molybdenum. A typical maraging steel would
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contain 17-19% nickel, 8-9% cobalt, and 3-5% molybdenum and 0.6-0.9% titanium. The carbon content
would be 0.03% and there would be in addition very small amounts of manganese, silicon, sulphur,
phosphorous, aluminium, boron, calcium and zirconium.
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The main advantages of maraging steels as compared with low alloy steels are:

• tougher
• simpler heat treatments are possible
• much less distortion during heat treatments
• very much simpler to weld
• easier to machine
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• better resistance to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement
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They are, however, very expensive.
Maraging steels have been used in aircraft undercarriages and various structural forgings.
A286 alloy is an iron-based 'superalloy' useful for applications requiring high strength and corrosion
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resistance up to 704°C and for lower stress applications at higher temperatures. It is a heat and
corrosion resistant austenitic iron-base material which can be age hardened to a high strength level. The
alloy is also used for low temperature applications requiring a ductile, non-magnetic high strength
material at temperatures ranging from above room temperature down to at least -196°C. It is comprised
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of 57% iron, 25% nickel, 14.5% chromium, 2% titanium, 0.3% vanadium plus traces of other elements
and 0.04% carbon.
Inconel is a family of nickel-chromium-iron alloys closely resembling stainless steel in appearance but is
a nickel alloy not a steel (60% nickel, 29% chromium, 6% iron). Because these two metals look very
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much alike, a distinguishing test is often necessary. One method of identification is to use a solution of
10 grams of cupric chloride in 100 cubic centimetres of hydrochloric acid. With a medicine dropper, place
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1 drop of the solution on a sample of each metal to be tested and allow it to remain for 2 minutes. At the
end of this period, slowly add 3 or 4 drops of water to the solution on the metal samples, 1 drop at a
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time, then wash the samples in clear water and dry them. If the metal is stainless steel, the copper in the
cupric chloride solution will be deposited on the metal leaving a copper-coloured spot. If the sample is
inconel, a new-looking spot will be present.
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Identification of Steels
In the USA, the Society of Automotive Engineers (S AE) has classified steel alloys with a four digit
numerical index system:
• The first digit identifies the principle alloying element in the steel.
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• The second digit, the percentage of this alloying element.
• The last two digits, the percentage in hundredths of a percent of the carbon in the steel.
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Where there is more than 0.99% carbon, a fifth digit is added. The fifth digit is also applied to distinguish
between some of the corrosion resistant alloys.
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Uses of Steel
Alloy steel has a more limited application in aircraft than aluminium alloys due to its weight, which gives it
a lower strength to weight ratio. It is, however, more dense and thus has a greater strength to volume
ratio. It also has greater heat resistance. It comprises about 15% of the structural weight of a modern jet
transport. Steel is used where high tensile strength, stiffness and resistance to wear is required. It is
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used for example in undercarriages, engine mountings, door latches, flap tracks and for bolts and other
fasteners.
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The proportion of steel in an engine is about 45% by weight. Alloyed steels are used for numerous parts
such as shafts, pinions, gears and casings.
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Heat Treatment
In a low carbon steel, the constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a laminated
structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. With increasing carbon content, the proportion of pearlite
to ferrite increases until, with a 0.83% carbon content, the steel is entirely pearlite. Above 0.83% carbon
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content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite surrounded by free cementite.
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Ferrite, sometimes called the alpha (α) phase of steel, is soft, ductile and not very strong. Cementite,
referred to as the iron-carbide phase, is very hard and brittle.
Critical Points
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When a piece of steel containing about 0.3% carbon is heated at a uniform rate, the temperature of the
steel will, at first, rise steadily. When the temperature reaches 723°C (a dull red colour) it will remain
there for a time then rise again at a uniform rate. If the heating is continued there is a second pause in
the rise in temperature. After this, if the heating is continued, the temperature will continue to rise at
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approximately the initial rate until it melts at around 1600°C.
During these periods of arrest, the metal absorbs heat, but instead of raising the temperature, the heat
brings about a structural change in the steel. The temperatures at which these periods occur are called
„critical‟ or „arrest‟ points.
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If the steel is heated to 900°C (a bright reddish yellow colour) then removed from the furnace and
observed in a darkened room, it will be seen that as it cools it will lose its brilliance. At the points where it
received its checks in heating the metal is seen to glow more brightly and it will seem that the cooling
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has stopped. In fact the steel will be seen to take on an extra glow as though it was reheated. After this
the rate of cooling will be normal until the metal is cold.
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The temperature at which the changes start (the lower critical point) is the same for all steels and is
about 723°C. At this temperature, the pearlite disappears as the layers of ferrite and cementite of which
it is composed, dissolve and form a solid solution known as austenite and free ferrite. Austenite, which
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is non-magnetic, is known as the gamma (γ) phase of steel. At the upper critical point (which varies
depending on carbon content) the solution becomes pure austenite.
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In high carbon steels, at the lower critical point the solution becomes a mixture of austenite and
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cementite, again with pure austenite above the upper critical point. When steel is allowed to cool slowly
these changes occur in the reverse order.

At 0.83% carbon the ferrite and cementite are in such proportion that the structure is solid pearlite. When
heated to 723°C all the pearlite becomes austenite (i.e. upper and lower critical points have converged).
This is said to be the eutectoid point of steel and pearlite is the eutectoid of steel. The term 'Eutectic'
comes from the Greek tektos - to melt, and indicates that the mixture acts like a pure substance and
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melts at a single temperature. Eutectoid has a similar meaning but refers to the solid solution.
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Heat treatment is a series of operations involving the heating and cooling of metals in the solid state. Its
purpose is to change the mechanical properties of the metal so that it will be harder, stronger or more
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resistant to impact. It can also make a metal softer and more ductile when it has become work hardened
and release internal stresses after cold working. No single heat treatment can produce all these
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characteristics. Some properties may be improved at the expense of others e.g. when being hardened a
metal may become brittle.
The most common forms of heat treatment for ferrous metal are annealing, normalising, hardening,
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tempering and surface hardening.
The temperature to which the metal is heated and the rate of cooling is most important. The results
obtained depend on the structure of the metal and on the way the structure changes when the metal is
heated and cooled. Most alloys respond to heat treatment since their structures change with heating and
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cooling.
During heat treatments, steel should be heated slowly and uniformly. Close control of temperature is
essential. Electric and salt bath furnaces are often used. The steel must remain in the furnace until it is
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heated throughout and thus soaking time varies.

Cooling after heating can be carried out in the furnace, in air or by quenching in liquid depending on the
process. Oil is normally used for quenching alloy steels.
Many alloy steels respond to the same heat treatment processes as plain carbon steels although the
alloying elements may alter the temperature required for the process.
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Annealing and Normalising
Annealing
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When steel is cold worked, hammered, bent, rolled etc., its crystal structure is distorted. Stresses and
strains are set up and the metal may become brittle and weakened. Also when steel is kept for
considerable time well above the upper critical point (during casting and forging) an increase in the grain
size takes place. This process is used to render the steel soft, ductile and stress free, so that further cold
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working or machining can take place.
Low carbon steel can be stress relief annealed at 630-700°C - below its lower critical point - by slowly
heating it, then slowly cooling it, usually still in the furnace after the source of heat has been removed.
This recrystallises it's grains. Steels with a higher carbon content may require quench hardening first to
reduce the grain size.
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content below the eutectoid point are heated to about 50° above their upper critical point, while those
with a higher carbon content are heated to about 50° above their lower critical point.
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This higher temperature transforms some or all of the metal into austenite. The slow cooling allows the
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normal structural changes to take place and the steel returns to its stable pearlite and ferrite or pearlite
and cementite condition.
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Normalising
Work or heat hardening can result in a loss toughness as well as internal stress. Normalising is similar to
full annealing and restores the crystalline structure to a normal condition, relieving stresses and strains.
Normalising is carried out by heating all steels slowly to about 50°C above its upper critical point and
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then allowing it to cool freely in the air. This more rapid rate of cooling, when compared with the
annealing process, gives the steel a finer grain structure and greater toughness.
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Once normalised, the metal is suitable for only very limited cold working but is in a good condition for
final machining processes.
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Hardening and Tempering
Hardening
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When a carbon steel is heated to a temperature in its full annealing range then cooled by rapid
quenching, the normal structural change does not occur. Instead, the austenite is changed into
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martensite. Martensite has a fine needle like crystal structure and is the hardest structure that can be
produced in plain carbon steel. Because the crystals are a supersaturated solid solution of carbon and
iron this hardening effect only occurs in medium and high carbon steels, below 0.4% there is insufficient
carbon for martensite to form. Thus the degree of hardness of a steel depends upon its carbon content
and its rate of cooling.
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The cooling rate is critical as it affects the final properties of the steel; too slow and some pearlite will
form reducing the hardness of the metal; too fast and the metal will crack or distort. Steel may be
quenched in air, oil or water. Water gives the most rapid cooling. Oil gives a slower quench which
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reduces the hardness of the part but makes it tougher and reduces the risk of cracking. Air is the least
severe and is used for small sections.
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Tempering
Steel is tempered to reduce the brittleness which is caused by hardening. It is, however, very important
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that sufficient hardness is retained by the steel. The steel is reheated to a fairly low temperature, then
quenched in water. The temperature depends on the purpose of the tool or article. Tempering
temperatures below 200°C can only relieve hardening stresses, but above 220°C the hard, brittle
martensite starts to change into a fine form of pearlite. The higher the tempering temperature, the less is
the hardness but the greater is the toughness.
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The temperature required may be judged from the temper colours of the fine oxide film which appears on
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the bright surface of steel as it is heated slowly. Each colour indicates a temperature. A short table of
articles and suitable temper temperatures is given here. Where a large amount of tempering is carried
out, ovens, or baths of molten salts having accurate temperature control, give better results. The colour
method is used for single tools but is a rough guide only.
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Surface Hardening
Very often a component must have a hard, wear resisting surface that is supported by a tough, shock
resisting core. This combination of different properties can be obtained in a single piece of steel by
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surface hardening. Methods of surface hardening are as follows:
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Case Hardening
In this process the component is usually made from a low carbon steel which will not respond to direct
hardening treatment. The component is carburised to increase the carbon content of the surface to about
0.83%. This part is then heat treated to refine the grain of the core which is still low carbon steel and
harden the case which is now high carbon steel. The carburising process is carried out at a temperature
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of about 900°C to 950°C. The depth of the case will depend on the time held at this temperature.
The Box Process (Pack Carburising)

The parts are thoroughly cleaned and packed in a steel box along with a material rich in carbon. The lid
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is sealed to prevent gas escaping during carburising and to prevent gases from the furnace entering.
The box is placed in the furnace and heated to a temperature of 900°C. This temperature is maintained
for sufficient time to give the required thickness of case. Carburising at this temperature for four hours
gives a case approximately one millimetre thick. This permits final machining of the part. The parts are
allowed to cool down slowly in the box in order to anneal the newly formed case.
Heat Treatment
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The grain of the core (which will have grown during the carburising process) is refined or normalised by
heating to its annealing temperature of about 850°C then quenching in water or oil.
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The case is refined and hardened by heating the part to its hardening temperature of about 750°C, then
quenching in water or oil.
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The article can then be tempered at about 200°C to remove the quenching stresses.
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Surfaces of the part not requiring case hardening can be protected by electro-plating these areas with
copper.
Cyanide Hardening
The part is placed in molten salts consisting mainly of sodium cyanide at a temperature of approximately
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900°C, which provides both the necessary heat and the material for carburising. This process is used
where a hardened layer of 0.1 to 0.25 mm may be sufficient.
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Articles carburised by this method are then subjected to the same refining and hardening heat treatment
as case hardened parts.
Note: Sodium Cyanide is highly poisonous and strict safety precautions must be observed in workshops
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where it is used.
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Gas Carburising
In this process the components are heated at about 900ºC for three hours or more in an atmosphere
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containing methane and propane which deposit carbon at the surface of the component. These gases
are usually mixed with nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Again, articles carburised by this method are then subjected to the same refining and hardening heat
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treatment as case hardened parts.
Flame Hardening
In this process localised areas of the surface of a medium and high carbon steel part may be hardened
by heating and quenching. The surface is heated to above its hardening temperature by means of a
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travelling oxy-acetylene torch and is immediately quenched, before the core temperature rises, by a jet
of water from a supply built into the torch assembly.
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Slideways and tracks on machine beds are hardened in this way. Gears and spindles can be rotated, the
whole surface being treated simultaneously.
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Low alloy steels containing up to 4.0% nickel and 1.0% chromium are also suitable for this process.
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Induction Hardening
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This process is similar in principle to flame hardening except that the component is held stationary while
the whole circumference is heated simultaneously by means of an induction coil. The coil carries a high
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frequency current, which produces eddy currents in the surface of the component, raising its
temperature.
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As soon as the surface of the component has reached the necessary temperature, the current is
switched off and the surface is quenched by jets of water. Again the component must contain at least
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0.4% carbon. Using this process it is possible to harden selected areas of symmetrical components.
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Nitriding
This is a process in which certain alloy steels assume an intensely hard surface when heated in an
atmosphere rich in ammonia gas.
These steels, generally known as nitriding steels, contain aluminium and chromium. The process
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consists of heating the parts in a box at a temperature of 500°C, and passing a steady stream of dry
ammonia gas through the box for a period of from 10 to 90 hours. During this time the steel absorbs
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nitrogen from the ammonia gas. The hardened layer produced is from 0.15mm to 0.8mm thick.
The fairly low temperature of the process means there is no need to quench the parts, and thus there is
less chance of the parts being distorted.
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Nitriding is used to harden the bearing surfaces of piston engine crankshafts. It is also used to harden
the cylinders of piston engines. Any areas of the surface which are not required to be hardened are
protected by coating with tin or by nickel plating.
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(b) Testing of Ferrous Materials
The specifications aircraft materials will list the tests which must be applied to a material to ensure that it
is suitable for use in aircraft construction. British Standard BS 4A, „Specification for test pieces and test
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methods for metallic materials‟, describes the various tests which may be required on these materials.
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Among the tests which may be required are those for tensile strength, fatigue strength, hardness and
impact resistance.
The Tensile Test
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Tensile Strength describes the ability of a material to resist breaking under a tension (stretching) force.
The tensile test measures the stress required to cause fracture of a test piece in tension. The results of a
tensile test will give tensile strength proof stress and Youngs Modulus of Elasticity.
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Stress
Stress is the state that occurs within a material when the said material is subjected to forces which tend
to cause distortion. The intensity of the stress will depend on the magnitude and direction of the applied
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force and the cross-sectional area of the material withstanding the stress.
Therefore, stress is the applied force (or load)divided by the cross sectional area. The most commonly
used unit of stress is the N/mm2, the use of large figures is avoided by the use of SI units since 1N/mm2 =
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1MN/m2 or 1MPa. Imperial measurements in thousands of pounds force per square inch (lbf/in2 , PFSI or
just PSI), or 'KSI' can also be found, particularly in American specifications.
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1lbf = 4.448N
The bar (b) and its multiple the hectobar (hbar) are also sometimes used as units of stress.
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1 bar = 105 N/m2 or 105 MPa.

1hbar = 107 N/m2 or 10 N/mm2.
Note: When converting between metric and imperial values both the load and the area have to be
converted.
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Strain
When a force is applied to a body which resists the force, some distortion of the shape of the body must
occur. This distortion is measured by what is called the strain.
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In the tensile test, a test piece of known cross sectional area is gripped in the jaws of a tensile testing
machine. A tensile force is then applied which is increased by suitable increments. For each increment of
force applied the amount by which the „gauge length‟ of the test piece increases, is measured using an
extensometer. When the test piece begins to stretch rapidly the extensometer is removed, otherwise it
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may be damaged. The maximum force applied to the test piece before it fractures is measured. Using
the results obtained during the test a stress/strain diagram can be plotted.
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At first the amount of strain is very small and is directly proportional to the applied stress, therefore the
line OA in diagram opposite is straight. If the stress is released at any point before A is reached, the test
piece will return to its original length. Thus the extension between O and A is elastic and within the
elastic limit the strain is proportional to the stress producing it (Hooke‟s Law).
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Stress is directly proportional to strain;
stress = a constant x strain
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stress = constant E, a constant for the material
strain
This constant 'E' is known as Young‟s Modulus of elasticity for the material and is:
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E = stress where stress = load
strain area
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Strain is the ratio or fraction:
strain = Final Length - Original Length = Change in length (e)

Original Length Original Length (L)
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Its value indicates the ability of the material to resist tensile or compressive loading.
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For steel, the constant „E‟ is approximately 20,000 hectobar (or 200 kN/mm2). Thus a stress of 1 hbar will
produce an extension or contraction of 1 of the original length.
20,000
E = Stress E = Stress
Strain e/L
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E = Stress x L
e
So 20,000 = 1xL
e
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e= L or 1/20,000 of original length
20,000
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The working stress for mild steel under steady load conditions is approximately 10 hbar and the strain
produced by this stress will be 10 mm per millimetre length of specimen.
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different loads within the elastic range.

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The constant „E‟ may be found for a particular metal by comparing the extensions produced by two
If the test piece is stressed past the point A on the graph (known as the elastic limit or limit of
proportionality), the material suddenly „gives‟ i.e. it shows a sudden extension for very little increase in
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stress. This is called the yield point (Y) and if the stress is now removed, a small permanent extension
will remain in the material. Any extension of the material which occurs beyond the point A is of a plastic
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nature.
As the stress is increased the material stretches rapidly. At first along its entire length, and then locally to
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form a neck. Necking occurs just after the maximum stress has been applied at M.
After this point the test piece will go on stretching when some of the force has been removed until it
breaks at the point B. B is not the real breaking stress, because if the load is divided by the reduced
area the graph will follow the dotted line and show maximum stress at B1.
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In practice, a nominal value of the tensile strength of a material is calculated, using the maximum force
(at M) and the original cross sectional area of the test piece, thus:
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Tensile strength = maximum force used

(ultimate strength) original area of cross section
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Tensile Test Pieces
The shape and dimensions of standard round and flat test pieces are specified in BS 4A.The gauge
length specified is to allow measurement after fracture. The percentage elongation of the test piece can
then be derived. This is a measure of the ductility of the material. Proportional test pieces are round in
section and the gauge length is always five times the diameter.
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If the material is less than 10mm thick, a flat non-proportional test piece is used. It is 12.5mm wide and
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normally the full thickness of the material.
Tensile Test Pieces

Tensile testing machines vary both in design and capacity. Large machines capable of applying forces of
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over 1MN are in use.
Extensometers
Extensometers are used for measuring the extension over the gauge length of a test piece during a
tensile test. Strains within the elastic limit are extremely small, and during the routine testing of materials
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it is necessary to take measurements as small as 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in).
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Creep
When a metal is subjected to both tensile stress and high temperature over a long period, continuous
and permanent tensile elongation takes place even if the stress is below the yield stress.
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This is known as „creep‟, and the final fracture due to creep is known as „rupture‟. This phenomenon
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occurs within the normal limits of proportionality and must be studied when a metal is to be used in a
high temperature environment in order to determine working clearances and component life.
The „limiting creep stress‟ of a material at any given temperature is the maximum stress it can withstand
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without showing any measurable extension.
Creep tests are carried out on test pieces. A test piece is enclosed in a thermostatically controlled
electric tube furnace which can be held at a fixed temperature over the long period of time occupied by
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the test. The test piece is statically stressed and a sensitive extensometer is used to measure the
extremely small extension at suitable intervals of time. Creep curves, obtained for different static forces
at the same temperature are produced, and from these, the limiting creep stress is derived.
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Hardness Tests
Hardness is the resistance of a material to indentation, and by pressing a suitably shaped indenter into
the surface of the material being tested, a comparison of hardness values can be made.
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Hardness values are normally required by the material specification, and tests are also carried out to
check case hardening and hardening and tempering at the various stages of manufacture.
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The Brinell Hardness Test
In this test a hardened steel ball of known diameter is forced into the surface of a test piece by means of
a suitable standard load (which may be varied depending on the material under test). The diameter of
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the impression is then measured using a calibrated microscope and, knowing D, the diameter of the ball
and d, the diameter of the impression, the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is found from:
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To make calculations unnecessary, the hardness number H is found by reference to British Standard
tables, where H is read directly by entering the diameter of the impression d. The greater the number,
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the harder is the material.
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The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test
The Vickers hardness test is similar to the Brinell test in that an impression is made by applying a load to
an indenter. The hardness number is then obtained from measurement of the impression. The indenter
is a diamond in the shape of a square based pyramid and the measurement is made across the diagonal
of the impression.
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The diagonal length of the square impression is measured by means of a microscope which has a
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variable slit built into the eyepiece.
An advantage of the Vickers hardness test is that hardness values for very hard materials are more
accurate than the corresponding Brinell numbers. This is because a diamond does not deform under
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high pressure, as a steel ball does, and so the result will be more accurate.
The width of the slit is adjusted so that its edges line up with the corners of the impression. The diagonal
length of the impression is then obtained from a digital counter geared to the movement of the slit. The
reading is converted to Vickers Pyramid Hardness Number (VPN) by reference to tables. The higher the
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number, the harder is the material.
The specified time of contact between the indenter and the test piece in both Vickers and Brinell
hardness tests is 15 seconds.
The Rockwell Hardness Test

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In the Rockwell hardness test an indentation is made in the test piece using a 1/16in. diameter hardened
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steel ball or a diamond cone of 120° angle using standard loads. The hardness number is indicated
directly on a dial on the test machine, no measurement of the diameter of the impression is required. It is
used mainly for the rapid routine testing of finished materials.
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The Shore Scleroscope Hardness Test
This is a small portable instrument which can be used for testing the hardness of large components such
as castings and gears. These components could not be placed on the table of one of the other hardness
testing machines. The scleroscope uses a small diamond tipped hammer of approximately 2.5g, which is
released so that it falls from a standard height of about 250mm inside a graduated glass tube placed on
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the test surface. The height of rebound of the hammer is taken as the hardness index.
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The height of rebound is less with soft materials as they absorb more of the kinetic energy of the
hammer. Hard materials produce a greater height of rebound.
NOTE: This is not very accurate and is little used now.
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Impact Tests
Impact tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material and most importantly its ability to resist
mechanical shock, and to ensure that temper brittleness has not been introduced during heat treatments.
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The Izod impact test employs a standard notched test-piece which is clamped in a vice. A heavy
pendulum is allowed to strike the test piece after being released from a fixed height. The striking energy
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of approximately 163J is partially absorbed in breaking the test piece and as the pendulum swings past,
it carries with it a drag pointer which it leaves at its highest point of swing. This indicates the amount of
mechanical energy used in fracturing the test piece.
The notches in the test pieces are standardised using gauges.
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The Charpy impact test differs from the Izod test in that the test piece is supported at each end while the
Izod test uses a test piece held at one end only. The load on the pendulum can be varied so that the
impact energy is either 15OJ or 300J.
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The Izod test is required by most of the British material specifications, but where the test piece must be
tested at high or low temperatures the Charpy test is used. This is because it is easier to fit the test piece
into the Charpy machine and complete the test within the required 6 seconds after removal of the test
piece from the heating or cooling bath. Machines are available which carry out both the Izod and Charpy
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tests.
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Fatigue Tests
Fatigue is defined as the progressive deterioration of the strength of a material or structural component
during service such that failure can occur at much lower stress levels than the ultimate tensile stress of
the material. It affects most metals and their alloys and some plastics. Fatigue initiates small cracks in
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the material or component and causes them to grow into large cracks, under cyclic loading. If these
cracks are not detected, catastrophic failure of the structure may follow.
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Fatigue tests can be applied to materials to establish a fatigue limit or endurance limit. Using a radial
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fatigue testing machine like the one illustrated, alternating stresses can be produced in a test piece very
rapidly, reducing to a reasonable period the time required for a fatigue test. As the test piece turns
through 180°C the force W acting at a point on the test piece falls to zero, and then increases to W in the
opposite direction. The test piece is twisted until it breaks, when the motor stops automatically. The
number of reversals of stress is recorded by a revolution counter.
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A second test piece of the same material is now put in the machine and a smaller stress applied, until
the test piece again breaks. The test is repeated with more test pieces and lower stresses, until a test
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piece lasts up to, for example, twenty million reversals of stress without breaking.
From the fatigue test results, an S/N graph is plotted; stress (S) against the number of stress
reversals.(N). The curve becomes horizontal at a stress which can be endured for a very large number
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or infinite number of stress reversals. This stress is known as the Fatigue Limit or Endurance Limit.
Some non-ferrous metals do not show a well defined fatigue limit; that is, the S/N curve slopes gradually
down to the horizontal axis. This explains the need for a safe life for aircraft structures or parts of
structures. The structure is replaced after a period of service during which it would have been subjected
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to an estimated safe number of stress reversals, not exceeding the endurance limit.
The illustration shows the fatigue fracture of the test piece. One part of the fracture is smooth and
burnished and shows ripple like marks or striations radiating outwards from the centre of the crack
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formation. The other part is coarse and crystalline, indicating the final fracture of the remainder of the
cross-sectional area, which could no longer withstand the load.

It has been found that the finished surface of the test piece affects the endurance limit. A polished test
piece having a much greater endurance limit than a roughly turned test piece, a small scratch or slight
corrosion will reduce the endurance limit considerably. This shows the necessity of having a good finish
on those parts of an engine or structure which are subject to fatigue. Any sudden changes in section in a
member will also considerably reduce the fatigue strength.
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Apart from material samples and individual components, fatigue tests can be applied to complex
assemblies such as the wing and fuselage shown here, and entire airframes, by cyclically loading the
structures with hydraulic rams or pressurising sealed components. Frequently a static test airframe is
dedicated to these tests during the development phase of an aircraft programme. These tests can also
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be performed at different temperatures to simulate the effects of environmental conditions.

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Module 6 N
Licence Category
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A, B1, B2 and B3
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6.2 Non-ferrous Metals

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Module 6.2 Non-ferrous Metals 2.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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LEVEL 2
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examples.
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subject.
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LEVEL 3
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manner.
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Table of Contents
6.2 Non-ferrous Metals _______________________________________________________ 9
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(a) ________________________________________________________________________ 9
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Aluminium ______________________________________________________________ 10
Production _____________________________________________________________ 10
Mechanical Properties ____________________________________________________ 12
Aluminium Alloys ________________________________________________________ 13
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Metal Condition _________________________________________________________ 15
Corrosion Protection _____________________________________________________ 17
Heat Treatment Processes ________________________________________________ 18
Heat Treatment Indication _________________________________________________ 23
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Specifications ___________________________________________________________ 25
Identification Markings ____________________________________________________ 27
Cast Aluminium _________________________________________________________ 28
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys __________________________________________ 29
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Titanium ________________________________________________________________ 30
Nickel and its Alloys ______________________________________________________ 32
Electrical Resistance Alloys For Use at High Temperatures _______________________ 32
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Low Expansion Alloys ____________________________________________________ 32

High Temperature Corrosion Resistant Alloys __________________________________ 32
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Monel Metal ____________________________________________________________ 33

Copper and its Alloys _____________________________________________________ 34
Tungum _______________________________________________________________ 34
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Brass _________________________________________________________________ 34
Bronze ________________________________________________________________ 34
Lead and its Alloys _______________________________________________________ 36
White Bearing Metals _____________________________________________________ 36
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Miscellaneous Metals _____________________________________________________ 37

Depleted Uranium _______________________________________________________ 37
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Tungsten ______________________________________________________________ 37
Cadmium ______________________________________________________________ 37
Chromium _____________________________________________________________ 37
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Metal Fatigue ____________________________________________________________ 39

General _______________________________________________________________ 39
Fatigue Life and Safety Margin _____________________________________________ 40
Shot Peening ___________________________________________________________ 42
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Rotopeening ___________________________________________________________ 43
Cold Working ___________________________________________________________ 44
(b) Testing of Non-Ferrous Materials __________________________________________ 45
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CAR 66 Licence Category
Objective
Reference A B1 B2 B3
Non Ferrous Metals 6.2
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Characteristics, properties and identification of (a) 1 2 1 2
common non-ferrous materials used in aircraft;
Heat treatment and application of non-ferrous
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materials;
Testing of non-ferrous material for hardness, tensile (b) - 1 1 1
strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance.
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6.2 Non-ferrous Metals
(a)
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The term “non-ferrous” refers to all metals which have elements other than iron as their base or
principal constituent. This group includes pure metals such as aluminium, titanium, copper and
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magnesium, as well as alloyed metals like brass, bronze, monel and babbit. Alloys of aluminium
and magnesium are referred to as Light Alloys.
Aluminium is the most important metal in aircraft engineering. Most modern aircraft are
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constructed from aluminium alloys of one form or another.
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Aluminium
Production
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Aluminium is derived from the red ore Bauxite, which is widely distributed within the earth‟s
crust. However, large deposits of sufficiently high purity for commercial exploitation are located
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in comparatively few places.
Bauxite is refined into aluminium oxide trihydrate (alumina) and then electrolytically reduced into
metallic aluminium. Two to three tonnes of bauxite are required to produce one tonne of
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alumina and two tonnes of alumina are required to produce one tonne of aluminium metal.
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The aluminium industry relies on the Bayer process to produce alumina from bauxite. The
bauxite is washed, ground and dissolved in caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) at high pressure
and temperature. The resulting liquor contains a solution of sodium aluminate and un-dissolved
bauxite residues containing iron, silicon, and titanium. These residues sink gradually to the
bottom of the tank and are removed. They are known colloquially as “red mud”.
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The clear sodium aluminate solution is pumped into a huge tank called a precipitator. Fine
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particles of alumina are added to seed the precipitation of pure alumina particles as the liquor
cools. The particles sink to the bottom of the tank, are removed, and are then passed through a
rotary kiln at 1100°C to drive off the chemically combined water. The result is a white powder,
pure alumina. The caustic soda is returned to the start of the process and used again.
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The aluminium reducing or 'smelting' process used is the Hall-Héroult Process, invented in
1886. The alumina powder is dissolved in an electrolytic bath of molten cryolite (sodium
aluminium fluoride) within a large carbon or graphite lined steel container known as a “pot”. An
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electric current is passed through the electrolyte at low voltage, but very high current, typically
150,000 amperes. The current flows between carbon anodes (positive), made of petroleum
coke and pitch, and a cathode (negative), formed lining of the pot, and heats the solution.
Oxygen is given off at the anodes, which burn as a result, and need to be replaced quite often.
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Molten aluminium particles, being positively charged, are attracted to the lining of the furnace
and collect at the bottom of the pot to be siphoned off periodically, taken to a holding furnace,
often but not always blended to an alloy specification, cleaned and then generally cast.
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Because of the nature of the process, abundant electrical power must be available. Thus production
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plants are situated close to the sources of electricity such as hydroelectric or nuclear power stations, and
not normally near the bauxite mines.
Aluminium is formed at about 900°C, but once formed has a melting point of only 660°C. In some
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smelters this spare heat is used to melt recycled metal.
Recycled aluminium requires only 5 per cent of the energy required to make “new” aluminium. Blending
recycled metal with new metal allows considerable energy savings, as well as the efficient use of
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process heat. There is no difference between primary and recycled aluminium in terms of quality or
properties.

Most smelters produce aluminium of 99.7% purity, which is acceptable for most applications. However,
super purity aluminium (99.99%) is used for some special applications, typically those where high
ductility or conductivity is required. The marginal difference in the purities of smelter grade aluminium
and super purity aluminium results in significant changes in the properties of the metal.
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Mechanical Properties
Pure aluminium is a silvery-white metal which is soft and ductile. It has a melting point of 660°C
and a specific gravity of about 2.7, i.e. nearly one third that of steel or copper. It is resistant to
atmospheric corrosion owing to the presence of an oxide film which forms naturally on its
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surface. Aluminium is also resistant to dilute acids, but alkalis attack and destroy the oxide film,
causing corrosion. The metal is a good conductor of electricity and its electrical conductivity is
about 65% that of copper. It also conducts heat well and is widely used in heat exchangers,
aircraft, food production and chemical plant.
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It is non-magnetic and non-sparking, making it suitable for use as a shielding metal for certain
electrical equipment.
The pure metal has a tensile strength in the annealed condition of about 13 000 pounds per
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square inch (lb/sq in), often expressed as 13 ksi., one-third that of steel.
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Cold-working, such as rolling, will increase the strength of the metal and its alloys, sometimes
almost doubling their original values.
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The pure metal is not strong enough to be used economically as a structural material, but, in
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alloyed form (suitably heat treated), the tensile strength may be increased to nearly 100 ksi.
Because of its properties, aluminium and its alloys can be formed into a finished product in
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many ways. These generally fall into two classes; Wrought or worked and Cast or moulded.
Wrought aluminium can be bent or folded, stamped, hammered, drawn, rolled, machined, forged,
extruded, brazed or welded into a wide variety of objects.
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Aluminium can be Cast by any known foundry process to practically any shape at a comparatively low
temperature.
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Aluminium Alloys
As mentioned, the properties of aluminium can be drastically improved by alloying it with other
elements. Although older national specifications exist, aluminium and its alloys are now
normally classified into eight groups, identified by a four digit series number devised by the
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Aluminium Association Inc and accepted as an international standard.
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The first digit indicates the principle alloying element. For example any alloy in the 2000 series
such as 2117 or 2024 has copper as its main alloying element. 7075 has zinc as its main alloy.
The second digit identifies the alloy modification. 0 indicates that the alloy is original. 1 indicates
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that the alloy has been modified once etc. The 3rd and 4th digits identify the specific aluminium
alloy.
In the case of 2024, the alloy consists of about 4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6%
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manganese, with traces of other specific elements permitted, and the remainder aluminium.
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Various aluminium alloys are used for aircraft fabrication:
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1000 series. Aluminium of 99 percent or higher purity has practically no application in the
aerospace industry. These alloys are characterised by excellent corrosion resistance, high
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thermal and electrical conductivity, low mechanical properties, and excellent workability.
Moderate increases in strength can be obtained by strain hardening. Soft 1100 rivets are used
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in non-structural applications.
2000 series. Copper is the principal alloying element in this group. These alloys require solution
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heat-treatment to obtain optimum properties; in the heat-treated condition mechanical properties

are similar to, and sometimes exceed, those of mild steel. In some instances artificial aging is
employed to further increase the mechanical properties. This treatment materially increases
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yield strength. These alloys in the form of sheet are usually clad with a high-purity alloy. Alloy
2024 is perhaps the best known and most widely used aircraft alloy. Most aircraft rivets are of
alloy 2117.
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3000 series. Manganese is the major alloying element of alloys in this group, which are
generally non-heat treatable. One of these is 3003, which has limited use as a general-purpose
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alloy for moderate-strength applications requiring good workability, such as cowlings and non-
structural parts. Alloy 3003 is easy to weld.
4000 series. This alloy series is seldom used in the aerospace industry.
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5000 series. Magnesium is one of the most effective and widely used alloying elements for
aluminium. When it is used as the major alloying element, or with manganese, the result is a
moderate to high strength non-heat treatable alloy. Alloys in this series possess good welding
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characteristics and good resistance to corrosion in various atmospheres. It is widely used for
the fabrication of tanks and fluid lines.
6000 series. Alloys in this group contain silicon and magnesium in approximate proportions to
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form magnesium silicide, thus making them heat treatable. The major alloy in this series is
6061, one of the most versatile of the heat-treatable alloys. Though less strong than most of the

2000 or 7000 alloys, the magnesium-silicon (or magnesium-silicide) alloys possess good
formability and corrosion resistance, with medium strength.
7000 series. Zinc is the major alloying element in this group, and when coupled with a smaller
percentage of magnesium results in heat treatable alloys of very high strength. Usually other
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elements, such as copper and chromium, are also added in small quantities. The outstanding
member of this group is 7075, which is among the highest strength alloys available and is used
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in airframe structures for highly stressed parts.
8000 series. Of this group the Aluminium-Lithium alloys are the most important for the aviation
industry. Having a low density, lithium reduces the weight of the alloy while offering strength
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comparable to the 7000 series and competes with carbon composite material. It's development
problems and high cost have so far prevented it's wide spread use in commercial aviation.
Other terms which may be encountered include;
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Duralumin (or Dural) which was the original aluminium/copper alloy patented in 1908 and
formed the basis of the 2000 series alloys.
rivets, skins, castings and forgings.

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Hiduminium - A family of British high performance aluminium/copper/ nickel alloys. Used for
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Metal Condition
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Work Hardening
Like all metals, at a microscopic level, aluminium is crystalline in structure. When the metal is
worked (cut, bent, stretched or otherwise deformed) the crystals or grains slide over each other
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at the „slip planes‟ formed by the crystal boundaries. The crystals will also bend or distort, but as
they do, stresses form in them and the structure will become more resistant to movement and
therefore harder. This process is known as „Work' or 'Strain Hardening‟. If further work is done
the stress becomes too great, the crystals fail and the metal will fracture and break.
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Alloying elements, normally metals, may be mixed with the aluminium base and either bond
with, or are dissolved in, the aluminium in its molten state. Adding these other metals to form an
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alloy modifies the properties of the crystals and the boundaries between them. Heating and
cooling the metal will change the distribution of the components in the alloy and the sizes of the
crystals formed, both of which affect its mechanical properties.
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Age Hardening
Alloys which have been heated may not return to their normal cold level of hardness straight
away. It can take several hours, days or weeks, depending on the alloy and treatment applied,
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for the metal to 'Age Harden' to its original state. This allows work to be done to the metal before
its full strength is naturally restored.
Temper
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Temper is the term used to describe the condition of the metal with regard to its workability. This
includes the hardness, malleability and ductility of the metal.

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Corrosion Protection
Introducing other elements into aluminium to form alloys reduces its corrosion resistant
characteristics, in some cases by quite a large margin. Altering the crystal structure by heating
and working also affects these properties.
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Various chemical and electro-chemical processes and coatings are used to protect the finished
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product, and these will be covered at a later date, however, sheet aluminium alloy is often
protected at manufacture by 'Cladding' it with a layer of almost pure aluminium on each side.
The cladding is cold rolled onto the alloy and forms 5% of the total thickness on each side of
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sheet material (up to 0.249 inch) and 2.5% of the thickness of thicker plate (over 0.250 inch)
material, e.g. flat sheet 0.150 inch thick would have 0.0075 inch clad on either side. This
material is produced under trade names such as Alclad and Pureclad.
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The surface of the cladding oxidises to form a durable protective coating, however scores or
deep scratches which penetrate this coating may expose the alloy core, so great care is
required when handling and working this material. It also offers cathodic protection to the core
alloy.
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Heat Treatment Processes
Apart from work and age hardening, the temper of aluminium alloy may be modified by heat
treatment processes, each of which may be applied to some, but not all alloys.
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The heat is normally applied in an air or muffle furnace, or a salt bath. The air furnace circulates
hot air around the work piece and is normally electrically heated as gas would introduce
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moisture. They are particularly suitable for small parts and a small furnace may be
accommodated in almost any workshop.
A salt bath is a heated tank containing mineral salts, typically 90% nitrate of soda and 10%
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sodium nitrate, although others may be used. These are solid at room temperature and melt
when heat is applied. Electricity is normally used to apply gradual heat and prevent spattering
an spitting as the salts melt. Before emersion the work piece should be thoroughly dried and
water kept away from the bath. Some salt mixtures are also flammable.
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The salt bath provides rapid and uniform heating for large objects which may be placed in a
basket for emersion. Small objects should be suspended on a wire or placed in a perforated
container. Work pieces should not touch the sides of the tank as the salt solution must be able
to circulate around them.
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Accurate temperature control is vital to these processes as a variation of as little as 5°C may
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affect the successful outcome. Similarly soak time is important, especially for large heavy items.
Cooling rates and the time between heating and quenching, known as Lag-time (typically 7
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seconds) must be adhered to or the materials strength and corrosion resistance properties may
be adversely affected.
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Items removed from a salt bath must be thoroughly cleaned to remove all residues.
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Clad sheet material must not be heat treated more than three times as migration of the alloying
elements into the cladding will reduce both the strength of the core alloy and the corrosion
resistance of the sheet.
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Annealing
If metal which has become work hardened is heated, the internal crystalline stresses begin to
dissipate and rearrangement of the deformed structure starts. As the temperature rises, the
distorted original grains disappear and new grains grow to form a stress-free system. This
„recrystallisation‟ brings the metal to its softest state. This process is known as annealing and
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leaves the cooled metal in a softened state so that further work can be done.
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These effects depend on time as well as temperature. So that the change may be completed
quickly, it is usual to heat the metal in air at a much higher temperature (340ºC to 450ºC) than
the minimum necessary for recrystallisation. Apart from convenience, this is done to avoid the
merging of crystals to form larger ones, which is encouraged by, among other factors, a long
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heating time. „Grain growth‟, as it is called, impairs mechanical properties. Alloys that are
especially prone to gain growth are sometimes annealed more rapidly in molten salts at about
500ºC.
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The heating and soaking times specified for the alloy must be carefully observed to prevent
grain growth and all manipulation should be completed within 24 hours of annealing as age
hardening will begin to take place.
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Several anneals may be needed before the metal reaches its final shape. A variation is „partial-‟,
„back-‟, or „temperannealing‟, where fully-hard material of some compositions may be allowed to
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soften only to the intermediate degree of hardness, or temper, required.
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Solution Treatment
Within the aluminium crystal structure some alloying elements such as copper are capable of
being in a 'solid solution', a matrix of aluminium atoms with copper atoms dissolved in it.
An aluminium alloy containing 4% copper at room temperature (21ºC) will have 0.5% of the
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copper in solid solution with the aluminium. The remaining 3.5% of copper is chemically
combined with the aluminium to form the intermetallic compound Cu Al 2.
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The ability of copper to dissolve in aluminium increases with temperature so that, as the alloy is
heated, the Cu Al2 is dissolved and the 4% copper is in solid solution with the aluminium at
about 500ºC.
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If the alloy is slowly cooled, the Cu Al2 will gradually reappear as fairly large particles, visible
under the microscope. This coming out of solution is termed 'precipitation'. At room temperature
only 0.5% of the copper remains dissolved.
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If, however, the alloy is quenched from 500°C, the copper is 'frozen' in the solid solution and no
Cu Al2 is seen in the structure. In this state the alloy is relatively soft and malleable. This is
known as Solution Heat Treatment (SHT) or simply Solution Treatment.
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After a period of about two hours the copper will begin to precipitate out of solution and the
tensile strength and hardness begin to increase until, after about 5 days, these properties are at
a maximum. This is known as “Age Hardening” .
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While the chemistry is complicated, the reason for these changes can be explained in a fairly
simple way. The components of the alloy are crystals of metal which must slide over each other
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when the metal is bent or worked. After the quenching treatment, all the 4% copper is trapped
inside the crystals at room temperature. There is no obstruction to the crystals sliding or slipping
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so the material is soft and malleable.
This structure is chemically unstable and so small particles of CuAl2 (too small to be seen under
an optical microscope) begin to precipitate at the crystal boundaries. These small particles
continue to come out of solution until, after five days, only 0.5% copper is in solid solution. The
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remaining 3.5% of copper has combined with aluminium to form very small particles of Cu Al 2,
dispersed throughout the structure. These particles will obstruct sliding at the slip planes,
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making the material strong and hard again.
Solution treatment distributes the Cu Al2 more evenly than annealing so the age hardened
material is stronger and, when appropriate, annealed parts are often solution treated to attain
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higher strength.
This process has been explained using copper/aluminium alloy as an example. The process is
similar when carried out with other modern aluminium alloys .
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As with annealing, the heating, soaking and quenching must be carefully controlled as they are
time and temperature sensitive. Quenching may be required to be done in hot or boiling water to
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reduce quenching stress. All manipulation should be performed within 2 hours and if there is to
be a delay between solution treatment and Precipitation Treatment the surfaces should be
protected against corrosion.
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Refrigeration is sometimes used to delay precipitation from the supersaturated state. In rivets,
for example, the soft formable condition that prevails for an hour or so after solution treatment
may be maintained for about twenty hours, if need be, by storing at a low temperature. These
are often referred to as 'Ice Box' rivets. O N
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Precipitation Treatment
In some alloys, the spontaneous ageing process is complete after a few days at room
temperature. A greater degree of precipitation and hardening than occurs naturally can, in
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certain alloys, be induced by heating to about 170ºC for ten hours or so (time and temperature
depending on composition). This is called „Precipitation Treatment‟ or „Artificial Ageing‟.
During this hardening and strengthening operation, precipitation of the soluble constituents from
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the supersaturated solid solution takes place. As precipitation progresses, the strength of the
material increases, often by a series of peaks, until a maximum is reached. Further ageing (over

ageing) causes the strength to steadily decline until a somewhat stable, often brittle, condition is
obtained. As with natural age hardening, the submicroscopic particles that are precipitated
provide the keys or locks within the grain structure and between the grains to resist internal
slippage and distortion when a load of any type is applied.
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Precipitation Treatment controls the size and distribution of the precipitates and in this manner,
the strength and hardness of the alloy is increased beyond that achieved by natural age
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hardening.
The ageing practices used depend upon many properties other than strength. As a rule, the
artificially aged alloys are slightly over aged to increase their resistance to corrosion. This is
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especially true with the artificially aged 7000 series alloys that are susceptible to intergranular
corrosion when aged to peak strength.
Heat Treatment Precautions
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Keep the number of heat treatments to a minimum. Clad materials must not be heat treated
more than three times because long periods at high temperature causes the copper atoms to
move into the aluminium coating, decreasing its corrosion resistance and strength.
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Do not rivet aluminium alloy sheet until at least 24 hours has passed from the time of solution
heat treatment. Failure to wait for this period can cause local distortion at the rivet positions.
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Allow five days to pass before putting the part into service
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Do not allow the metal to be overheated, or heat it for too long a time. A large grain size,
causing brittleness, weakness and roughness of the surface may result and the part will have to
be scrapped.
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The maximum time between removal from the heat treatment furnace and quenching or Lag
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Time must be not more than 7 seconds.

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Heat Treatment Indication
As mentioned, not all aluminium alloys can be heat treated. They are generally divided into two
groups termed:
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• Non-Heat Treatable - those that can be softened but not hardened by heat treatment.
• Heat Treatable - those that can be softened and hardened by heat treatment.
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The first group rely on the work hardening effects of manganese, silicon, magnesium and iron
when cold worked and so are found in the 1000, 3000, 4000 and 5000 series.
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If these Non-Heat Treatable alloys are heated to their annealing temperature, around 350 -
400°C depending on the alloy, and allowed to cool slowly they will be softened to their annealed
condition with no temper. This is indicated by adding a -O to the series number.
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They are hardened to a specific temper by strain hardening, usually done by rolling the sheet
material. The cold worked temper of these alloys is indicated by the letter -H followed by a two
digit number (tempers in the -H series are not applicable to castings).
The first digit following -H indicates the strain hardening process which is dependent on the
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specific alloy. 1 indicates the material is strain hardened to a partial temper, 2 indicates fully
strain hardened then partially annealed to the desired temper, while 3 indicates strain hardened
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and stabilised.
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The second digit, a 2, 4, 6 or 8 indicates the degree of hardness between fully hard condition, 8,
and the fully annealed -O condition.
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Therefore 5052-H24 indicates 5052 material which has been strain hardened and partially
annealed to a strength midway between fully annealed and full hard i.e. 'half hard'.
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The letter -F indicates the „as fabricated‟ condition of wrought alloys. In the case of castings, the
letter „F‟ is used to indicate the „as cast‟ condition.
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Most alloys will work harden, or become partially tempered by the forming processes of
component manufacture. In this condition they may be re-annealed to allow further work to be
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done.
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The Heat Treatable alloys can be softened, hardened and strengthened by the solution treatment and
precipitation processes as well as cold working.
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The heat treated temper of these aluminium alloys is indicated by the letter -T followed by one or more
numbers. The number following the letter T shows the type of heat treatment. Any variations are
indicated by a second number.
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Specifications
American aluminium alloys are given a Federal Specification such as Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) or American Military Specifications (AMS). This precedes the alloy series
number
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e.g. AMS-QQ-A-250 2024-T3
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Within the European Community most national standards will eventually be replaced by Comité
Européen de Normalisation (CEN) 'Euronorms' such as EN 2419 which will align with the
American specification.
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In the UK the British Standards (BS) L series of specifications (L88, L109 etc.) for sheet
aluminium is still in use. Other specifications include the Directorate of Technical Developments
(DTD) series, the British Aerospace BAEM series for sheet, plate, bar and tube which are still
active.
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Other European specifications include the French ASN series, the German DAN series and the Dutch
numeric system.
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It is important that only the metal specified for a repair or modification is used, to ensure the desired
strength, fatigue resistance and weight characteristics are obtained. Where chemical composition and
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physical properties are very similar it is possible to replace one material with an equivalent. It is,
however, vital to remember that material substitution may only be made on the authority of an approved
design organisation.
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Identification Markings
Aluminium alloy sheet must be marked with letters and numbers ink stamped at one corner by
the manufacturer, but it is common practice to repeat these marks at regular interval all over the
sheet. These identification symbols should include a specification number, the alloy number
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with temper designation, and the thickness of the material in thousandths of an inch (the
thickness British material is graded by Standard Wire Gauge - SWG). On some material red
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markings are used to indicate the material condition and further processing required. These
marks disappear when the necessary heat treatment is completed.
Aluminium alloy sheet in common with all other materials is given a batch release number (or
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Approved Stores Serial -ASS number) before being placed in the bonded store. This batch
number must not become detached from the material during storage.
When cutting material, any that is returned to storage must have the identification markings
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intact. This ensures that part used material is always identifiable. The release or ASS number
must be recorded on the work documentation for traceability.
If a batch of material has been heat treated by the user it must be clearly marked as such to
ensure that required further treatment is carried out and that treatment limits are not exceeded.
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Cast Aluminium
Cast aluminium alloys often contain silicon, which creates high fluidity and, thus, is good for producing
complex shapes. It also reduces the coefficient of linear expansion, so is often included in piston
castings.
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They are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their lack of strength, poor fatigue
characteristics and lack of elasticity when compared to the wrought aluminium alloys. The lack of
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elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature of an airframe structure requires the ability to flex
considerably without cracking.
Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast aluminium alloys are used extensively on
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engines, where there is a need to produce complex shapes such as gearboxes, component cases and
on piston engine crankcases, drive casings and cylinder heads. No other method than casting would be
viable for such items. The stresses can be kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust
castings of adequate stiffness.
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The specification of castable alloys differs from that of wrought aluminium. There are several systems in
use and international standardisation has yet to take place.
Very few non-heat-treatable cast alloys are used in aerospace applications and, for heavy-duty engine
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casings and pistons, some very strong, temperature-resistant alloys exist. One of the most common in
the category is Hiduminium RR 58 (sometimes known as Y Alloy), which is an age-hardening material
containing approximately 2.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 1.5% nickel, and 1% iron. A derivative of this
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material was also used (in wrought form) for the skin of the supersonic Concorde aircraft, due to the high
metal temperatures encountered.
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Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium is difficult to obtain from its ore, and is now normally extracted from sea water or
deep well brine by electrolysis.
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It is the lightest engineering metal in general use, having a relative density of 1.7 and a weight
only 66% that of aluminium. Silvery-white pure magnesium is a fairly weak metal but alloying
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with small amounts of aluminium, zinc, manganese and zirconium will increase its strength.
Although weaker than aluminium alloys, their lower densities often result in magnesium alloys
having a better strength to weight ratio.
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Magnesium has an affinity for oxygen and will ignite and burn with a fierce white flame if
overheated. Its high conductivity prevents large sections from overheating, but when molten
(650°C) or in the form of fine dust or swarf it burns readily. Machining processes must,
therefore, be performed very carefully. Casting is also difficult and dangerous. The metal is
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melted under a flux to exclude atmospheric oxygen and, when poured, is dusted with sulphur
powder which burns on contact producing sulphur dioxide to blanket the metal until it has
cooled. Magnesium fires should be fought with dry powder extinguishant as water and foam will
intensify combustion and may cause explosions.
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Without protection magnesium alloy corrodes easily, but chemical surface treatments and
coating processes give it good protection from corrosion by excluding oxygen. Use of
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compatible bolts, nuts, rivets etc. is also important in combating dissimilar metal corrosion.
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Most of the alloys can be annealed, solution treated precipitation hardened in a similar way to
that used for aluminium alloys.
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Magnesium alloys have been used to make aircraft wheels, piston engine crankcases, turbine
engine compressor casings, gearboxes, valve bodies etc. Magnesium alloy sheet is used in the
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structure of some aircraft and helicopters where weight saving is particularly important.
American magnesium alloys are identified by a series of letters and numbers. The first letter or
letters identify the main alloying elements. The middle digits identify the percentage of each of
the identified elements. The last letter and number indicate the heat treatment of the alloy.
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Example: AZ31A - T4
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AZ The main alloying elements are aluminium and zinc.

31 This is 3% aluminium and 1% zinc.
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A Indicates that the alloy is original.

T4 The alloy has been solution heat treated
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Titanium
Titanium is a greyish white metal having a high strength to weight ratio. It has a relative density of 4.5,
making it 60% heavier than aluminium, but twice as strong, and 45% lighter than steel but equal in
strength. Titanium also falls between Aluminium and Stainless Steel in terms of elasticity, and elevated
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temperature strength.
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Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance properties due to the oxide film which forms. It is not
normally susceptible to stress, fatigue, intergranular or galvanic corrosion, pitting or localised attack.
Under certain circumstances it will burn in air, so to prevent it's reaction with oxygen or nitrogen it may
be treated with chlorine gas to form a coating of titanium dioxide.
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Commercially pure titanium and some of its alloys are non-heat treatable and can be annealed but not
hardened or strengthened. These are usually hot formed or rolled and work harden. When suitably
alloyed, heat treatable forms can be produced which can be both annealed and hardened. These are
softer and more ductile for cold working until hardened.
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The normal alloying elements include aluminium, chromium, iron, manganese, molybdenum and
vanadium.
Titanium and it's alloys are classed as A (alpha), B (beta) and C (combined) depending on their
crystalline form:
•
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A - is weldable, tough, strong both hot and cold and resistant to oxidisation.
• B - has excellent bend ductility, strong both hot and cold but vulnerable to
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contamination.
• C - combined alpha and beta with compromised performance, strong cold and
warm but weak hot, excellent forgeability, good bendability, moderate
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contamination resistance.
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The melting point of titanium is 1668°C, and it has low thermal conductivity and a low coefficient
of expansion. It's high temperature properties are, however, disappointing. Ultimate yield
strength falls rapidly above 425°C, and atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen absorption above
540°C makes the metal brittle and worthless after long exposure. It is useful for short duration,
high temperature applications where strength is not important such as aircraft fire walls where it
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can withstand brief exposure at 1650°C.

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Special care is required when machining titanium due to its extreme work hardening properties.
For example, centre drilling should be used prior to drilling, as centre punching would harden
the metal, causing difficulty in starting the drill.
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Fine titanium swarf or powder, even when moist, is a possible fire risk. Piles of fine titanium
swarf or dust must not be allowed to accumulate around machines. A fire can be extinguished
with dry powder. Water must not be used.
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Cadmium coated fasteners must not be used with titanium as, when stressed, cadmium atoms
will migrate into the titanium causing localised embrittlement and cracking. Chlorinated hydro-
carbons such as trichloroethylene cleaning fluids will cause hydrogen embrittlement as will
phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (e.g. Skydrol) at elevated temperatures.
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Titanium specification is described by a number of systems.
The American A-55 is an example of a commercially pure titanium; it has a yield strength of 55
to 80 ksi and is a general-purpose grade for moderate to severe forming. It is sometimes used
for non-structural aircraft parts and for all types of corrosion resistant applications, such as
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tubing.
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Type A-70 titanium is closely related to type A-55, but has a yield strength of 70 to 95 ksi. It is
used where higher strength is required, and it is specified for many moderately stressed aircraft
parts. For many corrosion applications, it is used interchangeably with type A-55. Type A-55
and type A-70 are weldable.
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One of the widely used titanium-base alloys is C-110M. It is used for primary structural members and
aircraft skin, has 110 ksi minimum yield strength, and contains 8 percent manganese.
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Type A-110AT is a titanium alloy that contains 5 percent aluminium and 2.5 percent tin. It also has a high
minimum yield strength at elevated temperatures with the excellent welding characteristics inherent in
alpha type titanium alloys.
Titanium and its alloys are used to make corrosion resistant, high strength bolts and fasteners,
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compressor discs and blades for gas turbine engines, fire walls, hot air pipes, hydraulic pipes and
structural parts which require high strength or operate at high temperatures. It is also used to skin high
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performance aircraft where skin friction prevents the use of aluminium.
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Nickel and its Alloys
Nickel is silvery white, takes on a high polish and has good resistance to corrosion. It is hard,
malleable, ductile, somewhat ferro-magnetic, and a fair conductor of heat and electricity with a
melting point of 1455°C. It belongs to the iron-cobalt group of metals and is chiefly valuable for
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the alloys it forms. Three basic alloy types are of interest to the aircraft engineer.
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Electrical Resistance Alloys For Use at High Temperatures
These are usually nickel-chromium iron alloys produced under trade names such as 'Brightray'
and 'Resistohm'. Their important features are:
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• They do not oxidise at high temperatures.
• They have a high melting point.
• They have a high electrical resistance.
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These alloys are used to make heater elements for electric furnaces, soldering irons etc. They
are also used in temperature sensing thermocouples. Temperature sensing bulbs use nickel in
its pure form.
Low Expansion Alloys

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alloys, however, have very small coefficients of thermal expansion, making them very useful in
many types of precision equipment, used where temperatures are always changing.
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An alloy known as 'Invar' which contains 64% iron and 36% nickel has a negligible coefficient of
expansion. It is used for bi-metallic strip thermostats, precision instruments and measuring
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equipment and for cathode ray tube shadow masks.
High Temperature Corrosion Resistant Alloys

These are sometimes known as Superalloys.
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Among the first of these were the 'Nimonic' series of alloys developed in the UK in the early
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1940's for gas turbine applications. They are basically nickel-chromium alloys, stiffened and
strengthened by adding small amounts of titanium, aluminium, cobalt and molybdenum.
Development has continued and nimonic alloys are still used in the latest engines.
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Another well known family of high temperature alloys is the „Inconel‟ group developed in the
U.S. Inconel 600 contains 76% nickel, 15% chromium and 8% iron with small amounts of cobalt,
manganese, carbon etc. Others within the family contain Zirconium, Molybdenum, aluminium
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and various other elements to obtain the desired characteristics. Their appearance and
performance are similar to stainless steel at low temperatures and they remain very tough at
high temperatures and do not oxidise very much because of the protective film of chromium
oxide which forms on the surface.
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Other alloys in this type are Incoloy, Udimar, Udimet, Nilo, Waspaloy and Hastasloy. They are
used throughout gas turbine engines where high strength at high temperatures and resistance
to oxidation and creep are required. They are also used structurally where high strength,
corrosion resistant components and fasteners are required.
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Monel Metal
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This is an alloy containing 68% Nickel, 29% Copper, 1.5% Iron and 1.5% Manganese. It has
good resistance to corrosion. It is malleable and used to make rivets.
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Copper and its Alloys
Copper is a good conductor of heat and electricity and is reddish brown in colour. When cut, it
forms a greenish oxide layer (verdigris) which protects it from further corrosion. It is very
malleable and ductile and can be shaped by rolling, drawing, forging and pressing. Copper is
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used to make electrical cables and parts for electrical equipment.
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Copper is one of the few metals which is mechanically strong enough to be used in its (nearly)
pure form. It is also valuable both as a constituent and as a base of alloys.
Tungum
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Tungum is an alloy containing 81% to 86% copper and small amounts of nickel, silicon,
aluminium and zinc. It is highly resistant to fatigue and corrosion, is strong and ductile and was
used to make hydraulic and other pipelines. However it was found to become brittle over
extended time scales and is no longer used on aircraft.
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Brass
Brasses are copper based alloys containing up to 45% zinc and sometimes small amounts of
other metals such as tin, lead, aluminium, manganese and iron, these additions increase the
tensile strength and resistance to corrosion.
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Some brasses are very ductile and their sheets can be pressed and drawn into deep sections.
Others are more suited to hot working and stamping. All are readily machinable. Brass is used
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in the manufacture of instrument mechanisms, bellows assemblies and pitot heads.
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Bronze
Bronzes are copper based alloys containing up to 25% tin, sometimes with smaller amounts of
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phosphorus, zinc or lead. Low tin bronzes are used for springs and instrument parts, tubes and
pipes as they have good elastic properties and are corrosion resistant. High tin bronzes are
often cast and are used in bearings and bushes which are subjected to heavy loads.
There are other copper alloys that contain practically no tin and yet are still referred to as
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„bronzes‟. For instance „Manganese Bronze‟, so called because of its manganese content, is
55% copper, 40% zinc 3.5% manganese, 1% tin (technically a Brass rather than Bronze) while
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Phosphor and Silicon bronzes also contain practically no tin at all. Wrought aluminium bronzes
are almost as strong as medium-carbon steel while cast aluminium bronzes are found in
bearings and pump parts.
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One of the most important of the bronzes to aviation is Beryllium Bronze. This contains 97%
copper, 2% beryllium and small amounts of nickel to increase its strength. Once it has been
heat-treated, beryllium bronze is very strong (300-400 Brinell) and is used for diaphragms,
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precision bearings and high performance bushings, ball bearing cages and spring washers.
Note: Beryllium and its salts are toxic and should be handled with the greatest of care.
The metal, its alloys, and its salts can be handled if certain work codes are
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observed, but no attempt should be made to work with beryllium before becoming
familiar with proper safeguards.

Leaded Bronze is found in the bearings of some aero engines and is composed of 80-85% copper with
equal amounts of lead, tin and zinc. The very high pressures (and speeds) tend to squeeze the lubricant
out of normal journal bearings, but with the addition of lead, this bronze acts as a self-lubricating bush in
the event of the oil film breaking down.
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The Sintering process involves the compaction of powdered metal, or metals, in a mould under pressure
of up to 50 tons per square inch. The item is removed from the mould, heated in a furnace to a
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temperature below the melting point and held there until the particles become chemically bonded. The
resultant part remains porous. Sintered Bronzes are often used to make small oil retaining bearings and
filters.
Solder is a general term frequently used for joining metals together. The principal types are „soft solder‟
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(which is a mainly lead-tin alloy), and „hard solder‟ which is an alloy of copper, silver and zinc.
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Lead and its Alloys
Lead is bright and lustrous when freshly cut, but soon oxidises to a dull grey. It is very heavy and has a
relative density 11.3. It is soft and malleable, resistant to corrosion and has a low melting point, 327ºC. It
also has self lubricating properties and is used in some bushing alloys.
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Lead is a major constituent of soft solder. It has been used to make flying control surface mass balance
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weights. It gives protection from X-rays and is used to make containers for radio-active isotopes, used
during certain non-destructive tests on aircraft engines and airframes.
White Bearing Metals
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White bearing metals used in piston engines are either tin base or lead base. Tin base bearing metals
are known as Babbitt metals and contain between 3.5% and 15% Antimony. e.g. 7% antimony, 90% tin
and 3% copper. They are generally heavy duty bearing metals.
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The lead based White Metals are intended for lower duty since they can withstand only limited pressures.
They also contain tin and antimony e.g. 13% antimony, 12% tin, 0.75% copper and lead the remainder.
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Miscellaneous Metals
Depleted Uranium
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Depleted Uranium (DU) is a by-product of the nuclear enrichment process and is 1.7 times as dense as
lead. Because of its weight it has, in the past, been used to produce balance weights for aircraft flight
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control surfaces.
Uranium and its compounds are, however, highly toxic, both from a chemical and radiological standpoint.
It is important that this material is handled carefully and maintenance manual instructions observed.
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Damaged coatings may be repaired if no corrosion is evident. Corroded weights must be removed,
packaged as described in the manual and returned to the originator. Under no circumstances may DU
weights be cut, machined or mechanically cleaned. Adequate protection must be worn when handling
corroded or damaged DU.
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Tungsten
Tungsten is a hard, dense, corrosion resistant metal which is used in light bulb filaments and as an
alloying element in steels. Tungsten based alloy has also largely replaced depleted uranium as the
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material for balance weights. As it is less dense than DU the weights are larger.
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Cadmium
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Cadmium is a bluish-white metal which is used as a corrosion protective sacrificial coating on steel parts.
Because cadmium is less electrochemically active than zinc or aluminium, it is frequently used on high-
strength steel parts that might be embrittled by more active, sacrificial corrosion reactions and that
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contact aluminium parts. It is commonly used on steel fasteners and their mating parts (nuts washers
etc.) and followed by chromate passivation which gives them a golden yellow colour.
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If used in high temperature environments, however, the cadmium has a tendency to cause Liquid Metal
Embrittlement where it melts and diffuses in to the underlaying grain structure, weakening the steel.
Cadmium plated parts should, therefore, never be used on engine hot sections. It also reacts with
titanium and the two should not be allowed to come into contact.
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Pure cadmium and solutions of its compounds are toxic by ingestion.

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Chromium
Apart from being used in high performance steels, chromium is important as a plating material. In
aviation it is used to give a hard, smooth, protective coating rather than just a decorative finish. Hard-
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chromium (as opposed to 'Bright Chrome') plating is used for improving sliding and sealing properties,
preventing wear and, in thick layers, corrosion. It is typically used for hydraulic cylinders and rams, and
undercarriage oleo legs. Thickness varies from 10 to 1000 micron.
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Chromium compounds are toxic and should be handled with proper safeguards.
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Metal Fatigue
General
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Whilst not strictly a form a of corrosion, fatigue is, however, closely associated with it. Each can
accelerate the development of the other and together they pose a serious threat of catastrophic
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failure.
Briefly, fatigue is the phenomena where by a component which is subjected to repeated cyclic
loading will eventually fail at a stress level far lower than its ultimate failure load. The number of
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cycles required to cause this fatigue failure is dependent on the magnitude of the load applied
as shown in the SN graph.
Fatigue failure is caused by microscopic flaws or faults in the metal structure. These may be
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inclusion particles, voids, cracks, intergranular corrosion, scratches, blemishes, pits or micro-
cracks. The repeated stress reversals cause these faults to enlarge, concentrating stress on the
'good' material and reducing the load carrying capacity of the component until eventual failure.
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Because of its nature, the fatigue life of two seemingly identical components can vary
significantly, however, fatigue analysis can predict failure fairly accurately where uniform loads
are applied to parts of comparable quality.
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On an aircraft, the fatigue loads will vary considerably depending on the nature of its operation,
the environment it operates in and it's handling on the ground and in the air. Typical loads which
may be encountered are:
 Atmospheric gusts
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 Manoeuvres
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 Taxiing
 Ground handling
 Landing impact
 Ground-air-ground cycles.
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A schematic stress history for a wing lower surface on a typical flight is shown opposite.
Fatigue Life and Safety Margin
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With growing experience, manufacturers are now better able to predict structural fatigue and
design and build airframes with better fatigue lives and safety margins.
Methods used include:

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the elimination of stress risers by careful design, e.g. position of holes etc.
 shot peening of surfaces of highly stressed components
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 cold working of holes in critical areas
 use of modern fasteners
 high degrees of surface finish
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 development of maintenance programmes to ensure that faults are detected and

repaired.
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In the maintenance arena it is important that all inspections and repairs are carried out to the
highest standards to detect the onset of fatigue cracks and prevent their propagation. Unusual
events such as heavy or overweight landings and flight through turbulence must be thoroughly
investigated in accordance with the manufacturer‟s instructions.
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Shot Peening
As fatigue cracks will only develop in areas of tensile stress, the main method used to prevent
them is to induce a layer of compressive stress in components and areas which are known to
be susceptible.
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This compressive layer is often produced by shot peening where small balls of known diameter
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are blasted with predetermined force against the surfaces to be protected. The balls used may
be steel shot or glass or ceramic beads, depending on the material being treated. Components
are treated in sealed cabinets or chambers while areas in-situ on the aircraft are treated using
portable Vacu-blast type equipment similar to that used for corrosion removal.
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The exposure time is determined by first peening a spring steel test piece or 'Almen strip' in a
special holder for a set duration. This is then inspected for coverage (density of impacts) and
intensity (by measuring the deflection or curvature of the strip). The air pressure and time are
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altered accordingly and a new Almen strip is used until the correct coverage (100%) and
intensity is achieved.
Each component to be treated is given an Almen number dependant on its material and
coverage requirement. The exposure time determined from the test strips is then factored by the
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Almen number, coverage requirements and surface area to give the total treatment time.
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Rotopeening
Small inaccessible areas and components in-situ can also be treated by Rotopeening. Several
tungsten carbide balls are held captive in a flexible strip or 'flap wheel' which is mounted in a
mandrel. This in turn is held in a high speed windy drill. Testing is similar to that for shot
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peening but intensity is governed by drill speed which must be kept constant.
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Cold Working
Compressive stress can be induced around fastener holes by several methods. 'Cold working'
or 'cold expansion' is the most commonly used in critical areas. In this process the hole is
drilled, reamed and deburred. A mandrel mounted in a powered puller tool and a lubricated
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sleeve are then inserted into the hole. With the sleeve seated the mandrel is drawn through it,
the interference causing the hole to expand and the material around it to be compressed. The
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fatigue life of a cold worked hole is between 3 and 10 times better than for a plain drilled hole.
A similar effect to cold working can be achieved by using interference fit fasteners such as 'Hi-
loks'. 'Hi-Tigue' fasteners have a radiused lead-in at the thread end of the shank which
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broaches the hole as the fastener is driven home. 'Taperlok' fasteners also compress the
surrounding material as the fastener is drawn into the tapered hole. The effects of these
fasteners are, however, less controllable than the cold working process.
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Before attempting to perform any of these operation you should be fully conversant with the
process specification and all equipment to be used. Additional training and authorisation may be
required.
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(b) Testing of Non-Ferrous Materials
Non-ferrous metals are tested for strength, toughness, fatigue and hardness using exactly the same
techniques as described in Subsection 6.1 (b) for Ferrous Metals. Please refer to that section for
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descriptions of those techniques.
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Module 6
Licence Category
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A, B1, B2 and B3
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6.3 Aircraft Materials - Composite

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and Non-metallic
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Module 6.3 Aircraft Materials – Composite and Non-Metallic 3.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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LEVEL 2
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examples.
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subject.
subject.
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LEVEL 3
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manner.
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instructions.
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Table of Contents
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6.3.1 Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non-metallic ____________________________ 11
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Composite Materials ________________________________________________________ 11
Glass Reinforced Plastic __________________________________________________ 12
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 12
Types of Glass __________________________________________________________ 13
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Nomenclature for Glass Fibre ______________________________________________ 14
Styles of Woven Fabrics __________________________________________________ 16
Fabric Identification Requirements __________________________________________ 18
Storage _______________________________________________________________ 19
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Aramid Fibres ___________________________________________________________ 20
Carbon Fibres ___________________________________________________________ 21
Other Fibres _____________________________________________________________ 23
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Polyester ______________________________________________________________ 23
Polyethylene ___________________________________________________________ 23
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Quartz ________________________________________________________________ 23
Boron _________________________________________________________________ 23
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Ceramics ______________________________________________________________ 23
Natural ________________________________________________________________ 24
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Resins__________________________________________________________________ 27
General _______________________________________________________________ 27
Thermoplastics _________________________________________________________ 27
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Thermosetting Plastics____________________________________________________ 28
Thermosetting Resins ____________________________________________________ 29
Epoxy Wet Resins _______________________________________________________ 31
Resin/Fibre Ratio ________________________________________________________ 32
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Prepregs ______________________________________________________________ 33
Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding ______________________________________ 34
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Health and Safety _______________________________________________________ 34

Storage _______________________________________________________________ 35
Inspection and Damage Assessment ________________________________________ 43
General _______________________________________________________________ 43
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Ultrasonic Inspection _____________________________________________________ 45

Radiography ___________________________________________________________ 45
Vibration Methods _______________________________________________________ 45
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Thermal Imaging ________________________________________________________ 45

Composite Repairs _______________________________________________________ 47
General _______________________________________________________________ 47
Wet Lay-up ____________________________________________________________ 48
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Prepreg Lay-up _________________________________________________________ 50

Fibre/Metal Laminate (FML) ________________________________________________ 51
Other Non-metallic Materials _______________________________________________ 53
Plastics _______________________________________________________________ 53
Types of Plastics ________________________________________________________ 54
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Plastic Transparencies – Perspex ___________________________________________ 55
Elastomers _____________________________________________________________ 56
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Ceramics ______________________________________________________________ 58
Adhesives _____________________________________________________________ 59
Jointing Compounds _____________________________________________________ 65
Sealants _______________________________________________________________ 66
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6.3.2 Wooden Structures ____________________________________________________ 73
General _________________________________________________________________ 73
Sitka Spruce_____________________________________________________________ 74
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Timber Conversion _______________________________________________________ 75
Alternatives To Spruce ____________________________________________________ 79
Inspecting Wood For Aircraft Use ___________________________________________ 81
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Plywood ________________________________________________________________ 83
Fabrication ______________________________________________________________ 87
Glue ___________________________________________________________________ 93
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General _______________________________________________________________ 93
Glued Joints ____________________________________________________________ 95
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Assembly _______________________________________________________________ 98
Protection______________________________________________________________ 100
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Inspection _____________________________________________________________ 101

Glued Structures _______________________________________________________ 101
Structural Survey _______________________________________________________ 102
Timber And Glued Joints _________________________________________________ 103
Access Holes __________________________________________________________ 103
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Glue Line _____________________________________________________________ 104

Timber Condition _______________________________________________________ 105
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Compression-Shake ____________________________________________________ 105

Water Penetration of Structure ____________________________________________ 106
Joint Failure ____________________________________________________________ 109
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6.3.3 Fabric Covering ______________________________________________________ 111

General ________________________________________________________________ 111
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Materials _______________________________________________________________ 115

Fabrics _______________________________________________________________ 115
Tapes ________________________________________________________________ 115
Thread _______________________________________________________________ 115
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Stringing cord __________________________________________________________ 115

Cotton and Linen Fabrics _________________________________________________ 117

General ______________________________________________________________ 117
Glass Fibre Fabric ______________________________________________________ 118
Polyester Fabric ________________________________________________________ 118
Aircraft Dope ___________________________________________________________ 121
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Covering _______________________________________________________________ 123
General ______________________________________________________________ 123
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Stringing______________________________________________________________ 126
Miscellaneous Methods Of Fabric Attachment _________________________________ 128
Doping ________________________________________________________________ 131
Environment ___________________________________________________________ 131
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Procedures ___________________________________________________________ 132
Problems _____________________________________________________________ 133
Inspection and Testing ___________________________________________________ 135
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Excess Tension ________________________________________________________ 135
Loose Fabric __________________________________________________________ 135
Coating Cracks ________________________________________________________ 136
Fabric Identification _____________________________________________________ 136
Coating Identification ____________________________________________________ 137
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Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric _________________________________________ 137
Fabric Testing _________________________________________________________ 137
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Fabric Replacement _____________________________________________________ 139
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General ______________________________________________________________ 139

Equipment ____________________________________________________________ 139
Storage ______________________________________________________________ 140
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Repairs to Fabric Coverings _______________________________________________ 141

General ______________________________________________________________ 141
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Repair of Cuts and Tears _________________________________________________ 141

Herring-Bone Stitch _____________________________________________________ 141
Repairs with Woods Frames ______________________________________________ 142
Repair by Darning ______________________________________________________ 143
Repair by Insertion ______________________________________________________ 144
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Rejuvenation of the Dope Film _____________________________________________ 146

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Objective
Aircraft Materials — Composite and Non-Metallic 6.3
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Composite and non-metallic other than wood and 6.3.1
fabric
Characteristics, properties and identification (a) 1 2 2 2
of common composite and non-metallic
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materials, other than wood, used in aircraft;
Sealant and bonding agents;
The detection of defects/deterioration in (b) 1 2 - 2
composite and non-metallic material;
Repair of composite and non-metallic
material
Wooden structures
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Construction methods of wooden airframe
structures;
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Characteristics, properties and types of wood

and glue used in aeroplanes;
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Preservation and maintenance of wooden

structure;
Types of defects in wood material and
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wooden structures;
The detection of defects in wooden structure;
Repair of wooden structure
Fabric covering 6.3.3 1 2 - 2
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Characteristics, properties and types of

fabrics used in aeroplanes;
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Inspections methods for fabric;

Types of defects in fabric;
Repair of fabric covering
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6.3.1 Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non-metallic
Composite Materials
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A composite material consists of two (or more) different materials whose mechanical properties
complement each other although they maintain their separate identities (unlike an alloy). One
material forms a matrix which bonds to the other, the reinforcement material. In simple terms a
mud brick may be considered as a composite, where the brittle (when baked) clay is reinforced
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with straw to produce a structure with greater strength and resilience then either component
separately. Another example is reinforced concrete with steel rods strengthening the concrete
matrix. Wood may be considered as a natural composite with its fibrous composition.
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In aircraft engineering terms, a composite usually consists of a plastic resin matrix and
reinforcing fibres of various materials.
Among the reasons that composite materials are used on aircraft are their strength to weight
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ratio and corrosion resistance. Reinforced plastics are much lighter than metals. A metal part
can be as much as 25 times heavier than an equivalent composite part. The composite part,
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however, must be as strong and durable as the original.
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Reinforced plastics must therefore have strength, stiffness and impact resistance.
Strength is the ability of a material to support a load without breaking. A reinforced plastic may
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have to support a tensile load, a compressive load or a bending load. In each case it is the
fibres which support most of the load. Fibres have a smaller effect in the case of compressive
loads.
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Stiffness is the ability of a material to support a load without bending too much. As before, the
load can be in tension, bending or in compression. Again the fibres do most of the work.
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Impact resistance is the ability of a material to withstand impact without shattering. Fibre
reinforced composites are very resistant to impact because the fibres prevent cracks from
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running right across the plastic, and absorb the energy of the impact.
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Glass Reinforced Plastic
Introduction
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Fibreglass was the first of the composites, originally developed in the 1940s for radomes, the
fairings which cover radar antennas and which must be transparent to radio waves.
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It is, as its name implies, a fibre made of glass. About 90 miles of glass filament can be run from
a single glass sphere no larger than a common marble. This fibre not only possesses
tremendous strength for its weight, but is impervious to all but the strongest acids and alkalis,
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and it will not corrode or burn. The thread-like fibres may be woven into a cloth as any other
fibre.
The fibreglass used as reinforcement for thermosetting resins in aircraft applications is available
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as a cloth in many different weights and weaves, as a loose mat and as loose strands of
fibreglass. When combined, the fibre and resin form Glass Reinforced Plastic or GRP as it is
commonly referred to.
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For applications which require the most strength, it is necessary to use uni-directional glass
tape. Woven glass cloth has better shaping properties and high strength. Weave styles and
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orientation are important as can be seen later in this section.
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For many non-aeronautical applications where low cost is more important than high strength, a
mat of rough chopped fibre strands is used instead of woven cloth. The glass fibres are
gathered and pressed together loosely. The random placement of fibres in the mat gives a
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uniform strength in all directions when it is bonded with resin.
Note: Glass fibres and glass dust are irritants and can cause reddening of the skin, itching
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and allergic reaction. If inhaled they can produce respiratory problems. Barrier cream,
gloves and dust masks must always be worn when appropriate.
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Types of Glass
Various types of glass can be used, each with its own properties. Among
them are:
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‗A‘ Glass - Standard soda glass in common use for windows etc. It has a high alkali content
which absorbs water leading to degradation of material and corrosion. Resin
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adhesion also deteriorates with water absorption
‗C‘Glass - High resistance to corrosive materials. It is normally produced and used only as a
surface matt to reduce cost.
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‗D‘Glass - An improved electrical grade for modern radomes. It has a lower di-electric
constant.
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‗E‘ Glass - (Calcium-Alumina-Borosilicate) Low alkali content and good resin adhesion
properties. Also has good temperature properties. The most common type used
for aeronautical GRP.
‗R‘Glass - American and European version of „S‟ glass
‗S‘ Glass -
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(Silica-Alumina-Magnesia) It's strength claimed to be 40% in excess of „E‟ glass.
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Temperature stable in excess of 700ºc. It is used in high performance aerospace
application only, due to its high cost.
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Nomenclature for Glass Fibre
Filament - A single fibre of glass usually between 5 and 14 microns () in diameter, several
times thinner than a human hair. Due to the near perfect surface, it may have an
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Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of around 3400MPa (E Glass) or 4400MPa (S
Glass).
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Size - A lubricant used on the fibres during manufacture, it is burnt off prior to twisting.
Finish - A compound used to coat the filaments to improve handling and bonding
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characteristics. It must be compatible with the resin system used. DuPont "Volan
A" is a common finish used with glass fibres.
Strand - A number of filaments bonded together with a size.
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TEX Count - The weight of a strand in grammes/kilometre, e.g. 68 TEX = 68g/1000m
Roving - Loose combination of strands with no twist.
Yarn - Single Yarn: N

One or more strands with applied twist of 20 - 40 turns per
metre.
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Plied Yarn: Two or more single yarns with applied twist in the opposite
direction to the single yarn twist.
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Cheese - A roll or spool of Roving or Yarn prior to weaving into cloth or chopping for mat.
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Warp - The name given to the longitudinal direction of the fibre in woven fabric, i.e. Warp
Yarns; Yarns running the length of the fabric.
Weft - The transverse direction of the fabric, or yarns running crosswise (also called
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"woof" or "fill" in the US).
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Bolt - A roll of cloth.
Selvedge - Woven edge reinforcement of fabric which must be trimmed off before use. Woven
tape also has edge reinforcement but this may be incorporated in a repair.
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Styles of Woven Fabrics
There are many styles of woven fabric available. The most common for general use are the
plain weave fabrics where the warp and weft threads cross alternately. Plain woven fabrics are
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the least pliable, but are easy to cut and handle because they do not tend to unravel. However,
their strength is compromised due to the severe “pre-buckling” already present in the fabric.
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Fibres only produce their greatest strength when they are perfectly straight. The frequent over/
under crossing of the threads reduces the strength of plain weave types, though they are still
adequate for non-aerodynamic applications. Twill weaves and satin fabrics are highly pliable
and stronger than the plain weave styles.
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In a satin weave, 1 weft yarn floats over between 3 and 7 warp threads before passing under
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another warp thread. The total number of warp threads in the pattern defines the style, i.e. 4-
harness (or shaft) to 8- harness satin weave. The stagger in the repeat pattern between rows
produces different finishes. The threads run straighter much longer in this loosely woven type,
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maintaining the theoretical strengths of the fibre. Obviously, pliability is higher and these fabrics
conform easily to complex shapes. Once cut, however, they tend to unravel because each
thread is not held as tightly.
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Twill or Bias weaves offer a compromise between the satin and plain weave types, as well as a
sometimes desirable herringbone cosmetic finish.
As mentioned before, Unidirectional fabrics offer the greatest strength. In these, heavy warp
yarns are held in place by light, loosely woven weft yarns which carry no load.
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This table shows a comparison of the properties of common weaves used in aerospace:
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• Stability is the ability of the weave to hold together when cut,
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• Drape is the ability of the cloth to follow a complex shape,
• Porosity is an indication of the amount of resin required to thoroughly wet the cloth,
• Smoothness is the surface finish of the cloth,
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• Balance is a comparison between the warp and weft direction,

• Symmetry concerns the weave pattern and
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• Crimp is an indication of the amount or frequency of bend in the yarns.

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Typical styles for aeronautical use include;

Style Weave
116 Plain
120 4 Harness Satin
143 4 Harness Satin
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181 8 Harness Satin
1581 8 Harness Satin
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The cloth is further defined by its Part Number. The format of the number varies with
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manufacturer and standard system employed, but typical examples are shown below.
Fabric Identification Requirements
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The glass fabrics designation and the applied chemical finish shall be marked on both ends of
the cardboard roll on which it is supplied. It should also have attached the release note,
approval certificate and label showing manufacturing batch number, quantity and specification
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Release notes and approval certificates which must be supplied with all deliveries of glass fabric
must state that the material meets the residual size content, fabric breaking strain and general
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requirements of Specifications such as BS 3396.

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Storage
For the integrity of aircraft repairs, it is essential that the glass cloth is undamaged and not
contaminated with oil, grease, dust or moisture. Glass fibre fabric should, therefore, be stored
horizontally in suitably protected rolls on cradles at an ambient temperature not exceeding 20°C
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and humidity not exceeding 65% relative humidity. Fabric must not be stored flat, folded or on
end as the fibres are easily damaged.
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For prolonged storage, the roll of fabric must be stored in a sealed polythene container. The
expiry date of the roll must not be exceeded, so rotation of stock is important in storage
facilities.
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Whether in a store or production shop, each roll must have its part number and release
documentation attached or adjacent to ensure positive identification and proper use, and
because these details must be quoted in all repair certification paperwork.
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Some glass fibre cloth is supplied pre-impregnated with resin (Prepreg) and must be stored in a
freezer at -18°C or below. This must be stored in sealed bags with a desiccant to remove
moisture, laid horizontally with a tube in the centre to prevent distortion. To prevent the
condensation of moisture on the cloth before use, the material must be allowed to reach room
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temperature before the storage bag is opened. As this affects the ultimate useful life of the
cloth, a log must be kept of the removal and duration out of the freezer for each roll.
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Aramid Fibres
Aramid fibres are made from aromatic polyamide, a type plastic similar to nylon. They were
developed in the 1960s and entered service in the 1970s. The best known is DuPont's Kevlar
although other manufacturers produce similar materials such as Twaron and Technora.
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Their properties include;
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• the highest tensile strength and resistance to impact of any composite reinforcing fibre
• stiffer than glass but only about half as stiff as carbon fibres
• about 40% lighter than glass fibres
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• ten times as strong as aluminium
• up to 400% stronger than comparable glass reinforced laminates
• up to 20% stronger than comparable carbon reinforced laminates
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Aramid fibre has a very high impact strength with the damage confined to a small area.
Because of this they are frequently used in areas prone to stone and runway debris damage as
well as bullet proof vest!
However, aramid fibre has a lower compression strength than carbon, it absorbs moisture more
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readily than either glass or carbon and it deteriorates in strong sunlight. It is also much more
difficult to cut, drill and sand than either glass or carbon, tending to 'fuzz' and not give clean
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edges.
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Aramid fibres do not resist flame well and burn through more quickly than other fibres. Resin
adhesion is also lower, delamination being one of the ways in which it absorbs impact energy.
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Like the other fibres, aramid fibre is available in a number of weave patterns and weights. The
fibre is yellow in colour and carries coloured tracers every two inches along the weft and six
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inches along the warp.
Aramid fibre should always be kept covered when not in use because of the effects of ultra
violet light. This is not a problem once the fibres are incorporated into the composite and the
surface is painted.
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When incorporated into a resin matrix, the material is often referred to as Aramid Fibre
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Reinforced Plastic (AFRP).

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Carbon Fibres
Carbon fibres, often referred to as graphite fibres in the USA, are made from pure carbon and
are black in colour. First developed in the 1960s, they began use on production aircraft in the
1980s.
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The fibres are manufactured by the controlled heating of Polyacrilonitrile (PAN), polythene or
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rayon fibres (e.g. Courtelle, Acrilan, Orlon) in a furnace filled with an inert gas. The fibres are
pre-oxidised at 200-300°C for one hour, carbonised at 1200°C then graphitised at 2000 -
3000ºC. This process removes the hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen leaving long oriented carbon
chains.
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The fibres may be surface oxidised, which improves their bonding characteristics, and sized,
which reduces the build-up of static electricity and also improves bonding.
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A range of carbon fibres is available in four basic groups produced at different graphitisation
temperature and defined by Tensile Modulus;
• Standard Modulus (High Strength)

• Intermediate Modulus (High Stiffness)
•
•
High Modulus
Ultra High Modulus
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All of them are stiffer than glass fibres, but only the high strength carbon fibres are stronger that
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glass fibres in tension. The higher modulus fibres are very brittle and not suitable for general
aeronautical use.
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The carbon fibres are woven into cloth to make them easier to handle, cut and align, and to
reduce damage to the fibres during lamination. Plain and satin weave patterns are available.
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To help alignment of the weave and to keep the fibres straight in the composite, Kevlar threads
may woven into the cloth every two inches along the weft and six inches along the warp.
Carbon fibre cloth is often supplied pre-impregnated with resin (Prepreg) and, like prepreg glass
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cloth, must be stored in a freezer.

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When sanding carbon fibre composites during repair work for example, the fine carbon fibres
may find their way into electrical equipment and cause short circuits. When machining and
sanding carbon fibre composite, a vacuum cleaner is used to remove all the dust being
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produced.
Kevlar and carbon fibres have one added advantage over glass. They both have negative
coefficients of expansion. This means that they shrink very slightly when heated so composites
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can be made which do not change in size or shape when the temperature changes.
When incorporated into a resin matrix, the material is often referred to as Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (CFRP).
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Cloth materials are sometimes mixed to give a structure it's desired characteristics. For
example, a carbon fibre component may have one or more layers of aramid fibre to improve its
impact resistance, or a GRP sanding layer to allow a smooth finish to be achieved.
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Other Fibres
There are a variety of other fibres which can be used in advanced composite structures but their
use is not widespread. These include:
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Polyester
A low density, high tenacity fibre with good impact resistance but low modulus. Its lack of
stiffness usually precludes it from inclusion in a composite component, but it is useful where low
weight, high impact or abrasion resistance, and low cost are required. It is mainly used as a
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surfacing material, as it can be very smooth, keeps weight down and works well with most resin
types.
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Polyethylene
In random orientation, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene molecules give very low
mechanical properties. However, if dissolved and drawn from solution into a filament by a
process called gel-spinning, the molecules become disentangled and aligned in the direction of
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the filament. The molecular alignment promotes very high tensile strength to the filament and
the resulting fibre. Coupled with their low S.G. (<1.0), these fibres have the highest specific
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strength of the fibres described here. However, the fibre‟s tensile modulus and ultimate strength
are only slightly better than E-glass and less than that of aramid or carbon. The fibre also
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demonstrates very low compressive strength in laminate form. These factors, coupled with high
price, and more importantly, the difficulty in creating a good fibre/matrix bond means that
polyethylene fibres are not often used in isolation for composite components.
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Quartz
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A very high silica version of glass with much higher mechanical properties and excellent
resistance to high temperatures (>1,000°C). However, the manufacturing process and low
volume production lead to a very high price.
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Boron
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Carbon or metal fibres may be coated with a layer of boron to improve the overall fibre
properties. The extremely high cost of this fibre restricts it use to high temperature aerospace
applications and in specialised sporting equipment. A boron/carbon hybrid, composed of carbon
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fibres interspersed among 80-100m boron fibres, in an epoxy matrix, can achieve properties
greater than either fibre alone, with flexural strength and stiffness twice that of HS carbon and
1.4 times that of boron, and shear strength exceeding that of either fibre.
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Ceramics
Ceramic fibres, usually in the form of very short „whiskers‟ are mainly used in areas requiring
high temperature resistance. They are more frequently associated with non-polymer matrices
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such as metal alloys.

Natural
At the other end of the scale it is possible to use fibrous plant materials such as jute and sisal as
reinforcements in „low-tech‟ applications. The fibres‟ low S.G. (typically 0.5-0.6) mean that fairly
high specific strengths can be achieved, however, they are rarely encountered in aerospace
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applications.
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Fibre Properties and Cost
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Resins
General
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Resins are plastic materials used for laminating and bonding all the types of materials used in
composites engineering. These resins are formulated to provide specific properties such as
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heat-resistance and flame proofing, although in some cases, an additive may be used. The type
of resin used, therefore, is most important, since a particular type will have been chosen at the
design stage to provide the necessary properties in a particular component and may not be
suitable for carrying out repairs in different locations. Resin often comes in liquid form, but is
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also available as a 'dry' film adhesive with a strippable protective sheet on both sides.
The resins used to bind together the fibres in a composite structure, and structural adhesives
have many things in common. They should ideally have the following characteristics:
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 Have good wettability to the fibres or surface to be bonded (substrate) and develop very
good adhesion upon cure.
 Should not give off volatiles of any cure products during cure.



Should have a simple cure cycle process.
Should have ambient temperature storage.
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Should be tolerant of imperfect processing - should be robust.
 Should not shrink during cure.
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 Should have excellent retention of room temperature properties when exposed to

extremes of temperature and humidity.
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 Should not have any toxicity hazards in either the uncured form or during decomposition
as would occur for example in an aircraft passenger cabin fire.
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No one resin system exists that provides outstanding performance in all of the above areas - in
effect, this is a wish list. However, a wide range of matrix resins and adhesives exist that meet
many of the above requirements.
The resins that are used in fibre reinforced composites can also be referred to as „polymers‟. All
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polymers exhibit an important common property in that they are composed of long chain-like
molecules consisting of many simple repeating units. Man-made polymers are generally called
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„synthetic resins‟ or simply „resins‟. Polymers can be classified under two types, „thermoplastic‟
and „thermosetting‟, according to the effect of heat on their properties.
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Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics, like metals, soften with heating and eventually melt, hardening again upon
cooling. This process of crossing the softening or melting point on the temperature scale can be
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repeated as often as desired without any appreciable effect on the material properties in either
state. Typical thermoplastics include nylon, polypropylene and ABS, and these can be
reinforced, although usually only with short, chopped fibres such as glass.
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While tough, thermoplastics tend to lack rigidity and are not commonly used for aeronautical
composite resins.

Thermosetting Plastics
Thermosetting materials, or „thermosets‟, are formed from a chemical reaction in situ, where the
resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then undergo a non-reversible chemical
reaction to form a hard, infusible crystalline polymer. Heat can be used to accelerate the cure
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process and also improves the strength of the resin, but overheating damages the molecular
bonds.
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In some thermosets, volatile substances are produced as by-products (a „condensation‟
reaction). Other thermosetting resins cure by mechanisms that do not produce any volatile by-
products and thus are much easier to process („addition‟ reactions).
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During the cure process most resins will exotherm or produce heat. This in its self will
accelerate the cure and has a greater "chain reaction" effect in larger masses of resin. Incorrect
mixing ratios can lead to runaway exothermy and fire or even explosion of certain types of resin.
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Once cured, thermosets will not become liquid again if heated, although above a certain
temperature their mechanical properties will change significantly. This temperature is known as
the Glass Transition Temperature (Tg), and varies widely according to the particular resin
system used, its degree of cure and whether it was mixed correctly. Above the Tg, the
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molecular structure of the thermoset changes to a more flexible, amorphous polymer. This
change is reversible on cooling back below the Tg although the resin may not regain its original
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strength. Above the Tg properties such as resin modulus (stiffness) drop sharply, and as a
result the compressive and shear strength of the composite does too. Other properties such as
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water resistance and colour stability also reduce markedly above the resin‟s Tg.
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Thermosetting Resins
As previously stated, these harden or cure by a process of chemical cross linking, whereby
resins of low -molecular weight and good solubility grow into products of very high molecular
weight and limited solubility. The cross linking is an irreversible process. Some examples of
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thermosetting resins:
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Polyurethane High toughness materials, sometimes hybridised with other resins,
due to relatively low laminate mechanical properties in compression.
Uses harmful isocyanates as curing agent. Little use in modern
aircraft.
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Polyester Two or three part systems. Good environmental resistance. Heat
resistant up to150ºC. Used as wet resin and prepreg, it produces
toxic fumes (styrenes) during the cure process. Easily fire retarded
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but produces a lot of smoke when burning. Not as strong as epoxy.
Was used extensively for aircraft but use now diminishing. Can be
dangerous if mixed incorrectly (risk of explosion).
Epoxy Very strong, good environmental resistance. Can have high

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temperature resistance (>200ºC). Used as wet resin, prepreg or
adhesive film. Will usually burn readily and produces a lot of smoke
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when burning.
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Phenolics Fairly brittle system but has a good fire/smoke toxicity performance.
Hence extensive use in interior passenger cabin composite
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components. Good heat resistance (>200ºc).
Cyanate Esters Primarily used in the military aerospace industry. The material‟s
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excellent dielectric properties make it very suitable for use with low
dielectric fibres such as quartz for the manufacture of high speed
radomes. The material also has temperature stability up to around
200°C wet.
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Bismaleimides (BMI) Primarily used in aircraft composites where operation at higher

temperatures (230°C wet/ 250°C dry) is required. e.g. engine inlets,
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high-speed aircraft flight surfaces.
Polyimides Used where operation at higher temperatures than bismaleimides

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can stand is required (use up to 250°C wet/300°C dry). Typical

applications include missile and aero-engine components. Extremely
expensive resin, which uses toxic raw materials in its manufacture.
Polyimides also tend to be hard to process due to their condensation
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reaction emitting water during cure, and are relatively brittle when
cured.
The adhesive/resin types most commonly used in commercial aerospace structures

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manufacture and repair include:

Phenolic Resins
Phenolic resins were the first resin types used for aerospace adhesive and composite
applications and are still used extensively for metal-to-metal bonding and as matrix resins for
aircraft passenger cabin furnishing panels where the low smoke and toxic gas emissions
characteristics of Phenolic resins is advantageous. The key problems with Phenolic resins
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however is that they produce water as a product of cure and need cure temperatures of 125ºc to
150ºc to achieve a cure.
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Epoxy Resins
Epoxy resins are the most widely used resin types for aerospace adhesive and composite
applications. They range in type from two-part, room temperature curing pastes (e.g. Araldite) to
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liquid resins and hot-cure film adhesives capable of operating up to 150ºC for long periods of
time in aero engine applications.
Epoxy based matrix resins for aerospace composites tend to fall into three categories:
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350ºf (177ºC) Cure Epoxy Systems
These systems are mainly used for components that will meet elevated temperature conditions
in service and are most resistant to moisture absorption. Most major structural items such as
airframe class 1 items are based on these resins.
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They need a high temperature cure to be able to develop attractive elevated temperature
mechanical properties in service structure. However, the degradation of properties after long
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term exposure to humidity means that these systems are generally limited to service
temperatures of around 135ºC/275ºf.
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These matrix systems are good for fabrication of solid composite laminates, but is generally not
possible to cure these prepregs directly onto honeycomb core and achieve satisfactory core-to-
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skin strength from the matrix resin attachment to the honeycomb cell ends. If these resin
systems are to be used for composite sandwich panel skins, it is customary to use an epoxy film
adhesive to bond the pre-cured skins to the honeycomb core in a secondary bonding operation.
250ºf (121ºC) Cure Epoxy Systems

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These systems are used on less highly loaded structures such as fairings and access panels
and are less resistant to elevated temperatures and moisture absorption.
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They are designed to operate in aerospace applications such as exterior secondary structures
for civil and military sub-sonic aircraft and helicopters. Generally, the long term continuous
operating temperatures for structures using these resins does not exceed the 93º C/200ºf level
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and their use tends to be limited to secondary structural items.
These modified epoxy systems can be formulated to have the characteristic of one-shot
laminating and bonding to substrate (e.g. honeycomb core) without the need for a separate
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structural adhesive. The matrix system flows and fillets around the cell ends of the honeycomb
core to form a high strength adhesive bond. This honeycomb bonding behaviour considerably
simplifies the fabrication of sandwich panels using 250ºf cure matrix resins.
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Room Temperature Cure Epoxy Systems
These systems are used for repair of composite parts and recent developments in paste
adhesive technology provide systems with performance close to that of 250ºf (121ºC) cure
resins.
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The convenience of mixing, applying and curing a two-part epoxy liquid or paste adhesive at
room temperature is very attractive in terms of repairs to composite structures. However, until
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recently, these resin systems had relatively poor elevated temperature strength and poor
toughness characteristics. Recent improvements in room temperature cure epoxy resins allow
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us to use these materials to a greater extent in composite structure repair.

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Epoxy Wet Resins

These are usually two part systems:
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• Part A is a polyepoxide resin (base resin)

• Part B is a curing agent (hardener) - this can be an acidic, amine or amide cross linking
agent to achieve the polymerisation process.
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The ratio of Part A to Part B will vary according to the particular epoxy material but the
manufacturer‟s instructions should always be followed. Keep kits of the two parts together and
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do not mix the lids as these will tend to bond. The tolerance on ratio quantities is + 1% pbw
(parts by weight). Mixing by weight is preferred to mixing by volume. Use digital scales (0.1%
accuracy). Mixing should be for 3 minutes minimum to ensure good dispersion of hardener into
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the base resin. Dyes are sometimes included to provide a colour change which gives a visual
check on mixing.
Mix in non-metallic receptacles (e.g. waxless paper cups) using flat non-metallic stirrers (e.g.
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wooden or plastic spatulas). If air is introduced into the mix, it may be desirable to vacuum, de-
gas or allow to stand for a while to allow air to reach the surface. The higher the viscosity, the
fewer gas/air bubbles will ever reach the surface and escape. Care should therefore be taken to
avoid trapping air during mixing.
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Pot Life

Usable life of resin in the Pot (mixing receptacle). The pot life may be extended by decanting
the mixed resin into smaller units because this reduces the heat generated in the curing resin by
exothermic reaction. Mixing in shallow trays can help remove the heat and reduces the
temperature reached as a result of the exotherm. Many epoxies exotherm as the cure initiates.
In extreme cases they can ignite and give off vapour and smoke. It is very important to mix in
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small quantities following manufacturers recommendations.
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Work Life
This is the usable life after resin has been wetted into reinforcement and before it begins to gel.
Gel Point
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On addition of the hardener a resin will begin to become more viscous until it reaches a state
when it is no longer a liquid and has lost its ability to flow. This is the „gel point‟. The resin will
continue to harden after it has gelled, until, at some time later, it has obtained its full hardness
and properties.
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Cure
Wet resins will usually cure at ambient temperatures (21-24ºC) in 16-72 hours though they will
harden in less time than this. Cure can be accelerated (and properties improved) by the addition
of heat.
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For Boeing aircraft, the cure temperature should be less than 66ºC for 'room temperature'
repairs. These do not replicate the strength of the original 350° or 250°f cures used during
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fabrication. Manufacturers recommendations, which are based on extensive research, should
always be followed for optimum performance.
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It is very important to refer to the manufacturer‟s instructions when using resins of all kinds.
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Resin/Fibre Ratio
An important feature of a composite structure is the proportion of fibre to resin used, or the
resin/fibre ratio. If too much resin is used, the fibres will have little effect and the composite will
be weak. If too little is used the fibres may not be fully encapsulated and the structure will lack
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rigidity.
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There is an optimum resin/fibre ratio to produce the best composite. The value will vary
depending on the fibre and resin used. With polyesters the ratio is usually about two parts of
resin to one part of fibre by weight. This is because of the inferior adhesion of the polyester
resin to the fibre, and it is usual to use a slight excess of resin to make sure that the fibres are
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thoroughly wetted with resin.
Epoxy resins, with their superior adhesion, bond very well to the fibres so the fibre resin ratio
can be higher to produce a lighter but strong composite. For example, when using glass fibre
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and carbon fibre with epoxy resin, equal parts by weight of resin and fibre are used. Precise
resin/fibre ratios are given by the fibre and resin manufacturers.
Epoxies have other useful properties which make them superior to polyesters.
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• Very good resistance to chemicals.

• Low shrinkage as they cure.
• Variable curing time - different combinations of resin and hardeners can be used to give
curing times varying from a few minutes to days. Pot life can also be varied by choice of
hardener.
• Variable curing temperature - some epoxides cure at room temperature, but by choosing
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the right hardeners, materials can be produced which will only cure when heated. This
gives more
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• time in which to work with the mixed resin.
Epoxy resins do have some disadvantages.
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• They are more expensive.
• They are more difficult to use than polyester.
• They are possibly hazardous to health.
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Prepregs
A prepreg (an abbreviation of pre-impregnated) is a sheet of fibre reinforcement impregnated
with the resin/hardener system. The resin is chosen so that it is fairly solid at room temperature
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in its uncured state. When it is heated it initially softens, then cross-links to form a cured solid.
Glass-fibre, carbon fibre, Kevlar and aluminium mesh are available as a prepreg.
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The advantages of a prepreg are that the resin/hardener ratio and the fibre/resin ratio are
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carefully controlled by the manufacturer. Each batch of prepreg is identical. The resin is already
spread evenly throughout the fibres. This is important in the manufacture of items such as
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helicopter rotor blades. It allows the blades to be moulded to a controlled thickness and weight
in a repeatable process.
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Because the prepreg material contains only enough resin to cure its own fibres it must be
bonded to the substrate with a separate adhesive. This is usually in the form of a thin layer of
thickened epoxy resin known as film adhesive, its thickness controlled by the manufacturer.
To prevent premature cure, prepregs and film adhesives must be transported and stored at a
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very low temperature. They will begin to cure at room temperature but will never reach their
ultimate strength and can only be used with hot curing systems.
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All polymer resins deteriorate during storage. If prepregs or resins get warm, cross-linking starts
and the resins can cure before they are used. Resins must be stored in an even, cool
temperature as specified by the manufacturer. Prepregs and film adhesives are stored in a
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sealed bag at -18ºC or below. A record must be kept on the package of the date and time of
each transfer of material in and out of the freezer. After warming to room temperature to prevent
the condensation of moisture on the material, the required amount is removed from the
package. The package is then re-sealed and returned to the freezer. The log is used to
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determine the total time out of the freezer which reduces its shelf life.
Resins and prepregs must be used before their shelf life expires.
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Structural Repair Manuals often specify the use of prepregs when carrying out repairs to
composite structures. However, this may cause difficulties. An operator may have a number of
different aircraft types, and it is likely that each type will use prepreg from various
manufacturers. This would require the operator to stock a wide range of prepregs in a number
of freezer units. Most of these prepreg repair materials would need to be discarded every 6 to
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12 months as their shelf life expired.
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Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding
The environmental conditions required for good bonding include;
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 Air temperature 18ºC to 30ºC
 Repair surface temperature 18ºC to 30ºC
 Relative humidity 65% maximum (humidity should be kept as low as possible. Dependent
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on the temperature)
 Dust free atmosphere (positive pressure work area to keep out
 the dust)
 No smoking
 No exhaust or other oily fumes


No aerosols
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No silicone release agents are permitted in any bonding shop. This includes WD40 and
any other silicone de-watering fluids
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 Clean white cotton gloves must be worn at all times during and after surface preparation
prior to bonding
 Handle parts by their edges (do not touch the faces to be bonded
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 at any time)
 Resins should not be used if excessive humidity exists (>85%) because water will
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condense on the resin and affect the cure and subsequent properties. Containers should
also be closed
 immediately after removal of the required quantity of resin or hardener. This is especially
important for the curing agent which picks up atmospheric moisture more quickly than the
resin.
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Health and Safety

Major points are:
 Handling of resins, curing agents and solvents - clean gloves of correct type
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 Skin protection - barrier creams and protective equipment

 Fume and dust extraction and ventilation
 Clean up of self and tools - Clean overalls
 Disposal of uncured resin and contaminated materials – special waste
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 Flammability risk
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Storage
Epoxy resins should be stored in their original containers in metal cabinets
in a dry environment. If they are used as kits, these kits should not be
mixed up. The performance of each resin can be found on the
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manufacturers data sheets. Data sheets also give details of storage
and the associated temperatures.
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If applicable allow kits of resin to reach ambient temperature before
opening. Resin storage categories:
 Category A -18ºc and below
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 Category B 1ºc to 5ºc
 Category C Ambient
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Composite Construction
Fibre reinforced plastic resins can be used as;
 a laminate; a simple structure built-up from layers of cloth impregnated with
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resin,
 a sandwich; laminated skins separated by a light weight core, or a
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 monolithic structure; a structure with integral stiffeners bonded in or formed during
manufacture.
These methods can also be combined to produce a structure with the desired characteristics.
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Plain laminated structures are not commonly used in aircraft construction due to their lack of
rigidity and the need for internal support.
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Sandwich construction represents by far the most common use of composite materials on
aircraft. This structure consists of two laminated skins separated by a crush resistant core. This
gives it a high degree of rigidity and impact resistance.
Core materials have, in the past, included Balsa wood, polyurethane foam and PVC foam, but a
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structure composed of thin walled hexagonal cells is now the most common. This 'honeycomb'
structure can be made from glass fibre, aluminium or Nomex, a resin impregnated aramid fibre
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'paper'.
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Glass fibre honeycomb is rarely used due to its comparatively poor performance. Aluminium foil
honeycomb is used where high strength and heat resistance are needed but has a relatively
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high weight. It is sometimes bonded to metal skins on one or both sides for stressed panels
such as flying control surfaces and engine components.
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Nomex offers a very high strength to weight ratio and excellent resistance to moisture and fire. It
is easily carved into complex contours and modified cell shapes such as Ox-core and Flexcore
can be formed around two and three dimensional cures respectively (with a slight loss of
strength).
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Honeycomb is produced from flat sheet material which is corrugated to give the desired cell
size. The sheets are bonded along the corrugation nodes and cured under pressure. When
cured it is mechanically expanded to the correct cell shape. The joint lines within the
honeycomb give the material a 'ribbon direction' which is slightly stiffer and must be noted when
replacing honeycomb during a repair.
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The cell size dictates the density, weight and strength of the honeycomb material.
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Flat honeycomb sandwich panels are used for aircraft floor boards, bulkheads and internal
structures. Contoured panels, often with plain laminated edges and attachment points, are used
for external fairings, access panels, cowlings and aerofoil and flying control leading and trailing
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edges. They are also used for cabin linings, stowages and decor panels.
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Monolithic carbon composites are being used increasingly to produce airframe structural
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components. These include floor beams, stabiliser spars, ribs and skins, flight control surfaces,
cowlings and even wing box components and the rear pressure bulkhead of the Airbus A380.
Monolithic components are usually formed in a mould.
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As well as integral stiffeners, much of the strength is obtained by the ply orientation of the cloth.
Woven cloth has greater rigidity in one direction, so by laying-up the cloth plies in a set

directions, the bend and twist properties of a component can be controlled. This is determined
during the design of the component and must be observed when any repairs are carried out.
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The advantages of monolithic structures include weight reduction compared to conventional
construction, due to the reduction in the number of parts and the absence of fasteners,
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resistance to corrosion and high fatigue strength.
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To ensure proper adhesion and optimum strength and weight, all composite fabrication and
repair must be completed in a controlled environment. The work area must be free from dust, oil

and grease with adequate air extraction and filtration for the removal of fumes during cleaning
and cure, and dust during sanding processes. Humidity and temperature must be controlled and
kept within acceptable levels.
The cure cycle must be carried out with adequate heat and pressure on the structure. It is
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usually necessary to ensure the temperature is raised, or "ramped-up" at a set rate (degrees per
minute), in a set number of steps (to ensure even temperature soak throughout the structure)
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and held for the correct "dwell" time and temperature. Ramp-down is also important. These
parameters may be controlled manually, or by a computer based Hot Bonder. The Bonder will
also produce printed and digital records of the cycle which would otherwise need to be plotted
by hand.
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Heat may be provided by lamps or electrical mats. It is monitored by thermocouples which are
situated as close to the bond as possible at several locations around the structure to check for
average temperature and localised hot or cold spots. The thermocouples may be connected to
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a bonder or a hand held thermometer. Heat lamps may be adjusted manually, moved toward or
away, to regulate the temperature. A bonder will automatically control the temperature by
regulating the current supplied to heater mats or lamps.
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Pressure is normally provided by a vacuum drawn around the structure which is partially or
completely enclosed in an air tight 'bag'. Suction may be provided by a bonder or by a separate
air pump.
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Autoclaves are pressurised ovens ranging in size from bench-top units to large plant with a
working chamber over 4 meters in diameter and 12 or more meters long. For aerospace use
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they apply a pressure of around 15 bar and temperatures up to about 250°C. They are generally
used for manufacture and large repairs, accommodating whole control surfaces.
The component is assembled with any jigs or formers required, bagged up with a vacuum
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applied to hold the parts in the correct relationship. They are loaded into the autoclave and their
thermocouples are connected to the recording device located outside the chamber. When all
jobs are loaded, the chamber is sealed and pressure and heat applied. Large autoclaves may
have independently controlled heat zones.
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Inspection and Damage Assessment
General
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Damage to composite components can result from a number of causes, such as rain or hail
erosion, lightning strikes or static discharges, bird strikes and impact by thrown up runway
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debris, catering lorries etc.
Physical damage may be hard to detect, since the surface will often spring back to its original
shape after impact. The damage may only be visible as cracks, crazing, stains or scuffs in the
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paintwork. Any such marks must be investigated to ascertain whether damage to the composite
material has occurred. The structure should also be examined for secondary damage such as
may occur at attachments and fittings, and where the shock may have been transmitted to
adjacent parts.
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Any damage to the surface of a composite laminate or honeycomb core will allow moisture to
enter the structure and cause damage. Once moisture has entered, the repeated cycle of
freezing and thawing during flight operations will progressively destroy the bonded structure
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from the inside, thus extending the damage over a wide area. When it is suspected that
moisture has entered the structure through a skin puncture, in investigation should be carried
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out to check the extent of the moisture absorption. On glass fibre components such as
radomes, a moisture meter is recommended for detecting water ingress. Where the use of a
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moisture meter is impractical, X-ray methods may be helpful in assessing moisture quantity.
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Delamination, the separation of plies from each other or from the core, may be caused by
moisture absorption or impact damage and when either is known to exist, the area surrounding
the visible damage should be checked to ensure the structural integrity of the laminations. This
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can be determined by tapping the skin with a small metallic object such as a coin. This should

produce a live resonant tone if the bonding is sound, but if delamination has occurred, a flat,
dead response will be obtained.
Since composite components are often situated at the extremities of an aircraft, such as its
nose, tail and wing tips, they can be quite susceptible to lightning strikes and static discharges.
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Where this is the case, lightning diverter strips are often fitted to a radome and bonding strips
and static discharge wicks are often fitted to other composite components. These are then
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electrically bonded to the adjacent metallic structure. The electrical bonding of these
components should be checked after removal and replacement. Non-conductive materials such
as glass and aramid composite panels are often treated with a coat of conductive paint to aid
electrical bonding.
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The extremities of any damage found in a composite structure should be marked, and the
maximum area and depth of the damage should be assessed in order to determine whether a
repair is required, and if so, the type of repair which should be carried out The limits of the
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various standard repairs which can be carried out are defined in the relevant manual, (Structural
Repair Manual or Repair Scheme) for the aircraft concerned and may vary considerably
depending on the type of structure and its location It must be emphasised that repairs may only
be made in accordance with the manufacturer‟s instructions, and that repairs may be prohibited
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in certain areas. In some cases, repairs may not be permitted within a specific distance from the
edge of a panel or fastener hole, while in other instances temporary (room temperature) repairs
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may be permitted, but these must usually be replaced by a permanent repair within a specific
time period.
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Exotic inspection equipment may be used today, however visual inspection is still the principal
method of damage detection. Some of today‟s more common methods of Non-Destructive
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Inspection (NDI) are as follows:

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Ultrasonic Inspection
With laminated sheet and monolithic construction the easiest way of assessing material quality
by ultrasonic inspection is to scan the sheet and to measure the attenuation of an ultrasonic
beam transmitted through it. This can be done by a single transmission of the beam and the use
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of a pair of probes held in a calliper. It is often more convenient to use a single probe as both
transmitter and receiver, and to let the ultrasonic beam return through the specimen by using a
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reflector plate or by examining the back surface echo.
Ultrasonic inspection can help indicate the presence of delaminations, voids, foreign materials,
moisture ingress and disbonds
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Radiography
X-ray is widely employed for inspection of metal and carbon fibre composite components. It
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provides an excellent means of detecting transverse cracks, foreign inclusions such as metal
swarf in solid composite, the position of core inserts and shims, damage to honeycomb and
moisture ingress.
Vibration Methods
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Probably the oldest test for the inspection of laminated constructions is the coin tap test. This is
a subjective vibration method which depends upon the experience of the operator to detect any
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damage present.
An automated version of this test, known as the Acoustic Flaw Detector (Woodpecker) is now in
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use which takes away some of the subjectivity of the coin tap test when used by trained
personnel. It can be used to detect all types of composite defect and large structures can be
tested in a short period of time, which is very attractive.
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Thermal Imaging
Thermal photography can be used to survey large areas of the airframe in service but will
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These methods are not only employed in assessing damage, but are also used to confirm the
integrity of a component once it has undergone a repair.
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Composite Repairs
General
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The repair of composite materials is a specialised process and should not be attempted without
adequate practical training.
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Specific repair instructions and limitations are provided in the Structural Repair Manual for each
aircraft type. These must be complied with to ensure continued airworthiness. The following is a
description of a repair to one skin and the core of a sandwich construction panel, however, the
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general principles are common to most repairs.
Clean the area around the damage ensuring that no water is allowed to enter the structure.
Punctures and holes may be masked or sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture.
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Determine the extent of the damage and remove the material as required. Moisture must be
removed before carrying out a repair, and this is usually done by the application of heat. This
can be done by either placing the component in an oven or applying heat using lamps, heater
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mats or warm air jets. In some cases vacuum bagging with absorbent material may be used to
assist the heat drying process. With honeycomb components, it may be recommended that an
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outlet path should be provided for the moisture by drilling holes into the affected cells before the
heat is applied.
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Remove any paint or protective coatings by sanding – paint stripper will damage cured resin.
External surface repairs may require „taper‟ or „step‟ sanding to meet smoothness requirements.
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Care must be taken to avoid damage to the fibres in the component‟s skin beyond the taper
sanding requirements.
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Thoroughly clean with a vacuum to remove dust and degrease the area with Acetone, Isopropyl
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Alcohol (IPA) or Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK).

Note: These materials are highly inflammable, produce explosive vapours and are toxic.
Observe all safety precautions and wear the required protective equipment.
Determine ribbon direction of existing honeycomb core and orientation of skin plies and mark on
skin away from repair.
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Determine repair materials to be used, e.g.. cloth, resin, adhesive, honeycomb, thixotropic
agent etc. and the ancillary materials e.g. breather, absorber, parting film, bagging film, seal
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strip, tape etc.
Check availability, serviceability and calibration of equipment, e.g. vacuum pump, thermometer,
heat lamp, hot bonder etc.
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Prepare repair materials and ancillaries. Ensure materials are in date (shelf life, fridge life etc.).
Ensure ribbon direction and ply orientation are observed. Record the release numbers of all
repair materials.
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Wet Lay-up
Mix sufficient resin to bond in lower repair ply and core. Work resin into cloth between melamine
sheets, cut to size/shape, peel melamine from one side, place in hole in correct orientation and
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remove other melamine.

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Note: Ensure all melamine pieces are removed and accounted for.
Failure to remove will prevent proper adhesion.
Mix resin with thixotropic agent (e.g. phenolic 'micro-balloons' which expand to add volume but
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not weight to the resin) and coat outer edge of core repair piece and inner edge of hole, place in
hole in correct orientation.
Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required duration.
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Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand core flush with skin. Vacuum clean and solvent
wipe.
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Mix sufficient resin to bond in skin repair plies. Work resin into cloth between melamine sheets,
cut to size/shape. Peel melamine from one side, place over core and remove other melamine.
Repeat for each ply.
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Ensure all melamine pieces are removed and accounted for.
Failure to remove will prevent proper adhesion.
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Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required duration.
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Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand lightly if required. Solvent clean and reprotect.
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Prepreg Lay-up
Remove one backing paper and lay film adhesive in hole. Remove other backing paper and
insert repair ply/s observing orientation. Apply film adhesive onto repair ply/s. Wrap foaming
adhesive round core plug and insert observing ribbon direction.
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Note: Ensure all backing papers are removed and accounted for. Failure to remove will prevent
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proper adhesion.
Lay-up ancillary materials as shown, draw vacuum and apply heat. Cure for required cycle.
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Remove ancillary materials and inspect. Sand core flush with skin. Vacuum clean and solvent
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Apply layer of film adhesive over repair area. Lay repair plies in correct order and orientation.
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Lay sanding ply if required.
Note: Ensure all backing papers are removed and accounted for. Failure to remove will prevent
proper adhesion.
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Fibre/Metal Laminate (FML)
A new type of composite used in aircraft construction is the fibre/metal laminate (FML). In the
past, sheets of aluminium alloy and aramid fibre prepreg have been laminated together and
used as non-structural cargo hold lining where the impact resistant qualities of the material are
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of great advantage.
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Currently a glass fibre/aluminium composite known as 'Glare' is being used to form the upper
skin panels of various new aircraft designs. This material is both lighter than conventional sheet
metal, and has greater fatigue resistance and lower crack propagation. It offers better fire
resistance and is less prone to corrosion as the glass fibre layers will prevent corrosion from
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spreading through the sheet.
The components of the Glare sheet are pre-formed and laid-up in a mould where they are
heated and cured under pressure. Door and window cut-outs are milled out and the sheets are
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bonded onto the structure. The edges of the sheets are joined by seamless splices with no
break in the fibre reinforcements.
The strength of the panel can be controlled by the number of laminates laid-up, normally 2-4 of
glass cloth and 3-5 of aluminium, and the orientation of the fibre layers.
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Other Non-metallic Materials
Plastics
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As we have seen, there are two groups of plastics;
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Thermoplastic materials - become soft when heated and can be moulded again and again.
Thermosetting materials - become permanently hard during the moulding process and cannot
be softened again.
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A third group, referred to as Cold setting materials, are really thermosetting plastics which cure
at room temperature. Some plastic resin materials used with glass fibres to repair certain types
of aircraft structure are in this group.
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Plastics are made from materials obtained from animal or vegetable products and coal or
petroleum by-products.
Properties of Plastics
 they are resistant to corrosion.
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 they have a fairly low relative density and light weight.
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 their strength decreases rapidly as the temperature rises.
 they can be coloured if required. Some are transparent.
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 many can be bonded together or fused by heat reducing the need for fasteners.
 some plastics are flexible and can absorb impact by distortions but are not themselves
damaged.
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The strength of plastics is less than that of metals. Generally the only plastic material that can
be used for the load carrying parts of an aircraft are the fibre reinforced plastics. Other plastics
are used to make fairings and cabin furnishings.
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Types of Plastics
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl)

PVC is a thermoplastic material often used to replace rubber for making protective gloves and
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aprons. It is also used to make seat covers in light aircraft. A plasticiser can be added to PVC to
soften it. PVC can be shaped by injection moulding and extrusion. It can also be compression
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moulded without a plasticiser to give a tough rigid material.
Other Thermoplastics
Two modern thermoplastics approved for aerospace structural use are polyphenylene sulphide
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(PPS), and polyetherimide (PEI) both of which are available under several trade names. PPS is
produced as granules and is moulded and formed with heat and pressure, PEI is produced in
both granular and resin form. Both can be modified with reinforcing materials such as glass,
aramid and carbon fibres. With inherent flame retardancy and high hardness and rigidity, these
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engineering plastic are specially suitable for the manufacture of semi-finished products,
mouldings and films. Continuous service temperatures up to 240°C are possible. Reinforcement
with glass fibres lowers the thermal expansion coefficient to values that are typical of metal.
Both are also characterized by very good chemical and oxidation resistance, minimal water
absorption and low creep, even at elevated temperatures.
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Formed products can be welded together to form light weight, fatigue resistant structures free
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from fasteners and the necessary processing to install them.
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Proposed uses include wing fixed leading edges 'D' sections, leading edge ribs and stabiliser
components where their impact resistance is of great value.
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PolyTetraFluoroEthylene
Produced under brand names such as DuPont's 'Teflon', PTFE is a fluorocarbon-based polymer
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which has a very high resistance to most chemicals at temperatures from -80°C to>200°C and
very low friction (hence it's use on non-stick cookware). With low compressibility it is widely
used for dynamic seals, low friction runners, anti-fretting tapes and blocks, but is not suited to
applications where severe deformation is required. It is also not recommended for high
vacuums and excessive temperatures.
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Tufnol and Micarta Laminates

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Laminates are made by pressing together sheets of cotton or linen which have been soaked in
a thermosetting plastic resin.
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These laminates are tough, have a high electrical resistance and can be drilled and machined
successfully. Among other things, they are used to make control system pulleys, the materials
being strong enough to resist breakage yet not hard enough to wear the cable itself. Laminates
are also used to make printed circuit boards. They are known by the trade names „Tufnol‟ and
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„Micarta‟.
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Plastic Transparencies – Perspex
Passenger windows, some windscreens, canopies and light covers etc., are usually
manufactured from Polymethyl-Methachrylate, which is generally referred to by its trade names
of Plexiglas, Perspex, Acrylite, Acrylplast and Lucite. It is commonly called Acrylic glass or
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simply Acrylic.
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Acrylic or Perspex sheet material for British aircraft glazing must comply with specification DTD
5592 or equivalent. (Although all Directorate of Technical Development - DTD - standards are
now obsolescent and are no longer revised, they are still valid for existing aircraft ).
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For aircraft purposes, formed Perspex is supplied in two grades:
Grade One - DTD 5544, which is free from optical distortion on both flat and curved
surfaces. Used for panels where undistorted vision is essential.
Grade Two - DTD 5545, which may have slight irregularities and some optical distortion.
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Used for passenger windows, lamp covers etc., and authorised repairs.
Both grades have the following characteristics:
 they can be shaped or bent when heated in boiling water or glycerine at 120ºC.

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they can be sawn, filed, drilled and machined. N
they will contract and expand, due to climatic changes and sunlight.
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Minute surface cracks in transparencies, known as „Crazing‟, are often formed by contact with
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petrol, dope, solvents and their vapours, de-icing fluids, acetone, some hydraulic fluids and
exposure to ultra-violet light. While light surface crazing has little effect on window strength, it
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does reduce visibility and will eventually lead to the propagation of cracks. Certain windows may
be repaired by machining away the outer surface and will remain serviceable providing
thickness limitations are met.
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Stress crazing may occur if the tensile stress on a panel exceeds a critical value and consists of
multiple hairline surface cracks usually in the same direction. Stress crazing will cause a serious
loss of strength in the panel.
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'In plane' cracks which may form in Perspex sheets parallel to the surface reduce visibility and
strength in the panel.
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External windows are often manufactured from stretched acrylic with improved resistance to
cracks and crazing. A polysiloxane coating also reduces the effects of crazing and is marketed
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under the trade name Crystalvue.

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Elastomers
From the Greek word 'elastos' meaning elastic, elastomers are rubber like materials which may
be natural or synthetic (polymers) and have considerable elastic properties. Because they may
also be moulded into shapes, which they retain, they qualify to be included in the category of
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plastics.
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Elastomers will tolerate repeated elongation and return to their original size and shape, in a
similar way to natural rubber. Some of the more common elastomers, to be found in the
aerospace industry include:
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Nitrile - also known as Buna 'N'. A synthetic rubber, made (initially in Germany) by the
polymerisation of butadeine and sodium (hence BuNa), it has excellent resistance to fuels and
some oils, and is used for oil and fuel hoses, gaskets, and seals. This material also has low
'stiction' properties, when in contact with metal, and is, therefore, particularly suited to 'moving-
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seal' applications. Nitrile is not recommended for:
 • Phosphate ester hydraulic fluids (Skydrol etc.).
 • Ketones (MEK, acetone)
 • Automotive brake fluid.
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Buna - 'S' relatively cheap material, also with a performance similar to natural rubber. It is often
used for tyres and tubes, but its poor resistance to fuels/oils/cleaning fluids makes it unsuitable
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for seals.
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Flouro-Elastomers - these have exceptional high-temperature properties and can be used at

250ºC. They are also solvent-resistant and are mainly used for high-temperature seals. A
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common name for these materials is Viton. Viton is recommended for:
 Petroleum oils. Di-ester base lubricants (MIL-L-7808, MIL-L-6085).

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Silicate ester base lubricants (MLO 8200, MLO 8515, OS-45.)

Silicone fluids and greases.
 Selected phosphate ester fluids.
Flouro-Elastomers are not recommended for:

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 Ketones (MEK, acetone).

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 Skydrol fluids.
Neoprene - has very good tensile properties and excellent elastic recovery qualities. It is also
solvent-resistant and, therefore, has a wide range of applications as fuel and oil seals and
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gaskets. Because of its special elastic recovery properties, it is also ideally suited to
diaphragms. It is not recommended for ketones, esters and oxidising acids.
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Silicone Rubber - has very good high- and low-temperature properties (- 80ºC to + 200ºC). It is
often used for seals and is also used for the potting of electrical circuits, because of its ability to
retain its rubbery state, even at low temperatures. Some types will cure or 'vulcanise' at room
temperature and are supplied as sealant/adhesives in a tube. Silicones are not recommended
for:
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 Most petroleum fluids.
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 Ketones (MEK, acetone).
 Water and steam.
Ethylene-propylene rubbers - (EPM and EPDM) are valuable for their excellent resistance to
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heat, oxidation, ozone and weather aging due to their stable, saturated polymer backbone
structure. One of the few compounds resistant to phosphate ester hydraulic fluids such as
Skydrol.
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Poly-Sulphide Rubber - although it possesses relatively poor physical properties, it has
exceptionally high resistance to fuels and oils and is widely used for lining or sealing fuel tanks.
It is also used for lightly stressed seals and hoses, which come into contact with fuels or oils.
This compound can be mixed and cured in the work place and is commonly used as a sealant
known under the trade names such as PRC and Thiokol.
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Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic materials whose main industrial use is as an electrical insulating
material, or in high temperature applications. They include:
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Porcelain and Steatite, for applications where dust and moisture readily collect. These
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materials can be moulded into special shapes before being fired and glazed rather as crockery
is. The porcelain-type insulators on high-voltage transformer and switch gear bushings, and on
high voltage transmission and distribution overhead lines, are probably their most familiar use.
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Special ceramics have been used for some times for such applications as motor vehicle spark-
plug insulators and special electrical components. Advanced ceramics are under development
for use in gas turbine engines for high temperature stators and turbine blades.
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Glass is used for flight deck windows. Due to the high impact resistance and low erosion
requirements they are usually composed of laminations of soda-lime glass, toughened glass
and acrylic material with heating elements built in. The composition varies with type and
manufacturer.
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Mica-glass compositions are for high temperature insulation applications.
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Ceramic Fibres are used in heat resistant blankets and to weave fireproof cloth for engine and
pylon protection.
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Adhesives
The adhesive bonding of aircraft metal structure began during the second world war and has
been used on an increasing scale in the aerospace industry ever since. Adhesives are used for
constructional tasks varying from aircraft fuselages components and flight control surfaces, to
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propellers and helicopter rotor blades.
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The earliest process was developed by Aero Research Ltd. and was based on a phenol-
formaldehyde resole resin coated with a polyvinyl formal powder. By February 1942, aluminium
alloy lap joints were prepared with breaking stresses of over 2000 PSI. This synthetic structural
adhesive for metals and was named „Redux‟ standing for Research at Duxford. It was first used
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on the deHavilland Sea Hornet fighter/bomber and subsequent on both military and civil aircraft.
Redux is still in use today and has been joined by a wide range of epoxy and other synthetic
resin adhesives.
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Types of bond
The adhesive bond may be achieved mechanically or chemically, but in practice, most
adhesives use both methods of bonding to form a joint.
Mechanical: here the adhesive penetrates into the surface and forms a mechanical lock,
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by keying into surface irregularities. It also forms re-entrants, where the
adhesive penetrates behind parts of the structure, and becomes an integral
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part of the component to be joined.
Chemical: in this method of bonding, the adhesive is spread over the surfaces to be
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joined and forms a chemical bond with the surface, it's molecules diffusing
into the substrate.
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Stresses on a bonded joint

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Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress ; Tensile, Shear, Cleavage
and Peel. Tensile forces pull the bonded joint directly apart, whilst shear forces pull the upper
and lower bonded plates in opposite directions, but in the same plane. Cleavage happens when
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separation of the plates is attempted at one end of the joint only. Peel is very similar to cleavage
but the force is applied to one bonded plate only
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Joint strength is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear. Adhesives should not be used if
significant stresses are to be carried in tension or peel. The lap joint is generally favoured, as
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the strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to the area bonded.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

The major reasons for the widespread use of adhesives are as follows:
 No weakening of the component due to the presence of holes. Also providing a smooth
finish due to lack of fastener heads
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 No local stress raisers, which are present with widely-pitched conventional fasteners
such as bolts and rivets

 Can be used to join dissimilar materials and materials of awkward shapes and of different
thickness
 Although the strength per unit area, may be inferior to a mechanical or welded joint,
adhesive bonding takes place over a greater continuous area giving comparable or
increased strength, coupled with improved stiffness
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 Adhesives provide electrical insulation and prevent dissimilar-metal corrosion between
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different materials
 Leak-proof joints can be achieved
 The elastic properties of some adhesives, gives flexibility to the joint and may help to
damp out vibrations
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 Heat-sensitive materials can be joined
The major disadvantages associated with adhesive bonding are:

 Limited heat resistance, normally below 200ºC
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 Poor electrical and thermal conductivity
 High thermal expansion
 Limited resistance to certain chemicals such as paint strippers
 Integrity difficult to check with non-destructive testing procedures
 Fail Stress: fail load within the glued area

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With regard to the strength of an adhesive bond, the three most important considerations are:
 Creep behaviour
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 Durability: its long-life capability without serious deterioration.
Types of adhesive
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There are many types and grades of adhesives, and the correct type for a particular application
will be specified in the relevant repair procedure. Great care must be taken to ensure the correct
adhesive type is used because the consequences could be fatal.
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The two major groups of adhesives are Flexible and Structural.
Flexible adhesives are used when some flexing, or slight relative movement of the joint, is
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essential and where high load-carrying properties are not paramount. In general, flexible
adhesives are based on flexible plastics or elastomers. They are used for internal decorative
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trim etc. Examples include Evostik and Tretobond.
Structural adhesives are primarily aimed at applications where high loads must be carried
without excessive creep. They are relatively rigid without being excessively hard or brittle.
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Structural adhesives are based on resins, (the most common ones being epoxy or polyester).
Examples include Scotch-Weld and Hysol products
Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type, which has a reasonably even balance of
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resin and elastomer, which results in a flexible and fairly strong adhesive.
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Adhesive Forms
Adhesives can be obtained in a variety of forms, the most common being liquid, paste and film.
Others available are those such as the special foaming types, which are used to splice
honeycomb sections together. Some require heat for curing, whilst others can be cured at room
temperature. Some require the addition of a catalyst or hardener.
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Adhesive Use
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To achieve optimum bonding, performance and life in service from adhesives it is absolutely
crucial to follow the manufacturer‟s instructions and to pay the utmost attention to quality at
every stage.
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As with resins, and most other chemical compounds, controlled ventilation, protective clothing,
and anti-fire/explosion practices, are absolutely essential when working with adhesives.
Although some of the adhesives in current use are supplied in film form, many are liquids or
pastes, from which toxic/flammable vapours are emitted, prior to curing. Many of the necessary
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surface preparation solvents also give off toxic/flammable vapours.
Surface preparation of the component is also crucial. Many high performance structural
applications require a complex process such as the following:
Damage removal;
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Very similar to composite repair. All damaged core material must be removed from sandwich
construction panels. All moisture must be removed from the work area. All paint must be
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removed from around the repair. Taper sanding is not required.
Cleaning/degreasing;
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Requirements are the same as for a composite repair.

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Repair part fabrication;

Prepare repair core and doubler parts from approved specified materials. Prepare film
adhesives and ancillary materials as required.
Surface preparation
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Before etching, the skin and repair doubler/s must be abraded with aluminium oxide pads to
produce a water-break-free surface (i.e. when saturated with water and held vertical, a
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continuous film persists for 30 seconds minimum without breaking or forming droplets).
Acid etching/anodising of existing surface;

Various acids can be used for the etch process including hydrofluoric acid and sulphuric acid.
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Apertures and crevices must be sealed prior to application.
The Phosphoric Acid Non-Tank Anodising (PANTA) process is commonly used. The prepared
area is coated with phosphoric acid gel and layers of gauze and acid gel laid on top. A stainless
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steel mesh is placed above this and coated with the gel. The work piece and mesh are
connected to a DC power source so that the skin forms the anode (+) and the mesh is the
cathode (-). A charge of 6 volts at 1-7 amps/ft2 is applied for 10-12 minutes. The area must be
cleaned with running water for 5 minutes with a maximum delay of 21/2 minutes. The area must
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then be dried for at least 30 minutes.

Polarised light test;
The adequacy of the anodising must be checked. This is done by observing the surface through
a polarizing filter with fluorescent or daylight at a low angle of incidence. Rotating the filter will
cause the original colour to change to a complimentary colour. If the colour change is not
observed or is patchy, the cleaning and anodising processes must be repeated.
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Epoxy priming;
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Within 2 hours of anodising, the area must be reprotected with primer. Normally an epoxy based
Adhesive Bonding Primer is specified producing a coating 0.00015 - 0.0004 thick. This should
be air dried or infrared heated to 93°C (200°F). Some primers require curing at 93°C (200°F)
and this should be done within the specified time period.
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Repair Lay-up;
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Repair assembly is similar to prepreg composite lay-up. If the primed are has become
contaminated it must be cleaned with an approved solvent. Film adhesive must be raised to
room temperature and backing papers removed as pieces are used.
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Cure;
The repair must be cured under pressure at an elevated temperature. This may be applied
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using a Hot Bonder, heater mats and air bag, or in an Autoclave.

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Jointing Compounds
Riveted and bolted joints in aircraft structures are interfaced with a jointing or sealing
compound.
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The purpose of the compound is to exclude moisture or any other undesirable matter from
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between the materials by filling any voids and forming a thin film to prevent seepage. This
reduces the risk of galvanic corrosion and prevents fretting.
Chromate Based Jointing Compounds
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These materials are sometimes known as 'yellow chromate' or 'zinc chromate' or by trade
names such as Duralac, JC5A and more recently Mastinox. They are used for the wet assembly
of metallic mating surfaces in non-pressurised areas. Available in tubes, cans and drums,
aircraft grade compounds do not dry and remain flexible throughout their working life.
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Mating surfaces should be well covered with the compound, including the interior of all bolt and
rivet holes. The compound should be applied immediately prior to assembly in order to ensure
that the film is wet on assembly. Surplus compound is squeezed out as a fillet and should be
removed with a clean cloth. Bolt shanks, underside of heads and washers should also be
coated.
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JC5A is primarily composed of chromium compounds and barium chromate which are irritant
and carcinogenic (cancer causing) and the volatile carrier xylene, which is toxic. It is hazardous
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by contact, ingestion and inhalation in confined spaces, and is also highly inflammable. Gloves
and goggles should be worn when applying, handling and removing excess compound.
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Note: JC5A has been found to be detrimental to some ferrous materials and has been
withdrawn from use by many organisations.
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Currently Mastinox 6856K is approved for use in place of JC5A. It is used in the same way and
has better performance, particularly in dissimilar metal applications. It is still chromate based,
and therefore the presents a similar hazard to the older materials.
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Non-Chromate Jointing Compounds

Due to the health and safety issues associated with chromate based jointing compounds, the
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trend is towards the use of non-chromate compounds.
Cor-Ban 27L is one of a family of anti-corrosion treatments and is replacing Mastinox 6856K in
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many applications. It is a low-solvent waxy paste that has superior properties to the chromate
products while being safer to use.
It is applied in the same manner as the older compounds and the use of gloves is still
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recommended.
Molybdenum Disulphide Paste

In some instances of bolted joints molybdenum disulphide paste is specified as a jointing
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compound. Its purpose is to prevent fretting corrosion: its absence may seriously affect the
fatigue life of the joint.

Hylomar
Hylomar is one of several sealants used on bolted flange joints for engine and component
assembly. It seals metal to metal joints and is resistant to water, fuel, oil, most chemicals and
combustion products. It seals surfaces with imperfections and withstands vibration, heat and
expansion.
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Sealants
It is of the utmost importance that the pressure cabin of an aircraft be capable of sustaining the
required differential pressure at high altitude, both for the safety of the passengers and crew
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and for the operational efficiency of the aircraft. To this end it is essential that all sources, or
potential sources of air leakage from the cabin be carefully sealed in accordance with the
process specification laid down by the manufacturers. Similarly, integral fuel tanks must be
satisfactorily sealed against leakage.
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Like Jointing Compounds, sealants also prevents the accumulation of moisture between the
elements of a structure and the risk of corrosion caused by this. In critical areas fasteners are
installed with wet sealant on their shanks and the internal side of each fastener is encapsulated
with sealant.
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There are a number of proprietary sealants available in different grades and types and from
different manufacturers. It is important that only the particular sealant specified for a job is used.
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Before any sealant is applied it is important to ensure that the surfaces to which it is to be
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applied are clean and free from swarf and burrs. The sealant can be used in some cases on
faying surfaces, and in other cases to form beads and fillets over joints. Some are ready for use
in one container, others need mixing immediately before use and may be in two or three parts,
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because of these differences, it is important that, after having ascertained the correct sealant
laid down for the task from the relevant; drawing or maintenance/overhaul manual, the process
specification be checked to ensure the correct method of mixing and application.
The sealants are identified by their trade name, manufacturers part number and specification
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number. The specification number is most important, since the product may be supplied by a
number of manufacturers.
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Typical of the multi part sealants used is PR 1440. This two part polysulphide compound is
comprised of a base and an accelerator and is used for sealing integral fuel tanks, pressurised
cabins, and for faying surfaces. It is resistant to aircraft fuels, lubricating oils, and Skydrol
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Hydraulic Fluid.
PR 1440 is the ProSeal part number but the material satisfies all or part of the following
specifications; Z-16.134, MIL-S-8802 Class A (USA), BMS 5-26 Type III (Boeing), 09-001C
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(Airbus), ASNA 4157 (France) DTD 900 (UK) and others which will be quoted by the airframe or
equipment manufacturer.
PR 1440 is available as Type A - 'Brush' type sealant which is fairly fluid for brush application to
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faying surfaces, and as a thicker Type B - 'Non-brush' type for fillet seals and encapsulation. It

may also be available with different application times, typically 'half hour' and 'two hour' to allow
flexibility of use.
It may be supplied in a pot with a separate container of accelerator attached, or as a 'Semkit'

cartridge with integral accelerator and mixing facility. If in pot form, it is important to ensure the
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correct accelerator is used (usually identified as part number plus Part A and Part B) and that all
of it is added to the base and mixed thoroughly using a spatula. In the Semkit a dash rod is
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supplied and is used to inject the accelerator into the base as the plunger containing it is
withdrawn. The plunger is then pushed in and out and twisted to mix the two parts. In both
cases it is important that the sealant is thoroughly mixed and of uniform colour. Failure to add
the correct amount of accelerator or to mix completely will a prevent proper cure and reduce the
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effectiveness of the sealant.
Sealant supplied in a can may be applied by brush or spatula, depending on type. Semkit
cartridges can be inserted into a sealant gun for controlled application.
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Sealant Application

Application Time
This is the time that the mixed sealant remains suitable for application.
Tack Free Time
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The length of time it takes for the sealant to be no longer tacky or sticky.
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Curing Time
When the accelerator is mixed into the polysulphide base, a chemical cure takes place. When
the sealants is fully hardened it is said to be „cured‟. Time for curing depends on temperature
and relative humidity. The figures in the table are for standard conditions of 25ºC (77ºF) and
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50% relative humidity.
PR 1440 Type A1/2 Type A2

Application Time 30 min. 2 hours
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Tack Free Time <10 hours <36
Cure Time 30 hours 72 hours
Fast curing sealants are available for line repairs, but these do not usually achieve the full
Assembly Time
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properties of the standard sealants and may have to be replaced at the next hangar input.
All riveting/fastening must be completed within this time.

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Surface Preparation
Before application of sealant ensure that:
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• All protective treatments have been completed and are fully hardened off.
• All drilling operating completed and swarf removed.
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• Surface to be cleaned with oil free solvents i.e., “Genklene”.
Application
Apply an even coat of sealant to mating (faying) surfaces, ensuring sealant extends
approximately 0.25" beyond line of metal to metal joint. Thickness of sealant not to exceed
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0.030".
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Before expiration of assembly life all work must be finished and rivets drawn tight.
To ensure no leak path exists through sealant and that faying surface is completely sealed, a
small continuous fillet of sealant should be squeezed out on both sides of the overlap and
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smoothed into the joint when riveting is completed.

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Application cont.
All fasteners should be wet assembled (sealant on shank or in hole). Fasteners in fuel tanks
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and areas prone to water contamination, such as under galleys and freight hold floors, should
be encapsulated with sealant after installation. A metal seal cap or cover is sometimes used to
protect the sealant coating and this must be fillet sealed.
Shelf Life
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All sealants have a shelf or storage life and should not be used on aircraft if life has expired.
Storage life of PR 1440 Type A is at least 9 months when stored at temperatures below 25º C in
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original unopened containers.
WARNING: ALL POLYSULPHIDE SEALANTS CONTAIN HAZARDOUS

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CONSTITUENTS, PARTICULARLY IN THE ACCELERATOR. TOXIC

COMPONENTS CAN CAUSE NAUSEA, SKIN IRRITATION AND
UNCONSCIOUSNESS. CARCINOGENIC MATERIALS CAN CAUSE
CANCER BY SKIN CONTACT, INHALATION AND INGESTION.
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UNCURED SEALANTS ARE HIGHLY INFLAMMABLE.

ENGINEERS SHOULD WEAR PROTECTIVE OVERALLS, NITRIL
GLOVES, AND GOGGLES WHEN HANDLING SEALANTS. AVOID
INHALING FUMES AND WEAR BREATHING APPARATUS IN CONFINED
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SPACES. REMOVE ANY SOURCES OF COMBUSTION. ALWAYS

CONSULT MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS. SOME SEALANTS

CONTAIN ASBESTOS FIBRES. THESE MATERIALS MUST NOT BE CUT
OR SANDED WHEN CURED.
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RTV Sealants
Another commonly used type of sealant is the Room Temperature Vulcanising (RTV) silicone
rubber. These are available in a variety of grades for use in different applications. Some give of
an acetic acid (vinegar) odour as they cure while others have a solvent content.
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Typical examples of one part RTV available in tubes are:
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White General Purpose - non-reactive adhesive/sealant for general use, safe for use with
drinking water and food stuffs
White Electrical Grade - high electrical resistance but low mechanical strength, used to
repair insulation
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Grey High Strength - used for sealing and repair where durability is required
Red High Temperature - used for joining and repairing rubber seals, pipe sleeves and
insulation on engines and APUs
Translucent - decorative, used for sealing galley and toilet compartment sinks
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and panel joints.
Other one and two part RTV silicone adhesive/sealants are used for specialist applications such
as levelling compounds, potting compounds, heat sinks, thermal barriers, foaming fillers,
release agents etc.
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Most one part RTV materials give off slightly irritating fumes and may irritate sensitive skin
(eyes, lips, tongue etc.) as they cure. Providing adequate care is taken, only gloves are
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normally required when handling them.
Some one part and all two part RTV materials contain solvents and toxic constituents. These
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require gloves, goggles and breathing apparatus in confined spaces. Always check the
Materials Safety Data Sheets before use.
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6.3.2 Wooden Structures
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General
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From the very beginning of aviation, wood has been used in aircraft construction. Early aircraft
designers and builders often used ash or hickory. They were looking for a type of wood that was
relatively lightweight yet also very strong. Just before World War I, Sitka Spruce was discovered
by aircraft builders and found to be very well suited to their needs. The strength to weight ratio
was is very favourable for aircraft use, pound for pound it has twice the tensile strength of
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aluminium. Several other types of wood had similar strength to weight ratios but were not as
readily harvested or as plentiful. At the time, spruce proved to be the best choice, not only
because of the physical characteristics, but of equal importance was the fact that spruce was
readily available and easy to use as a building material. With these advantages, spruce became
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very widely accepted as the primary material to be used in building an aeroplane.
Although many designers and manufacturers switched to all metal construction in the 1930s,
the advent of World War II, brought spruce back to the fore. Manufacturers used the material in
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the construction of a large number of aircraft to reduce the reliance on strategic resources such
as steel and aluminium. Some aircraft were of mixed timber and metal construction while others
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such as the DeHaviland Mosquito were almost entirely wooden. The use of Sitka Spruce was
carried into post-war construction in many aircraft. During this time in aviation history spruce
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was cheaper than aluminium or steel. However, because of the high demand for aircraft
production during this period, forests of this popular wood were rapidly depleted.
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Today the cost of timber has risen greatly, but spruce and other types of wood remain popular
for in some fields of aircraft construction. Many small aircraft designers and kit manufacturers
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within the sport aviation industry use wood as a primary structure. If wood is not the primary
structure it is almost sure to be found in some component part. Although by volume, wood is not
as strong as steel or aluminium, the construction can be designed so that the necessary
strength is achieved with corresponding savings in weight. Many designers prefer to use
wooden spars in acrobatic aircraft because the wood will withstand the bending loads imposed
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during aerobatics better. Unlike metal, wood does not weaken from fatigue. This, of course, is
an advantage to the aircraft builder. Wood is used in fabricating spars, ribs, longerons and
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stringers, leading edges, etc. Sheet plywood is easily formed into shapes making it the obvious
choice for wing tip bows, fuselage and wing skins etc.
Woodworking is a skill that is easily learned by the novice who usually has a basic knowledge of
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timber construction and some of the necessary tools. Safety hazards are very evident unlike
some of the other materials used in modern aircraft construction.
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Sitka Spruce
Sitka Spruce has long been recognized as the best type of wood to use in the construction of
aircraft. It is the standard against which all other woods are judged. It is light in weight with a
corresponding greater strength and toughness than is found in other woods. It is easily worked,
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uniform in texture, resistant to rotting, and has no odour. It can also be obtained in clear,
straight-grained pieces having very few defects. This is possible because of the size of a mature
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spruce tree.
The name Sitka was derived from a town located not far from Juneau, Alaska and Sitka Spruce
is found mainly along the American Pacific Northwest, particularly along the Alaskan coast.
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(Most of the spruce forests have been depleted along the coast of the United States and
Canada.) The trees grow best in a wet, moderate climate, typically close together and in so
doing they must grow very tall and fast in order to obtain necessary sunlight. Because of this
type of growth they usually have few, if any, branches except near the top of the tree. This
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facilitates the type of growth necessary to yield knot free timber suitable for aircraft use. A
spruce tree will grow to heights of 200 feet and higher with a base diameter of 8 feet or more. A
tree of this size will have taken 400 years or more to reach this dimension. A spruce tree will not
yield usable aircraft wood until it is at least 5 feet in diameter. Even with this size tree only 5% or
less of the resulting wood will be of the quality necessary for aircraft construction.
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The use of Sitka Spruce is certainly not limited to aircraft construction, the aircraft industry uses
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a very small percentage of the total spruce that is milled. The majority of spruce harvested is
used for ladders, house construction, masts of sailboats, barrels, cabinets, sounding boards for
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organs and pianos, and other uses. The building and restoration of sport aircraft is a very
insignificant market for the timber industry.
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Timber Conversion
Note: This section contains a mixture of Metric and Imperial values. Whilst the timber industry
and some Aviation Authorities have embraced the metric system, other Authorities,
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designers and manufacturers, notably in the USA, have retained the Imperial system
(inches and fractions or inches and decimals). Conversion between the two systems
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should be made with care and in accordance with any guidelines laid down by the
Competent Authority.
The process of turning a tree into and aircraft component is often referred to as Timber
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Conversion. The trees are harvested by lumberjacks and sent to a local sawmill. The mill in turn
will cut the trees into smaller pieces known as “cants”. These cants are usually 6-8 inches
square and anywhere from 10 to 20 feet long. These are then shipped.
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Before cutting to production sized pieces, the wood must be seasoned, a process which
reduces the moisture content to the point of equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere. This
may be done by leaving the wood in an air-drying shed for a period of up to three years (or
sometimes more), or by kiln drying, the resultant wood being described as „artificially seasoned‟.
The timber can then be cut into planks and graded.
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The Grade of the timber will depend on the results of tests for moisture content, density,
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brittleness, splitting and growth rate. The figures given below are for Sitka Spruce but will be
similar for all aircraft grade timber.
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The Moisture Content may be measured with a Moisture Meter, or by weight. In either case the
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first six inches of the plank will be discarded as it may be drier than the rest. When testing by
weight, a sample will be cut off and weighed (W1), then dried in an oven at 100-105°c until two
successive weighings yield the same result (W2). The following formula can then be used to
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determine the moisture content as a percentage;

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a moisture content of 15% +/- 2% is normally acceptable.

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The Density of the timber is found by weighing a sample of known volume and multiplying the
result to give a figure in pounds per cubic foot or kilograms per cubic metre. Spruce generally
varies between 20lb and 36lb per cubic foot (320kg – 577kg per cubic metre). For Grade A
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spruce the density should be greater than 24lb per cubic foot at 15% moisture.
Brittleness is determined by using an Izod type impact test machine. A notched test piece of
5.25 x 0.875 inches square is placed in the machine and the blow applied tangentially to it. The
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test piece should resist a load of at least 5 foot-pounds (0.69 metre-kilograms). A tolerance of
0.5 foot-pounds may be allowed providing any fracture shows sufficient fibre. Alternatively a 12
x 1 inch square test piece may be tested in a weight dropping machine and should withstand 13
foot-pounds without showing signs of tension failure on the vertical sides.
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A Splitting Test is used to confirm the true grain direction and run of the timber sample. A blunt
chisel is used so that the wood is split rather than cut and the split is made away from the edge
for greater accuracy. The maximum acceptable grain slope is 1:15 .
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Growth Rate is indicated by the number of annual growth rings per inch in the timber and
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varies to some extent. Timber exhibiting less than 6 rings per inch (25mm) should be rejected.
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The timber is generally cut into flat planks which may be Rift-sawn or Tangentially-sawn as
shown. Shrinkage occurs at a maximum in the direction tangential to the growth ring, is
moderate in the radial direction and at a minimum longitudinally. For this reason Rift-sawn
material shrinks in only one direction and does not tend to warp, while Tangentially sawn timber
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is more prone to cupping, warping and distortion.

Quarter sawing produces a higher proportion of Rift-sawn or near Rift sawn timber than Plain or
Through sawing, but as can be seen produces smaller boards, more waste and requires more
handling during the sawing process. Therefore Rift-sawn timber is more expensive to produce
while Tangentially-sawn timber is cheaper and can be produced in larger boards.
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The cut pieces of wood are then shipped to the supplier. They are typically sent in lengths of
between 10-20 feet at a nominal width of 6 inches. The boards will be planed smooth on the flat
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surfaces and rough cut on the edges. A board cut in this manner is termed a S2S board,
meaning it has been surfaced on 2 sides. The nominal 6-inch width is often a problem for the
aircraft builder because it may be slightly less or more than 6 inches.
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The largest single member of a timber built airframe is usually the wing spar. When the builder
needs a finished 6-inch spar for an aircraft the supplier may have difficulty providing that
dimension. The nominal 6- inch width may only finish to slightly over 5 inches when the edges
are cut smooth. Widths over 6 inches, Lengths over 14 feet, and a thickness over 1 inch is
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scarce. This is because the wood must be free from defects and typically the larger the piece of
wood the more likelihood of discovering a disqualifying defect.
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Alternatives To Spruce
As Sitka Spruce is now expensive and difficult to obtain a number of alternatives have been
identified. Some of these grown in North America are Douglas Fir, Noble Fir, Western Hemlock,
White Pine, White Cedar, and Yellow Poplar. The most readily available are Douglas Fir, White
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Pine, and Western Hemlock.
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As noted in the comparison chart below, Douglas Fir is a very acceptable alternative for spruce.
Its strength exceeds spruce by roughly 23%. It may be used as a substitute for spruce in same
sizes or slightly reduced sizes providing the reduction in size is substantiated. Fir does have a
tendency to split making it more difficult to work. It is also about 26% heavier than spruce. As
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you are allowed to use a smaller dimension due to the increased strength some aircraft
manufacturers route out a portion of a fir spar to save weight.
White Pine is 85-96% as strong as spruce. It is fairly soft and easy to work with. A number of kit
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manufacturers are using White Pine successfully within their designs. However, it is low in
hardness and shock resisting capability, and cannot be used as a direct substitute for spruce
without an increase in size to compensate for the lower strength.
Western Hemlock has been used in the construction of aircraft for a number of years. The
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strength properties slightly exceed spruce and the wood may be used as a direct substitute. It is
less uniform in texture than spruce and must be carefully selected.
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Certain other timbers are also approved for aircraft use around the world. In Australia these
include Bollywood, Bunya Pine, Hoop Pine, Klinki Pine, Queensland Maple, Silver Silkwood and
Silver Quandong.
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Australian regulations state that:

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The timber shall be of uniform colour. It shall be free from obvious and incipient decay, blue
stain, knots, shakes, splits, seasoning checks, internal checks, compression failures,
compression wood, resin and bark pockets, pith streaks, callus tissue, insect attack, wane or
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want, blemishes due to handling and other injuries, but the following imperfections are
permitted:
(a) Pin-knots and/or needle traces not exceeding 0.75 mm diameter and not closer than 50
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mm;
(b) Sloping grain as determined by the splitting test: not exceeding 1 in 16;
(c) Spring: not exceeding 1 in 600 or 5 mm in 3 m;
(d) Bow: not exceeding 1 in 300 or 10 mm in 3 m;
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(e) Twist: not exceeding 7 mm in 1 m2 of face area.

The moisture content of each plank shall be determined by means of an approved electrical
moisture meter. Tests shall be made at points approximately 500 mm from each end at the mid-
length. The three readings shall each be between 10 and 15 per cent, and the individual
readings shall not vary by more than 2 per cent in any plank.
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In laminated assemblages the difference in average moisture content between any two
laminations shall not exceed 3 per cent.
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The density of each plank shall not be less than 385 kg m 3 when the moisture content,
calculated on the weight of the oven-dried wood, is 12 per cent. For each 1 per cent increase or
decrease of moisture content from 12 per cent the density value shall be increased or
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decreased respectively at the rate of 1.92 kg m3.
Each plank accepted as complying with this specification shall be ink stamped with the following
particulars:
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(a) the standard name of the timber (i.e. Klinki);
(b) the number of this specification (DCA 108.22).
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Inspecting Wood For Aircraft Use
After timber has been cut it should be examined for defects. Some of the more common defects
are outlined in the following paragraphs.
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Dote Disease. This is the worst of all defects and does much damage to the wood. It is an
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inherent disease which only occurs at the base of the living tree. When the tree is felled it is cut
at a point ten feet or more above the ground as a precaution against the possibility of dote. Cut
pieces of timber should be examined not only on the sides but also on the ends; dote will be
recognised by the presence of brownish yellow patches, somewhat similar to thin mineral oil
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spots. Dote is contagious and any infected wood should be burnt.
Decay or Rot. A defect similar to dote disease can develop after a tree has been felled if the
timber is exposed to excessive soaking and partial drying. Dry-rot fungus requires a certain
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amount of moisture to establish itself but once the disease is established it thrives on the
moisture already in the wood. The decayed wood is brown in colour and appears as though it
had been charred; the timber is rendered soft and dry, and will flake off easily.
Incorrect Grain Inclination. The limit of grain inclination for spruce is 1 in 15 for grade A, and 1
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in 12 for grade B. The inclination should be checked to ensure that the above limits are not
exceeded. The most usual method of determining the inclination of the grain is by examining the
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flower-face of the timber to find the resin ducts. It will readily be seen whether they are straight
or inclined. If the inclination exceeds the limits specified, the timber should be classified in a
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lower grade.
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Heart-Shake. This defect usually follows the course of a sap duct longitudinally, and is usually
visible on the tangential surface. The use of a small size feeler gauge will assist in finding the
depth of the shake. The defect should be cut out of the timber.
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Ring-Shake. This defect is indicated by a parting of the annular rings. Ring-shakes are usually
caused by frost, particularly after a heavy rainfall. The defect should also be cut out of the
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timber.
Knots. There are several kinds of knots which may be encountered when examining cut timber;
among these are the dead-knot, the budknot and the pin-knot. The presence of any of these
knots can have a detrimental effect. Generally they should not be more than a quarter of an inch
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in diameter but no hard and fast rules can be specified; each case must be decided on its
merits. Timber with clusters of pin-knots in it should be rejected.
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Pitch Holes. There are two kinds of pitch holes, one being the horizontal type which usually
appears at the base of a knot, and the other the vertical type which is sometimes referred to as
a gum pocket. Gum pockets may be either “alive” (the gum seam has not dried out) or “dead”,
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and in the case of the latter, the timber should be rejected. Tests on “live” gum pockets indicate
that the timber in the region of the gum pocket usually gives a better result than the remainder
of the timber.
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Blue Stain. This defect only occurs in sapwood which should not be used in aircraft parts.
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Plywood
Aircraft grade plywood is normally made of birch wood veneers bonded together. The harvested
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birch log is cut to length, dressed to a circular cross section and steamed or hot water soaked to
soften it. It is then mounted in a lathe and a stationary knife the same length as the log is used
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to peel a continuous veneer of predetermined thickness as the log rotates. In this way up to
95% of the log can be used.
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The veneers are dried to about 6% moisture content then cut to size and inspected. Aircraft
grade (GL 1) plywood must be free from all technical defects and the veneers which make it up
are selected accordingly. Joints are allowed if the face veneers are matched in structure and
colour.
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The veneers are laid up with grain directions normally alternating at 90°, which, in 3 ply material,
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gives greater rigidity in the direction of the grain on the face veneers. A 45° offset is sometimes
used which gives greater rigidity in all directions and is slightly stronger, but more expensive to
produce. A controlled amount Phenolic resin glue is applied to each veneer and the assembly is
then placed in a hydraulic press and heated under pressure to cure the glue.
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The resultant plywood boards are available in panels 0.8 to 12mm thick and up to 1550 x 1550
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mm in size. They are stronger than an equivalent thickness solid wooden board because of the
cross grain assembly although slightly heavier. The Phenolic resin glue, while adding to the
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weight of the panel, offers a high degree of resistance to moisture and other environmental
factors.
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Other types of timber have been used and sometimes birch with a mahogany face ply is
specified for skins because of its resilience and finish properties. Thicker panels with a light
weight core such as balsa wood have been made for various specialist applications.
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With the careful application of moisture, heat and pressure, plywood can be moulded to fairly
complex shapes and is thus used for wing and fuselage skin panels. The World War 2
deHavilland Mosquito high performance bomber was built almost entirely of wood and the
fuselage was constructed in the following manner:
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The light, strong, very streamlined structure was formed by sandwiching 9.5 mm (three-eighths
inch) Ecuadorian balsa wood between Canadian birch plywood skins that varied in thickness
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from 4.5 mm to 6 mm (about ¼ inch). The plywood/balsa/plywood sandwich was formed inside
concrete moulds of each fuselage half. Each side also held seven birch plywood formers
(frames) reinforced with spruce blocks, plus bulkheads, floors, and other structural members. As
the glue cured, heated metal clamps held the skin layers tight to the mould. Technicians
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finished the edge of each half of the fuselage with male and female wedge joints as fitters
attached wiring and other equipment to the inner walls. Final fuselage assembly was
reminiscent of a typical plastic model airplane kit as the two halves were glued and screwed
together.
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Fabrication
All parts made for aircraft construction or repair must be fabricated in accordance with an
approved drawing. The type, size and grain direction of the timber should be clearly stated. Any
substitution of materials used must be made with the relative properties clearly understood. All
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material must be carefully inspected prior to use to ensure that there has been no deterioration
during transit and storage.
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Simple flat parts may be made from board, strip or sheet material and cut with a fine toothed
saw. A bench saw may be used for more substantial parts while a band saw is useful for
complex shapes but a good quality edge finish is essential. Parts may be planed to contour but
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sanding solid wood should be avoided to prevent the build-up of dust.
Pieces with more complex cross sections will be machined from plank or strip wood to provide
consistency.
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Curved parts like wing rib caps are made by soaking or steaming the strip material then
clamping it in a jig to set the bend. The curve set by the jig will normally be more pronounced
than the desired finished shape as the wood will always spring back slightly when removed.
This must be determined by experimentation. It may take several days for the wood to dry and
the shape to be set permanently.
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Wing spars may be produced an several ways. Solid wood spars have a high degree of strength
but are limited in size by timber availability and by weight in smaller applications. Where a
stronger wood such as Douglas Fir is substituted for spruce, the timber may be routed out on
both sides to produce an “I” beam. A 'solid' spar can also be produced by laminating several
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thinner pieces together with glue.

Box spars and built-up I beam spars can be fabricated to greater sizes, using smaller
component pieces. Box spars are often composed of solid or laminated transverse members
(Spar Booms or Caps) joined by plywood webs. Alternatively, two solid members can be routed
and bonded together to form and internally routed box spar. Built-up I beams usually consist of
a solid web with strips bonded to either side to form the spar cap.
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Wooden propellers are normally fabricated by lamination. Among the types of wood that can be
used are pine, beech, spruce, walnut and mahogany. The timber must be carefully selected due
to the extreme loads applied to it in service.
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The technique used will depend on the size of the propeller, number of blades required and the
facilities available. If the propeller is to be machine cut using a blade duplicator rough blanks of
adequate size may be cut, cleaned and bonded together under pressure using a resorcinol type
glue. If it is to be hand cut, each laminate may be pre-shaped to reduce the amount of work
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required in obtaining the final contour.
The central boss is the datum from which the form of the propeller is developed. Once this
position has been determined all measurements must be made from this point.
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When using a blade duplicating machine, the propeller blank will be bolted into the frame by its
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boss hole, adjacent to a blade pattern. Once set to suitable data the machine's stylus is used to
trace the pattern and it simultaneously cuts the blank to shape using a router. The blank is then
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turned through 180° about the boss and the second blade cut to shape (identical to the first).
Both blade blank and pattern can then be inverted and the reverse side of the blades cut in the
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same manner.
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When the propeller is to be hand cut, the blank is marked for leading and trailing edge contours
and predetermined cutting planes, carefully slot sawn and chiselled to shape. Great care must
be taken to ensure that each blade is accurate and identical.
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If the propeller is composed of three or more blades each one must be manufactured
separately. Again, it is of vital importance that all blades are identical. They are either bonded
together or attached to a hub, depending on the design.
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Upon completion, the assembled propeller must be sanded smooth. Any metal inserts such as
the boss and attachment hole bushes must be bonded in to the hub. It can then be varnished,
but may instead be skinned with fibre glass, carbon fibre or sometimes aluminium for added
durability.
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The finished blade must then be statically and dynamically balanced before use.
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Intentionally Blank
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Glue
General
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While woodscrews and bolts are used for critical joints in a timber airframe the vast majority of
joints are made with glue.
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Various glues have been used over the years and these include;
Casein – A powdered glue derived from milk protein, it deteriorates with moisture and
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temperature variations and is susceptible to fungal attack. It is therefore obsolete for aircraft use
but is still employed elsewhere. It leaves an alkaline residue which must be carefully removed
before a joint is re-glued with a more modern alternative.
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Plastic Resin Glues– Urea-Formaldehyde glues such as Aerolite were developed in the 1930s
and are still widely used. The glue powder contains urea, formaldehyde and a thickening filler
and is mixed with water for use. It must be used in conjunction with an acid catalyst/ hardener.
Normally the glue is applied to one surface and the hardener to the other, the two being
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immediately brought together and clamped. When mixed to a working consistency of thick
cream the glue has a pot life of 4-5 hours and when assembled with hardener, a setting time of
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1.5 - 4 hours. The joint attains maximum strength 3-5 days depending on temperature and
humidity. It has good gap bridging qualities and when cured has good resistance to moisture,
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temperature extremes and fuel. There is some question of the reliability of these glues in a
tropical environment and their use has been banned for primary structure in Australia, however
they are still approved for use in the USA and Europe.
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Resorcinol Glues - Two part Resorcinol-Formaldehyde glue such as Aerodux. Comprised of a

resin and a hardener which are mixed prior to use, it has a pot life of 3-4 hours and a setting
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time of 8 hours. The joint reaches full mechanical strength after approximately 1 week. The
resin often contains a filler such as ground nut shell which gives some gap bridging properties.
When cured it has high resistance to temperatures and chemical attack, and is waterproof.
When sanded, the dust may cause a severe allergic reaction.
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Epoxy Resin – Various high strength two part resin systems and structural adhesives are
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available. With a pot life ranging from 3-4 minutes to several hours, and cure times from under 1
hour at room temperature, Epoxy glues are very versatile. Waterproof and chemical resistant,
there is, however, some question over the long-term durability of these resins exposed to high
temperatures. Epoxy resin softens at elevated temperatures and, although it regains its original
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strength when cooled, any unusual load applied in its softened state may weaken the joint.
Uncured components can cause allergic reaction.
Other glues which may be encountered include Phenol-Formaldehyde, aliphatic resin and
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Polyurethane resin.
The maximum time allowed between applying the glue and joining the parts together is called
the Open Assembly Time. The maximum time between joining the parts and applying pressure
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and heat is the Closed Assembly Time. Handling or Setting time is the period after which the
joint can be unclamped and moved. Cure time is the time taken for the full chemical reaction to

occur and maximum strength to be achieved, it may be the same as the setting time but is often
considerably longer. All these times vary with temperature and humidity so it is important to
consult the manufacturers data sheets.
It is important to use only glues approved for aircraft construction and follow the constructors
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recommendations. The glue manufacturers preparation and mixing instructions must also be
closely adhered to, to obtain the optimum properties of the product. For example the pot life of
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Aerolite may be extended by adding more water to the mix, but the resultant joints in softwood
will be weaker because the thinner glue soaks into the wood, away from the glue line. The cure
time of most glues can be accelerated with the application of heat but excessive heating
disrupts the chemical reaction and weakens the bond.
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When properly used the glue should be stronger than the wood it is joining. When home
building from a kit or from plans an inspector may ask for a test piece from each batch of glue
used. This will be tested to destruction to ensure the wood fails before the glue and prove the
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integrity of the glue mix and joining technique.
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Glued Joints
When manufacturing or repairing aircraft structure, the grain orientation of the wood used is of
great importance. Generally the designers plans or repair scheme will indicate the grain
direction to be used, but if it is not specified it must be remembered that the direction with the
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greatest strength is along the grain. Consideration of the purpose of the joint and the likely loads
on it will indicate the grain direction to be used for optimum strength.
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Most joints in a wooden aircraft structure are butt joints where two or more components meet or
cross. The strength of end grain joints is limited and will usually depend on the surface area in
contact so it is often necessary to add corner blocks, gussets or splice plates to increase the
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contact area and distribute loads.
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Longitudinal members are joined by scarf joints, where both parts are tapered and the taper
faces are bonded together. For maximum strength the material should be tapered at between
12:1 and 15:1, a greater taper reduces the strength because the wood becomes too thin at the
ends of the joint, while a smaller taper reduces the contact area.
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Repair parts can sometimes be spliced in using a scarf joint without need of doublers, thus
retaining the original contour and thickness. Primary structural members usually require
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doublers on both sides of the joint, staggered as shown below to transfer the loads across the
joint.
Plywood skins are also joined by scarfing but a high degree of accuracy is required when
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preparing the joint to ensure a good bond and smooth joint.
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Joint preparation is of paramount importance. It should be remembered that the properties of

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both the timber and the glue are affected by temperature and humidity so pieces of wood that
are to be joined should be kept in the same environment for at least 12 hours.

The surfaces to be joined must be planed flat and smooth to ensure intimate contact. Do not
use sandpaper on new timber as this fills the pores in the wood with minute dust particles and
reduces adhesion. It is permissible to lightly sand old, polished or hard surfaces and plywood,
but not to the extent that the flatness is altered. Any irregularities such as chips or damaged
grain will weaken the joint despite the gap bridging properties of most glues. The joint area
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should be thoroughly cleaned with a vacuum cleaner immediately prior to gluing.
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The surfaces must be clean and dry, free from any grease, wax, varnish, dope or old glue. A
Wetting Test may be used to check for contamination. A drop of water is placed on the surface
and observed. If it spreads rapidly (in seconds or minutes) it is an indication that the surface
may be bonded successfully. The surface must be thoroughly dried before any glue is applied.
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Glue should be applied thinly and evenly to the surfaces to be bonded in the manner specified
by the manufacturer. The parts must then be brought together as quickly as possible (within the
Open Assembly Time) to prevent ingress of contaminants and to allow any small adjustments in
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position or alignment before hardening starts (within the Closed Assembly Time). Pressure must
be applied evenly, especially where large contact areas are involved. This excludes air pockets
and produces a thin, continuous film of glue (the Glue or Bond Line) ensuring maximum
mechanical strength. Excess glue should be removed around the joint while still wet, and heat
applied as necessary.
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Assembly
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Small screws, nails or staples may be used to apply pressure to the parts during the setting
process but these are usually removed when the joint is fully cured. Care must be taken that the
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metal fastener does not split small parts or cause excessive grain damage, the head should be
seated on the surface without crushing the fibres. Because pressure must be even, multiple
rows of nails may be needed. The nails should be 1 inch apart in rows ½ inch apart staggered
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so that each one is no more than ¾ inch from the next. They should penetrate the lower
member of the joint by at least 3/8 inch but must not protrude through it. On small joints, thin
plywood nailing strips may be used to spread the load.
When applying varnish to protect the finished structure you must ensure all nail holes are
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properly sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture. Screw holes may need to be sealed with a
proprietary filler before varnishing.
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Where possible screw clamps, spring clamps and hydraulic or electric presses are the preferred
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method of applying pressure to the joints as they do not damage the fabric of the timber. The
pressure required varies depending on the type of timber and the glue to be used. Softwood

joined by a Resorcinol-Formaldehyde resin type glue will typically require 125-150 pounds per
square inch while hardwood will need 150-200 pounds per square inch. Always consult the glue
manufacturer‟s instructions.
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Protection
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After assembly of a structure or repair, the timber and joints must be thoroughly protected to
prevent the wood from drying out and becoming brittle, or rotting due to excess moisture. This is
done by the application of an approved varnish or lacquer to all surfaces of the structure.
The varnishes normally used nowadays are two part Epoxy resins which provide excellent
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protection and do not react with the solvents and dopes used for fabric coverings as
polyurethane varnishes are prone to.
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Inspection
There is no reason why aircraft constructed in these materials should not have a satisfactory life
provided they are protected from the adverse effects of extreme temperature and humidity and
are kept in suitable hangars when not in use. It must be remembered that the controlled
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moisture content in seasoned wood is essential for its strength. Long-term storage in hot, dry
conditions can be as detrimental as cold damp ones.
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Glued Structures
Provided that protective varnish was applied to all exposed wood surfaces after gluing and
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satisfactorily maintained during the life of an aircraft, rapid deterioration of timber and glued
joints would be unlikely. However, access to internal structure is often difficult or even
impossible and deterioration takes place for a variety of reasons.
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Some of the main factors which may cause deterioration are:
 Chemical reactions of the glue itself due to ageing or moisture, to extremes of

temperature or to a combination of these factors.



Mechanical forces due mainly to timber shrinkage.
Development of mycological growths (i.e. fungus).
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Oil percolating from the engine installation.
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 Fuel contamination due to system leaks or spillage in the tank bays.
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 Blockage of water drainage holes.
Aircraft which are exposed to large cyclic changes of temperature and humidity are especially
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prone to timber shrinkage which in turn may lead to glue deterioration. The amount of
movement of timber members due to these changes varies with the volume of each member,
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the rate of growth of the tree from which the timber was cut and the way in which the timber was
converted. Thus, two major members in an aircraft structure, secured to each other by glue, are
unlikely to have identical characteristics and differential loads will, therefore, be transmitted
across the glue film with changes of humidity. This will impose stresses in the glued joint which,
in temperate zones, can normally be accommodated when the aircraft is new and for some
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years afterwards. However, with age the glue tends to deteriorate, even when the aircraft is
maintained under ideal conditions and stresses at the glued joint, due to changes in
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atmospheric conditions, may cause failure of the joint.
In most wooden aircraft the main spars are of box formation consisting of long top and bottom
transverse members (i.e. spar booms) joined by plywood webs. The spar booms may be built
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up from laminations glued together and at intervals vertical wooden blocks are positioned
between the two booms to add support to the plywood sides. The main spars carry most of the
loads in flight and are, at times, subject to flexing. The glued joints should, therefore, be free
from deterioration but, unless the spar is dismantled or holes cut in the webs, internal inspection
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may be virtually impossible.
Long exposure to inclement weather or strong sunlight will tend to destroy the weatherproofing
qualities of fabric coverings and of surface finishes generally. If fabric-covered ply structures are
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neglected under these conditions the surface finish will crack, allowing moisture to penetrate to
the wooden structure and resulting in considerable deterioration through water soakage.
Structural Survey
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Before commencing a detailed examination of an aircraft structure, the aircraft should be
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inspected externally for signs of gross deformation, such as warped wing structures, tail
surfaces out of alignment or evidence of obvious structural failure. In some cases of advanced
deterioration this assessment may be sufficient to pronounce the aircraft beyond economical
repair and thus avoid further work.
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Whenever possible the aircraft should be housed in a dry, well ventilated hangar and all
inspection panels, covers and hatches removed before continuing with the survey. The aircraft
should be thoroughly dried out before examining glued joints or carrying out repairs.
Immediately after opening the inspection panels, etc., each component should be checked for
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smell. A musty smell indicates fungal growth or dampness and, if present, necessitates further
examination to establish which areas are affected.
Where the wings, fuselage or tail unit are designed as integral stressed structures, such as
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inner and outer ply skins glued and screwed to structural members (Double Skin Structure,
below left) no appreciable departure from the original contour or shape is acceptable.
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Where single skin plywood structures are concerned, some slight sectional undulation or
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panting between panels may be permissible provided the timber and glue is sound. However,
where such conditions exist, a careful check must be made of the attachment of the ply to its
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supporting structure and moderate pressure with the hand, to push the ply from the structure,
should be used. A typical example of a distorted Single Skin Structure is illustrated below right.
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The contours and alignment of leading and trailing edges are of particular importance and a
careful check should be made for deformities. Any distortion of these light ply and spruce
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structures indicates deterioration and a careful internal inspection should be made for security
of these parts to the main wing structure. If a general deterioration is found in these components
the main wing structure may also be affected.
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Where there are access panels or inspection covers on the top surfaces of wings or tailplane,
care is necessary to ensure that water has not entered at these points where it can remain
trapped to attack the surrounding structure.
Splits in the proofed fabric covering on plywood surfaces should be investigated by removing
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the defective fabric in order to ascertain whether the ply skin beneath is serviceable. It is
common for a split in the ply skin to be the cause of a similar defect in the protective fabric
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covering.
Fabric having age cracks and thick with repeated dopings, may indicate that the structure
underneath has not been critically examined for a considerable time. Insertion patches in the
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fabric could also indicate that structural repairs have been made at that point.
Whilst a preliminary survey of the external structure may be useful in roughly assessing the
general condition of the aircraft, it should be noted that timber and glue deterioration often takes
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place inside a structure without any external indications. Where moisture can enter a structure,
it will tend to find the lowest point, where it will stagnate and promote rapid deterioration. Other
causes of glue deterioration are listed above.
Timber And Glued Joints

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Assessment of the integrity of glued joints in aircraft structures presents considerable difficulties
since there is no positive non-destructive method of examination which will give a clear
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indication of the condition of the glue and timber inside a joint. The position is made more
difficult by the lack of accessibility for visual inspection.
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The inspection of a complete aircraft for glue or wood deterioration will necessitate checks on
remote parts of the structure which may be known, or suspected trouble spots and, in many
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instances, are boxed in or otherwise inaccessible. In such instances, considerable dismantling

is required and it may be necessary to cut access holes in ply structures to facilitate the
inspection; such work must be done only in accordance with approved drawings or the repair
manual for the aircraft concerned and, after the inspection has been completed, the structure
must be made good and protected in an approved manner.
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NOTE: Where access is required and no approved scheme exists, a scheme should be
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obtained from the aircraft manufacturer or an Organisation appropriately approved by the

Authorities for such work.
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Access Holes
In general, access holes are circular in shape and should be cut with a sharp trepanning tool to
avoid jagged edges. It is essential to avoid applying undue pressure to the tool, especially
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towards the end of the cut, otherwise damage may be caused to the inner face of the panel by
stripping off the edge fibres or the ply laminations.
Where rectangular access holes are prescribed care is necessary to ensure that they are
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correctly located and that corner radii are in accordance with drawing requirements.

The edges of all access holes must be smoothed with fine glass paper, preferably before
inspection is commenced, since contact with the rough edges may cause wood fibres to be
pulled away.
It is important that the whole of the aircraft structure, including its components, e.g. tailplane,
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elevators, etc., is inspected in detail before any decision is reached regarding general condition.
It is possible for the main airframe to be in good condition but for a marked deterioration to have
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occurred in, for example, a control surface.
Glue Line
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When checking a glue line (i.e. the edge of the glued joint) for condition, all protective coatings
of paint should be removed by careful scraping; it is important to ensure that the wood is not
damaged during the scraping operation and scraping should cease immediately the wood is
revealed in its natural state and the glue line is clearly discernible.
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The inspection of the glue line is often facilitated by the use of a magnifying glass. Where the
glue line tends to part or where the presence of glue cannot be detected or is suspect, then,
providing the wood is dry, the glue line should be probed with a thin feeler gauge and, if any
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penetration is possible, the joint should be regarded as defective.
NOTE: It is important to ensure that the surrounding wood is dry, otherwise a false impression
of the glue line would be obtained due to closing of the joint by swelling. In instances where
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pressure is exerted on a joint, either by the surrounding structure or by metal attachment

devices such as bolts or screws, a false impression of the glue condition could be obtained
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unless the joint is relieved of this pressure before the glue line inspection is carried out.
The choice of feeler gauge thickness will vary with the type of structure, but a rough guide is
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that the thinnest possible gauge should be used. The diagrams opposite indicate the points
where checks with a feeler gauge should be made.
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Timber Condition
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Dry rot and wood decay are not usually difficult to detect. Dry rot is indicated by small patches
of crumbling wood, whilst a dark discolouration of the wood surface or grey streaks of stain
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running along the grain are indicative of water penetration. Where such discolouration cannot
be removed by light scraping the part should be rejected, but local staining of the wood by the
dye from a synthetic adhesive hardener can, of course, be disregarded.
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Compression-Shake
When wood has been subjected to compression overload along the wood grains, the grains
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exhibit microscopic slip planes and creases (also known as failures). If a large section of wood
is subjected to compression overload a well-defined visible wrinkle across the face of the wood,
known as a compression shake, may be present. The presence of either microscopic
compression failures or visible shakes seriously reduces the load bearing capacity of the wood.
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However, experience indicates that even the visible compression shakes may be difficult to
detect. The evidence of a shake is usually associated with a sudden change of a member's

cross-section, which is often directly at the side of a doubler. Shakes could be extremely subtle
and hidden by paintwork or other surface features that hinder their detection.
A compression shake may result from abnormal bending overloads often experienced during
relatively innocuous situations such as a heavy landing or a landing gear collapse. Unlike a
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crack in metal, a compression shake in wood does not progress during the aircraft‟s normal
utilisation. However, once the wood is subjected to a load in excess of its reduced load bearing
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capacity, it may catastrophically fail without any warning.
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Water Penetration of Structure

In some instances where water penetration is suspected, the removal of a few screws from the
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area in question will reveal, by their degree of corrosion, the condition of the surrounding joint
(see opposite left).
 Slight corrosion of the screw due to the adhesive will occur following the original
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construction, therefore, the condition of the screw should be compared with that of a
similar screw, removed from another part of the structure known to be free from water
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soakage.
NOTE: Plain brass screws are normally used for reinforcing glued wooden members, although
zinc coated brass is sometimes used. Where hard woods such as mahogany or ash are
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concerned, steel screws are sometimes used. Unless otherwise specified by the aircraft
constructor, it is usual to replace screws with new screws of identical length but one size larger.
 Another means of ascertaining if water penetration has taken place is to remove the bolts
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holding fittings at spar root-end joints, aileron hinge brackets, etc (opposite right).
Primary joints may have bushed holes and the bushes should also be withdrawn.
Corrosion on the surface of these bolts and bushes and timber discolouration, will
provide a useful indication of any water penetration which has taken place. Bolts and
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bushes should be smeared with an approved protective treatment before being refitted
through wooden members.

NOTE: When refitting bolts it is important to ensure that the same number of
shrinkage washers are fitted as were fitted originally.
 Experience of a particular aircraft will indicate those portions of the structure most prone
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to water penetration and moisture entrapment (e.g. at window rails or the bottom lower
structure of entry doors), but it must be borne in mind that this is not necessarily
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indicative of the condition of the complete aircraft.
 Where drain holes have become blocked, water soakage will invariably be found. Drain
holes should be cleared during routine maintenance.
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Water Penetration of Top Surfaces

As indicated above, the condition of the proofed-fabric covering on ply surfaces is of great
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importance. If any doubt exists regarding its proofing qualities or if there are any signs of poor
adhesion, cracks, or other damage, it should be peeled back to reveal the ply skin.
 The condition of the exposed ply surface should be examined and if water penetration
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has occurred, this will be shown by dark grey streaks along the grain and a dark
discolouration at ply joints or screw countersunk holes, together with patches of
discolouration. If these marks cannot be removed by light scraping or, in the case of
advanced deterioration, where there are small surface cracks or separation of the ply
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laminations, then the ply should be rejected. Where evidence of water penetration is
found, sufficient of the surfaces should be stripped to determine its extent.

 Providing good care is taken of the protective covering from the beginning, much
deterioration can be avoided.
Miscellaneous Defects
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During the inspection of the aircraft, the structure should be examined for other defects of a
more mechanical nature. Guidance on such defects is given in the following paragraphs.
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 Shrinkage. Shrinkage of timber, as well as inducing stresses in glued joints, can cause
looseness of metal fittings or bolts and, if fluctuating loads are present, can result in
damage to the wood fibres at the edges of the fittings or around the bolt holes. Shrinkage
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can be detected by removing any paint or varnish as described previously and attempting
to insert a thin feeler gauge between the timber and the fitting or bolt head.
 Elongated Bolt Holes. Where bolts secure fittings which take load carrying members, or
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where the bolts are subject to landing or shear loads, the bolt holes should be examined
for elongation or surface crushing of the wood fibres. The bolts should be removed to
facilitate the examination and, in some cases, the bolt itself may be found to be strained.
Rectification of elongated bolt holes must be carried out in accordance with the approved
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Repair Manual, the usual method being to open out the holes and fit steel bushes.
Bruising and Crushing. A check should be made for evidence of damage such as
bruises or crushing of structural members, which can be caused, for example, by over
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tightening bolts. Repair schemes for such damage are governed by the extent and depth
of the defect.
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 Previous Repairs. When examining a structure for signs of the defects mentioned
above, particular attention should be paid to the integrity of repairs which may have been
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carried out previously.

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Joint Failure
A glued joint may fail in service as a result of an accident or due to excessive mechanical loads
having been imposed upon it, either in tension or in shear. It is often difficult to decide the
nature of the load which caused the failure, but it should be borne in mind that glued joints are
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generally designed to take shear loads.
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If a joint is designed to take tension loads, it will be secured by a number of bolts or screws (or
both) fairly closely pitched in the area of tension loading. If a failure occurs in this area, it is
usually very difficult to form an opinion of the actual reasons for it, due to the considerable
break-up of the timber occurring in close proximity with the fasteners.
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In all cases of glued joint failure, whatever the direction of loading, there should be a fine layer
of wood fibres adhering to the glue, whether or not the glue has come away completely from
one section of the wood member. If there is no evidence of fibre adhesion, this may indicate
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glue deterioration, but if the imprint of wood grain is visible in the glue this is generally due to
„case hardening‟ of the glue during construction of the joint and the joint has always been below
strength. If the glue exhibits a certain amount of crazing or star shaped patterns, this indicates
too rapid setting, or the pot life of the glue having been exceeded. In these cases, the other
glued joints in the aircraft should be considered suspect.
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Damage caused by a heavy landing may be found some distance away from the landing gear
attachment points. Secondary damage can be introduced by transmission of shock from one
end of a strut or bracing to its opposite end, causing damage well away from the point of impact.
A thorough inspection of the existing paint or varnish at suspected primary or secondary impact
points may reveal, by cracks or flaking, whether damage has actually occurred.
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6.3.3 Fabric Covering
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General
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In the very early days of aviation an aeroplane consisted of a wooden framework braced with
wires, and a fabric covering on the wings, stabilisers and control surfaces for aerodynamic
purposes. It soon became apparent that covering the fuselage not only reduced the drag
generated by the structure and improved the aircraft‟s efficiency but also offered the pilot some
protection from the elements!
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Although metal and plywood were used for engine cowls and cockpit walls, fabric continued to
be the main form of airframe covering through to the mid 1930s despite the changes in
framework material to steel tube and aluminium. By World War II stressed metal skinned
semimonocoque airframes allowed far greater performance to be achieved and the full
advantages of the gas turbine engine to be realised. However, fabric covering was still
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employed in less demanding environments such as low performance aircraft and the control
surfaces of large aircraft. In fact, because of the weight advantages, fabric covered rudders,
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ailerons and elevators were used on some large aircraft through to the 1950s. Since then only
light aircraft have been fabric covered.
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Before the 1960‟s the majority fabric covered aircraft used organic mediums such as Cotton or
Linen. This was treated with dope which tightened the fabric and protected it from moisture and
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sunlight. Since the 60‟s synthetic, or man-made, fabrics such as polyester and glass fibre have
rapidly become the norm.
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The natural fabric covering materials and processes have shortcomings not associated with
synthetic fabrics. Their greater flammability, degeneration due to exposure to mildew and
fungus, difficulty in application and greater susceptibility to the ultraviolet (UV) light, all combine
to dictate a fabric replacement interval of 10 to 15 years. Because of this many older aircraft
have been re-covered using the new synthetic materials.
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However, synthetic fabrics also have an inherent maintenance shortcoming. Since their
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resilience can lead to replacement intervals far greater than those of natural fabrics, up to 25
years, this causes greater intervals between airframe structural inspection opportunities.
Structural deterioration can go undetected for many years causing a slow decline of the
aircraft‟s structural integrity. Timely inspection of airframe structures is of equal importance to
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wooden or composite airframes as it is to metal structures. Extensive examination of any

structure requires the complete removal of the fabric for adequate and comprehensive
inspection.
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Regardless of the fabric used, it must be fitted tightly to the airframe to maintain the
aerodynamic contours, and securely attached to transfer air loads to the structure and prevent
fretting and distortion . The methods of tightening and attachment vary depending on the fabric
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type used.

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Materials
Fabrics
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Aircraft fabrics are woven either from threads or „yarns‟ of spun natural fibres or from manmade
monofilaments. Natural fibre fabrics like cotton and linen have a „nap‟, a soft surface of loose
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fibre ends, while monofilaments such as polyester and glass extend to the ends of the fabric
unbroken. Threads running lengthwise are termed the „warp‟ and those running crosswise are
termed the „weft‟ (or „woof‟ or „fill‟ in the United States). The number of yarns per inch varies with
different weights of fabric and is not necessarily the same in both warp and weft. The non-
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fraying edge of the fabric is termed the „selvedge‟. The woven fabric is supplied as a roll or 'bolt'.
Tapes
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Cloth tapes compatible with each of the fabric types are available in various widths for covering
leading edges, trailing edges and ribs, and for repair work. The materials are often supplied with
serrated or „pinked' edges and sometimes self-adhesive versions are available. Special anti-
chafe tape is generally used on those members where chafing may occur between the structure
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and the fabric and also externally to protect the fabric against damage by the stringing cord.
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Thread
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Compatible threads for sewing are used for both manufacture and repair. For hand sewing
thread of 7 - 16lb breaking strength is used single or double as required. For machine sewing
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thread of 10 lb breaking strength is normally used.

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Stringing cord
Flax or Nylon Stringing or Lacing cord of around 60 lb breaking strength is normally used.
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Cotton and Linen Fabrics
General
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Cotton fabrics are produced in a range of weaves and weights, each having different properties.
They are made from spun threads of mercerised cotton fibre (Mercerisation is a chemical
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process which increases the tensile strength of the fibre and its absorption characteristics)
which are selected and woven into a cloth to meet the required specification. Normally plain
weave – one over, one under – is used.
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When new, Grade A Cotton fabric has a tensile strength of 80 lbs per inch, a tearing strength of
5 lbs and a thread count of 80-84 threads per inch. It is used on aircraft with a wing loading of
more than 9 lb/square foot or a never exceed speed (Velocity-never exceed - Vne) above 160
mph including large, aerobatic and agricultural aeroplanes. Medium weight Cotton has a tensile
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strength of 65 lbs per inch, a tearing strength of 4 lbs and a thread count of 80-94 threads per
inch. It is used on aircraft with a wing loading of less than 9 lb/square foot or Vne below 160
mph such as standard light aeroplanes. Light weight Cotton has a tensile strength of 50 lbs per
inch, a tearing strength of 3 lbs and a thread count of up to 110 threads per inch. It is used on
and gliders.
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aircraft with a wing loading of less than 8 lb/square foot or Vne below 135 mph like microlights
Madapolam is a bleached cotton fabric with a soft finish used for covering wooden surfaces
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such as plywood skins.
Linen is made from Flax fibres, each 2 – 3 times stronger than cotton, spun into yarn and woven
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in the same manner. It is darker in colour than cotton and is recognisable by its irregular thread
size and spacing. Used mainly by the British aircraft industry, it is approved for repairs to old
aircraft.
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Both cotton and linen fabric are normally attached to the airframe by stringing or stitching and
tensioned using tautening cellulose nitrate (“nitrate”) or cellulose acetate butyrate (“butyrate” or
“CAB”) dope.
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Being organic, both cotton and linen fabrics have a tendency to absorb moisture and are prone
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to damage from fungal attack such as mildew and rot. They are a tempting food source for
insects and vermin and they also deteriorate when exposed to ultra-violet radiation. They are
flammable and combustion is accelerated by certain types of dope. It is, therefore, vital that
protective finishes such as dope and paint are kept in good condition and the aircraft is stored in
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a safe and suitable environment.

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Glass Fibre Fabric
Glass Fibre is produced as a monofilament and it's fabrics are generally stronger than cotton or
polyester. They are not susceptible to moisture, fuel, oil or ultraviolet but will deteriorate if
exposed to acid rain. Often used to cover wings, tail planes and flying control surfaces, Glass
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fibre does not shrink with heat and tightens only slightly with tautening dope and so must be
tensioned when fitted.
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Glass fibres do not burn, however dopes and paints used with it may support combustion.
The cloth may be pre-treated to make it compatible with butyrate dope and is sometimes
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supplied coated with dope to prevent weave distortion. Nitrate dopes are not used with glass
cloth.
Polyester Fabric
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Polyester fabric is a durable man made polymer which is resistant to moisture, acids, alkalis,
fuel and oils. It is susceptible to deterioration when exposed to ultraviolet radiation and must
therefore be completely covered by protective coatings in service.
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The material is produced by polymerisation of selected acids and alcohols, extruded in its
molten state to form filaments. The filaments are then heat stretched to the desired denier (or
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diameter) of fibre prior to weaving. The heat stretching imparts a “memory” into the fibre,
enabling it to shrink back when sufficient heat is applied, however, overheating will cancel the
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memory and cause the fabric to stretch and become thinner. Excessive heat will cause the
material to melt and burn.
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Polyester fabric comes in different weights and strengths. The most common fabrics are light
weight, medium weight, and heavy-duty. Light weight fabric weighs 1.7 ounces per square yard.
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That equates to a total fabric weight of about 9 pounds on a typical light aircraft. Medium weight
fabric weighs 2.7 ounces per square yard bringing the total weight of fabric only to about 14
pounds for a light aircraft. Heavy-duty fabric weighs in at 3.4 ounces per square yard bringing
the weight up to about 18 pounds. Typically, the coatings – dope and paint - will add 30-40
additional pounds to the overall weight. This is dependent upon the process applied.
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The strength of fabrics varies from a breaking strength of about 70 pounds per square inch for
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light weight fabric up to about 130 pounds per square inch for heavy-duty. Selection of fabric for
an aircraft should always be in accordance with the manufacturers or designers instructions.
Typically an ultralight, glider, or an airplane with a small horsepower engine (below 65 HP) can
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safely use light weight fabric. For an aerobatic aircraft, large bi-plane, vintage warplane or
agricultural crop duster, in short any high wing loading aircraft operating under severe
conditions, use heavy-duty fabric. All other aeroplanes (this constitutes the majority) should use
the medium weight fabric. If in doubt, err on the side of caution, problems are much more likely
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to occur if a lighter weight fabric than the one recommended is used.
The fabric may be attached to the structure by stringing or by use of fabric adhesive. As
Polyester shrinks with the application of moderate heat, a domestic iron can be used to tighten it
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onto an aircraft structure. If a tautening dope is used after heat shrinking the fabric may become
over tensioned, causing damage to the structure. It is, therefore, important to use only the dope

specified by the cloth or covering system manufacturer. These may be of the non-tautening
nitrate and butyrate types, or more modern polyurethane or vinyl dopes.
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Note: Poly-Fiber, Ceconite, HIPEC and Superflite use the same fabric but the dopes and
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techniques used with each make them distinctive processes, covered by different
Supplemental Type Certificates (STC‟s). Mixing of materials and chemicals, including
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processes and application methods, voids the STC, making the repair un-approved.
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Aircraft Dope
Dope is primarily used to protect the fabric covering of an aircraft from damage by
environmental factors such as moisture, sunlight and pollution. It also prevents the passage of
air through the fabric and reduces friction, which improves the efficiency of the airframe. Certain
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dopes have the property that they shrink when drying and tighten the fabric. Most dopes can be
used to stick fabric patches onto the covering for repairs and access holes and, sometimes, to
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stick the fabric to the structure.
To obtain an even coating over large areas it is normal to spray the dope using an air pressure
spray gun. The initial coat, and dope applied to small areas and repairs may be brushed on but
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care must be taken to ensure the coat is even and not to thick.
The type of dope used depends on a number of factors including the type of fabric, the type of
varnish used on wooden structure, the environment in which the aircraft will be stored and
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operated, the performance requirements of the aeroplane and it‟s covering, and the availability
of the materials.
The main types in use are;


cellulose nitrate – „nitrate‟
cellulose acetate butyrate – „butyrate‟ or „CAB‟
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 polyurethane
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 vinyl
Dopes are principally comprised of Resins or 'Film Formers' to provide the base, Plasticizers to
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ensure flexibility and prevent brittleness, Pigments to exclude light and add colour, and Solvents
to thin the solution to a working consistency. A Retarder or Anti-Blush thinner is sometimes
used, this contains slow drying solvents which prevent the temperature drop and consequent
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condensation which cause blushing in a dope finish. A fungicide may be included in the
formulation or added to the first coat for additional fabric protection.
Among the pigments used are Red (iron) Oxide, sometimes added to clear dope to improve its
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durability and adhesion, and aluminium powder or paste is added to light-proof the coating.
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Covering
General
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The structure to be covered should be inspected for foreign objects and adequacy of protective
treatments. All comers or edges and any projections such as bolts or screw heads likely to
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contact the fabric must be covered with anti-chafe tape. Where serious chafing may occur and a
strong reinforcement is required, a canvas or leather patch may be sewn to a fabric patch, then
doped into position.
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In order to prevent dope from reacting with any protective treatment and to prevent fabric from
adhering to wooden structure, all aerofoil members which will be in contact with the fabric are
normally covered with adhesive cellulose or aluminium tape, or painted with dope-resistant
white paint.
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Where stringing is likely to be chafed by parts of the structure, protection should be provided by
wrapping such parts with cotton tape. Before the tape is applied the structure should be treated
with varnish to protect it from corrosion should the tape become wet.
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An aircraft fabric may be fitted with the warp or weft running at 45° to the slipstream, or in line
with the slipstream. The former (bias) method is generally considered to be stronger and more
resistant to tearing, but the latter method is used on most light aircraft. The method used in a
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particular instance should follow that of the original manufacture unless otherwise approved.
Prefabricated Envelopes
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A number of manufacturers produce fabric envelopes for re-covering various models of aircraft.
Separate envelopes are made up from patterns for the mainplanes, fuselage, tailplane. fin and
flying control surfaces and greatly simplify the task of re-covering. The envelopes are made
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loose enough to facilitate slipping them over the structure and to achieve the proper tautness
after doping.
Mainplanes. The envelope is drawn over the wing tip and gradually worked down over the
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mainplane, generally keeping the spanwise seam in line with the trailing edge. When the cover
is located it is secured (by stitching, cementing, or retaining strip) to the inboard end of the
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mainplane, any necessary openings for cables, struts, tank caps, etc., are cut and stringing is
applied as necessary.
Fuselage. The fin and fuselage envelopes are often supplied separately and in some cases the
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fuselage envelope is open, or partially open, at the bottom, to simplify fitting. The fin envelope is
usually fitted first, then the fuselage envelope is stretched forwards over the fuselage and
secured in the same way as the original fabric. The cover is usually cemented or doped to the
fuselage formers.
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Control Surfaces. Control surface envelopes are usually left open at the hinge line, where they
are secured by cementing, doping or stitching.
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―Blanket‖ Method of Covering
With this method a bolt of fabric is used and covers are made-up on the site. Lengths of fabric,
or a number of lengths joined side-by-side, being used to cover the aircraft structure.
Mainplanes and Tailplanes. The cover is normally made-up from lengths of fabric machine-
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stitched together side-by-side. This is laid round the surface, starting and finishing at the trailing
edge and joined by hand stitching. On some aircraft with light alloy structure, hand stitching is
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dispensed with, the cover edges being wrapped round the tip and trailing edge and doped into
position. The cover is then attached to the ribs by stringing.
Fuselage. A number of different methods are used to attach fabric to the fuselage. The fabric is
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not normally attached in one piece, but usually consists of several pieces (e.g. sides, top and
bottom, which are doped separately onto the frame, or sewn together at their edges. Joins or
seams are covered with doped-on tape. Since the air loads on the fuselage are not as great as
on the mainplanes, it is not usual to employ stringing, although it may be specified in some
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instances.
Control Surfaces. These are covered in a similar way to the mainplanes and usually require
stringing. The fabric is normally folded round the hinge line, since this is usually straight and
sewn together round the remaining contour of the surface.
Seams, Stitches and Stringing

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The seams in the fabric covering should be either parallel to the fore-and-aft line of the aircraft
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or on a bias, depending on the covering method used. With the exception of trailing edge or
leading edge joints (where such action cannot be avoided) seams should never be made at
right angles to the direction of airflow. Two types of machined seams are employed, the balloon
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seam and the lap seam.

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The Balloon Seam. The balloon seam, sometimes referred to as the „French Fell‟, is normally
specified for all fabric joints and is illustrated below. To make the seam, the edges of the fabric
are folded back 0.625 in (16 mm) and are then fitted into each other as shown, tacked together
and then machine sewn with nine stitches per inch (four stitches per centimetre) in two parallel
lines 0.375 in (9 mm) apart and 0.125 in (3 mm) from either edge. After completion, the seam
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should be examined over a strong electric light (preferably a light-box) to ensure that the inside
edges of the fabric have not been missed during sewing.
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The Lap Seam. The lap seam, illustrated below, should only be used when specified by the
manufacturer. Unless the selvedges are present, the edges of the fabric should be serrated with
„pinking‟ shears. The edges should overlap each other by 1.25 in (31 mm) and should be
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machine sewn with nine stitches per inch (four stitches per centimetre), the stitch lines being 0.5
in (12 mm) apart and 0.375 in (9 mm) from the edges. After stitching, a 3 in (75 mm) wide
serrated-edge fabric strip should be doped in position.
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Hand Sewing. Apart from the herring-bone stitch and the boot stitch, which are used for repair
work and are described later, the only other stitches used are the overhand stitch (sometimes
referred to as the „trailing-edge‟ stitch) and the lock stitch. The overhand stitch is used for
trailing edges, wing tips, wing root ends and wherever a sudden change of section occurs.
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Overhand Stitch. Sufficient excess fabric should be allowed for turning under before sewing is
commenced; a 0.5 in (12 mm) turn-under is usually sufficient. An even gap of about 0.25 in (6
mm) (usually) should be allowed for pulling up the two edges to obtain the correct fabric tension,
but this figure can only be determined finally by experience of the work in hand.
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The sewing should follow the contour of the component evenly to ensure a good finish after
doping. The number of stitches should be eight per inch (three per centimetre), a lock stitch
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being included approximately every 2 in (50 mm). Overhand stitching is illustrated below, the
lock stitch being shown as the last stitch before the stitching is pulled tight.
All natural fibre threads used for hand sewing and all cord used for stringing (when not pre-
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waxed), should be given a liberal coating of beeswax. This protects the thread, facilitates
sewing and reduces the likelihood of damaging the fabric or enlarging the stitch holes.
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Stringing
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Nylon or Flax cord is normally used for stringing purposes and is generally applied in single
strands as shown. As an alternative, but only when approved by the manufacturer, doubled No.
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18 thread may be used during repair work.
When the fabric covering of the component has been completed, cotton tape should be
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stretched centrally over each rib, top and bottom and stitched into position at the trailing edge.
Using a stringing needle and commencing at the top surface, the stringing cord should be
passed through the tape and fabric as close to the rib as possible, out through the bottom fabric
and tape, round the lower rib boom and back up through both surfaces again. A double knot
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should be used to secure the first and last stringing loops and after each 18 in (450mm). In
between, single knots may be used.
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The stringing pitch is normally 3 in (75mm) but in the slipstream area or on aircraft of more than
2000 Ib (910kg) weight, the pitch is often reduced to 1.5 in (37 mm). Variations from these
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pitches will be stipulated in the relevant aircraft manuals and it may be necessary to vary the
pitch in order to avoid internal structure or control runs.
When the stringing has been completed a strip of serrated tape, 1.5 in (37 mm) wide, should be
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doped over the stringing line on both surfaces, care being taken to ensure that no air is trapped
under the tape and that the tape is securely attached to the main cover.
NOTE: The knots depicted are typical but a different type of knot may be specified by the
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manufacturer.

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Boom Stringing. This type of stringing is used on deep aerofoil sections. The procedure is
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similar to that described above, except that the cord is passed round the rib boom instead of
round the entire rib. Top and bottom surfaces are therefore attached separately and the inside
of each boom must be taped to prevent chafing of the stringing cord. Alternate rib and boom
stringing is sometimes used on aerofoils of medium depth, i.e. between 6 and 12 in (150 and
300 mm).
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Stringing Tension. Care must be taken to ensure that all stringing is maintained at a
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satisfactory tension and that it is not so tight as to cause distortion of the ribs.
Slipstream Area. For stringing purposes, the slipstream area is considered to be the diameter
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of the propeller plus one rib on either side. In the case of multi-engined aircraft, the entire gap
between the slipstreams, regardless of its width, is also considered to be slipstream area.
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Miscellaneous Methods Of Fabric Attachment
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In addition to the standard methods of fabric attachment described above, other methods are
sometimes employed. The most commonly used are outlined below.
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Adhesives. On many aircraft, particularly those covered with polyester fabric, stringing is
dispensed with on the wing and tail surfaces and the fabric is attached to the structure by
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means of a proprietary adhesive. This method produces a much smoother surface on the
components and saves time during construction and repair.
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Attachment by Strip. Attachment of the fabric by wrapping it around a light alloy strip or rod
which is then secured in a channel or groove is sometimes used with metal structures.
Special Stringing. A variation of the Attachment by Strip method, used for attaching fabric to
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metal ribs and known as „special stringing‟.

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Attachment or Fabric to Plywood. Dope is generally used for the attachment of fabric to
plywood, but before the fabric is applied, the wood surface should be smoothed with fine glass
paper and any cavities, such as those caused by the countersinking for screw heads, filled and
allowed to set. The wooden surface should then be treated with two coats of tautening dope.
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After the second coat has dried, the fabric should be spread over the wood and stretched
evenly to avoid wrinkling. A coat of tautening dope should then be brushed into the fabric
sufficiently to ensure good penetration.
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Attachment of Fabric to Metal Surfaces. Where a light alloy is used as part of the structure of
a mainplane (such as to form the leading edge profile) the fabric is generally doped into
position. Alternatively, a thermoplastic adhesive may be used and guidance on the use of this
material may be obtained from the relevant aircraft manuals. To ensure satisfactory adhesion of
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the fabric, the metal surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned and primed with an etch primer.

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Doping
Environment
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Dopes are highly flammable due to their volatile solvents and the low flash point, heavy vapour
they produce. Because of this they must be stored in a manner described by various
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government regulations and acts of parliament and used in a carefully controlled environment.
Apart from the normal sources of ignition – cigarettes, naked flames etc., the main risk is posed
by static electricity discharge. The process of sanding dried dope between coats will generate a
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static charge which, if discharged rapidly to earth, may cause a spark to ignite residual solvent
vapour in and around the structure. The action of spraying dope will cause the build-up of a
static charge at the spray gun while a floor contaminated with dried dope may also pick up a
charge when swept. It is therefore important that the structure being doped, the equipment and
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the operator are all bonded to earth. The operator should wear overalls made of cotton and
leather soled boots.
Electrical equipment may also produce sparks, so any used in the doping area must be
recommended.
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explosion-proof and approved as such. The use of pneumatic power tools is strongly
The vapours produced by the dope and the solvents used to clean the equipment are also
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hazardous to health. The operator must be protected from the fumes in the manner described
by the dope manufacturer in their technical literature. Any instance of skin, eye or throat
irritation, difficulty in breathing or a dry cough must be treated by immediate removal from the
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area and medical advice should be sought.
In order to accomplish a proper dope job with a good finish it is important to control the
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temperature and humidity of the spray shop. Adequate ventilation with a through flow of fresh
air to remove the solvent vapours and atomised dope is also required.
Ventilation should be provided by an explosion proof fan at floor level as the vapours are
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heavier than air. The rate of flow is dictated by the size of the spray shop and is governed by
national regulations. The inlet should be positioned to prevent draughts, preferably in a separate
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room. This will also allow the air to be pre-heated and prevent cooling in the spray area.
Many of the problems associated with doping are caused by incorrect temperature of the dope,
the structure or the air. If the temperature is too low, the evaporation of the solvents in the dope
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will cool the surface being doped and cause moisture to condense and be trapped in the finish.
If it is too high, drying will be too rapid and pin holes or blisters may form in the surface. For best
results the dope and the structure or components should be kept in the spray shop and the
environment maintained at 21-26°C prior to and during the spray process. Humidity must also
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be controlled. The desired range is 45 to 50%, but doping can be satisfactory between 20 and
70% humidity depending on airflow and temperature.
All spray equipment, brushes and mixing containers must be kept scrupulously clean. Thinners
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should be used before the dope has dried and Methyl-Ethyl-Ketone (MEK), or a similar solvent,

used on dried dope. Rubber seals in spray guns should be removed before immersion in MEK
to clear blockages.
The spray shop must be kept clean, free of dust and dried overspray.
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Procedures
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The fabric covered structure or components must be inspected to ensure that:
 the underlying structure has been protected with dope proof paint or tape as required,
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 fabric attachment is correct and secure,
 the correct tension has been applied prior to use of tautening dope (if too slack no
amount of doping will tighten it, if too tight structural damage or distortion may occur),
 all dust has been removed from the surface,
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 plastic and metal components have been adequately protected.
The best looking and most durable film is produced by using several coats of dope that are low
in solids. The Dope Scheme is a schedule listing the coats required to achieve the desired
finish. The following is a description of the doping process for nitrate and butyrate doping of
cotton fabric.
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The Priming coats are the first ones applied to the raw fabric, encapsulating the fibres and
forming the mechanical attachment. The first coat is normally thinned by 25-50% and applied by
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brush to ensure good penetration, but must not be allowed to form drips or runs on the opposite
surface. When doping wings, the top and bottom areas behind the spar are treated first and
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allowed to shrink, before the leading edge is doped. This ensures even tightening and prevents
wrinkles forming on the leading edge cap.
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Any drainage eyelets, grommets inspection rings are attached at this stage and tapes laid using
a heavy coat of dope where required, carefully brushed to remove air pockets.
A coat of thicker dope may now be applied by spray. This should be lightly sanded to remove
the fibre ends and produce a smooth finish. The surface is rinsed with water and thoroughly
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dried after sanding.

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Filling coats are sprayed on next as cross coats. One light coat is sprayed moving the gun in
one direction, then a second applied at moving right angles to the first before it dries. This may
be repeated several times to satisfy the scheme. The final filling coat should be wet sanded to
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produce a smooth finish and the surface rinsed with water and dried again. At this stage the
structure should be tested by placing a light inside and checking the fabric is light proof.
A number of pigmented and/or clear Finishing coats are now applied. There should not be less
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than three of these and each should be lightly sanded before application of the next.
The final coat should be allowed to dry for at least one month before being polished with
rubbing compound and waxed. The surface should be waxed annually thereafter.
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The dope scheme will require between 6 and 12 coats of dope depending on the tautness and
finish desired. A typical low tautness scheme will be comprised of:
 3-4 coats transparent tautening dope (Priming)

 2 coats aluminium finish non-tautening dope (Filling)
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 1-2 coats pigmented finish non-tautening dope (Finishing)
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and if glossy finish is required;
 1-2 coats transparent non-tautening finish dope (Finishing).
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A typical high tautness scheme will be comprised of:
 1 coat red oxide tautening dope (Priming)
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 6-7 coats transparent tautening dope (Priming/Filling)
 2 coats aluminium tautening dope (Filling)
 1-2 coats pigmented finish non-tautening dope (Finishing)
and if glossy finish is required;

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1-2 coats transparent non-tautening finish dope (Finishing).
The schemes used for polyester fabric are similar, but, as the threads are not fibrous, the first
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Priming coat must wet the inner surface to ensure encapsulation and good mechanical
attachment. The modern polyurethane and vinyl dopes commonly used with polyester fabric
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have additives to improve adhesion to the fabric.
Glass fibre fabric has a loose weave which makes it more difficult to dope. It is normally pre-
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treated with dope so the first coat applied must be thinned only enough to soften this treatment
and provide good adhesion. The pressure used for spraying should be the minimum required for
atomisation to prevent the dope blowing through the fabric and causing runs on the reverse
side. Subsequent coats should be progressively heavier until the weave fills and the cloth
tightens.
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Problems
Adhesion problems most commonly occurs between the fabric and the first coat and between
the aluminium and the subsequent coat, particularly if excess aluminium powder is added. Use
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of a solvent moistened „Tack Rag‟ just prior to applying each coat is recommended.
Blushing is a white or greyish cast that forms on the dope surface and is caused by moisture
condensing on the uncured dope surface resulting in the nitrocellulose precipitating out. It can
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be prevented by careful humidity and temperature control or using retarder in the dope. A
blushed area can be repaired by adding retarder to the next coat, which allows the solvents to
attack the surface and cause it to flow out.
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Bubbles and Blisters are caused by the surface of the dope drying before all the solvents have
evaporated. This may happen if the dope is applied to deeply, if the previous coat is not dry, or
if the temperature is too high.
Dull Finish may be caused by holding the spray gun too far from the surface so that the dope
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settles as a semi-dry mist. Small areas of dullness may be caused by porosity of the surface.
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Fisheyes are small areas which have not dried uniformly due to surface contamination with oil,
wax or silicone products. Cleanliness is essential and use of a tack rag is recommended. When
doping a repair, all wax polish should be removed from the area with solvent.
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Orange Peel is an effect caused by insufficient dope thinning, holding the spray gun too far
from the surface, using too high an atomising pressure or using a thinner which evaporates too
quickly. It can also be caused by a cold damp draught over the surface.
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Pinholes are small blisters and have the same causes. They can also be caused by water or oil
contamination in the spray gun air supply.
Roping is a condition which occurs when the dope dries as it is being brushed causing an
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uneven surface. It is common when the dope is cold or is over-brushed.
Rough Finish is caused by dirt and dust on the surface, insufficient sanding or low working
temperatures.
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Runs and Sag are the result of too thick a coat being applied, especially to vertical surfaces.
They are caused by incorrectly adjusted equipment or poor technique.
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Inspection and Testing
All components of the covering should be inspected for general condition. Loose finishing tape
and reinforcing patches; chafing under fairings; brittle, cracking, peeling, or deteriorated
coatings; fabric tears and rock damage; broken or missing rib lacing; and rodent nests are
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unacceptable. The entire fabric covering should be uniformly taut with no loose or wrinkled
areas, or excess tension which can warp and damage the airframe.
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Excess Tension
There are no methods or specifications for measuring acceptable fabric tension other than
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observation. Excess tension may warp critical components, such as longerons, wing rib, and
trailing edges out of position, weakening the airframe structure.
Excess tension with cotton, linen, and glass fibre fabric covering is usually caused by excessive
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dope film on a new covering, or continuous shrinking of an originally satisfactory dope film as
the plasticizers migrate from the dope with age. Heat from sun exposure accelerates plasticizer
migration.
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Excess tension with polyester fabric, coated with dope, is usually caused by the combined
tension of the heat tautened polyester fabric and continuous shrinking of the dope film as the
plasticizers migrate from the dope with age.
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Loose Fabric
Fabric that flutters or ripples in the propeller slipstream, balloons, or is depressed excessively in
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flight from the static position, is unacceptable. Loose or wrinkled cotton, linen, and glass fabric
covering may be caused by inadequate dope film; poor quality dope; fabric installed with excess
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slack; or by a bent, broken, or warped structure.
Loose or wrinkled polyester fabric covering, finished with coatings other than dope, may be
caused by inadequate or excessive heat application; excess slack when the fabric was installed;
or bent or warped structure. Polyester fabric which does not meet aircraft quality specifications
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is likely to become loose after a short period of time.

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Glass fabric covering should be tested with a large suction cup for rib lacing cord failure and
reinforcing tape failure caused by chafing on all wing ribs and other structural attachments
throughout the airframe. Particular attention should be given to the area within the propeller
slipstream. If failure is indicated by the covering lifting from the static position, the rib lacing cord
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and reinforcing tape must be reinstalled with double the number of original laces.
NOTE: Temporary wrinkles will develop in any fabric coated and finished with dope, when
moisture from rain, heavy fog, or dew is absorbed into a poor-quality dope film, causing the film
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to expand. Temporary wrinkles may also develop with any type of thick coatings, on any type of
fabric, when an aircraft is moved from a cold storage area to a warm hangar or parked in the
warming sunshine, causing rapid thermal expansion of the coating.
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Coating Cracks
Fabric exposed through cracks in the coating may be initially tested for deterioration by pressing
firmly with a thumb to check the fabric‟s strength. Natural fibres deteriorate by exposure to
ultraviolet radiation, mildew, fungus from moisture, high acid-content rain, dew, fog, pollution,
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and age. Polyester filaments will deteriorate by exposure to UV radiation.
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Glass fabric will not deteriorate from UV exposure, but will be deteriorated by acid rain, dew
fallout, and chaffing if loose in the propeller slipstream area.
Cotton, linen, and glass fabric coverings are dependent solely on the strength and tautening
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characteristics of the dope film to carry the air loads. Dope coatings on heat-tautened polyester
fabric will also absorb all the air loads because the flexibility of polyester filaments is higher than
the dope film. Polyester fabric that is coated with materials other than dope, is dependent solely
on the heat tautening and low-elongation characteristics of the polyester filaments to develop
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tension and transmit the air loads to the airframe without excess distortion from a static position.
Cracks in coatings will allow any type of exposed fabric to deteriorate. Cracks should be closed
by sealing or removing the coatings in the immediate area and replace with new coatings, or
recover the component. O N
Fabric Identification
Cotton Fabric meeting aircraft specifications can be identified by an off-white colour and thread
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count of 80 to 94 (or up to 110 in light fabrics) in both directions .

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Aircraft linen conforming to British specifications may be identified by a slightly darker shade
than cotton fabric and irregular thread spacing. The average thread count will be about the
same as Grade A fabric (80- 84). The non-uniformity of the linen thread size is also noticeable,
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with one thread half the size of the adjacent thread. When viewed under a magnifying glass, the
ends of the cotton and linen fibre nap may be seen on the backside. The nap is also seen when
the coating is removed from the front or outside surface. A light-purple colour showing on the
back side of cotton or linen fabric indicates a fungicide was present in the dope to resist
deterioration by fungus and mildew.
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Polyester fabric conforming to aircraft specifications is whiter in colour than cotton or linen. The
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fabric styles adapted for use as aircraft covering have a variety of thread counts, up to 94,
depending on the manufacturing source, weight, and breaking strength. Polyester is a
monofilament and will not have any nap or filament ends showing.
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Glass fabric is white in colour and one type is pre-coated with a blue tinted dope as a primer,
and to reduce weave distortion during handling. Thread count will be approximately 36 per inch.
Glass fibres are monofilaments so the fabric will not have any nap or filament ends showing
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unless they are damaged.
When a small fabric sample can be removed from the aircraft and all the coatings removed, a
burn test will readily distinguish between natural fabric, polyester, and glass fabric. Cotton and
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linen will burn to a dry ash, polyester filaments will melt to a liquid and continue burning to a

charred ash, and glass filaments, which do not support combustion, will become incandescent
over a flame.
Coating Identification
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Tautening nitrate or butyrate dope must be used to develop tension on cotton, linen, and glass
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fabrics. When a small sample can be removed, burn tests will distinguish nitrate dope-coated
fabric from butyrate dope-coated fabric by its immediate ignition and accelerated combustion.
Butyrate dope will burn at less than one-half the rate of nitrate dope. Coating types other than
nitrate or butyrate dope may have been used as a finish over dope on cotton, linen, and glass
fibre fabric coverings.
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If the fabric type is determined to be polyester, coating identification should start by reviewing
the aircraft records and inspecting the inside of the wings and the fuselage for the required
fabric source identification stamps for covering materials authorised under the STC. The
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manual, furnished by the holder of the STC-approved fabric, should be reviewed to determine
whether the coatings are those specified by the STC.
Coating types, other than those authorised by the original STC, may have been used with prior
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approval of the competent authority, and this would be noted in the aircraft records. The
presence of dope on polyester can be detected by a sample burn test.
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Strength Criteria for Aircraft Fabric

The condition of the fabric covering must be determined on every 100 hour and annual
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inspection, because the strength of the fabric is a definite factor in the airworthiness of an
aeroplane. Fabric is considered to be airworthy until it deteriorates to a breaking strength less
than 70 percent of the strength of new fabric required for the aircraft. For example, if grade-A
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cotton is used on an airplane that requires only intermediate fabric, it can deteriorate to 46
pounds per inch width (70 percent of the strength of intermediate fabric) before it must be
replaced
Fabric installed on aircraft with a wing loading less than 9 lb. per square foot (psf), and a Vne
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less than 160 mph, will be considered un-airworthy when the breaking strength has deteriorated
below 46 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric grade. Fabric installed on aircraft with a
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wing loading of 9 lb. per square foot and over, or a Vne of 160 mph and over, will be considered
un-airworthy when the breaking strength has deteriorated below 56 lb. per inch width.
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Fabric installed on a glider or sail-plane with a wing loading of 8 lb. per square foot and less,
and a Vne of 135 mph or less, will be considered un-airworthy when the fabric breaking strength
has deteriorated below 35 lb. per inch width, regardless of the fabric grade.
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Fabric Testing
Mechanical devices used to test fabric by pressing against or piercing the finished fabric are not
normally approved and are used at the discretion of the mechanic to base an opinion on the
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general fabric condition. Punch test accuracy will depend on the individual device calibration,
total coating thickness, brittleness, and types of coatings and fabric. Mechanical devices are not

applicable to glass fibre fabric that will easily shear and indicate a very low reading regardless
of the true breaking strength.
If the fabric test results are in the lower breaking strength range with the mechanical punch
tester or if the overall fabric cover conditions are poor, then more accurate field tests may be
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made. Cut a 1-1/4-inch wide by 4-inch long sample from a top exposed surface, remove all
coatings and unravel the edges to a 1-inch width. Clamp each end between suitable clamps
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with one end anchored to a support structure while a load is applied by adding sand in a
suitable container suspended a few inches above the floor. If the breaking strength is still in
question, a sample should be sent to a qualified testing laboratory.
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Fabric Replacement
General
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The replacement of fabric, including covering of a flying surface, is regarded as a major repair
and should be performed by an appropriately authorised organisation or Licensed Aircraft
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Maintenance Engineer.
The selection of fabric type (and associated processes) can depend on many factors. These
may include;
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 Suitability of the materials and processes (airframe varnish/dope compatibility etc.)
 Availability of fabric and its associated chemicals, tapes, cords, threads, etc.
 Skill of the maintainer in the chosen material and process.
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 Type of operation the aircraft is involved in (agricultural, high speed/aerobatics, glider).
 Availability of suitably calibrated tools and equipment.
If the replacement fabric differs from the fabric detailed in the aircraft‟s Type Certificate (TC),
substitution.
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then a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) or other authorisation is required to make the
Synthetic fabric manufacturers have gained STC approval for many aircraft types allowing the
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re-covering of older aircraft.

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Many aircraft maintenance manuals have limited information regarding the recovering process
required on the aircraft, with most manuals referring to stitching patterns and special covering
techniques unique to the aircraft. If recovering an aircraft using Grade A cotton, an approved
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document for application guidance, in conjunction with aircraft‟s maintenance manual, is the US
Federal Aviation Administration‟s (FAA) Advisory Circular (AC) 43.13-1B and the UK
Airworthiness leaflet 2-8. These documents outline all acceptable techniques for a range of
practices, from doping and repairs to inspection.
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Should an alternate material be chosen to cover an aircraft, and then the materials and
procedures should be detailed in the STC. This includes, but is not limited to, items such as
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chemicals (paint and dopes), stitching threads, finishing and lacing tapes, fabric attaching
hardware (rivets, PK screws & clips), inspection rings, drain grommets and material. Failure to
comply with all aspects of the STC, including materials and methods, will void the STC, making
the repair un-approved.
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Equipment
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The equipment requirements for performing fabric work are minimal. However, several items are
required to be calibrated prior to use to ensure to compliance to instructions covered in either
the STC or aircraft maintenance manual. If utilising one of the synthetic materials that require
heat for fabric shrinkage, then the heat source (generally an household iron) must be checked
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for its various temperature settings.

Storage
If using an organic material such as cotton, then certain environmental conditions must be met.
This includes a room temperature of (typically) 16 to 21°C and a minimum relative humidity of
70%. Storage of fabric should be in clean dry areas away from direct sunlight. The conditions
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required for storing synthetic materials are broadly similar.
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Repairs to Fabric Coverings
General
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If the fabric has been damaged extensively, it is usually impractical and uneconomical to make
satisfactory repairs by sewing and patching. The extent and location of damage to the fabric
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that may be repaired will be detailed in the repair section of the aircraft manual concerned, but
extensive damage is often made good by replacing complete fabric panels. However, the
replacement of large fabric panels, particularly on one side of a component, may lead to
distortion of the structure and it may be advisable to completely re-cover the component
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Before attempting any repair to the fabric covering, the cause of the damage should be
ascertained. The internal structure should be inspected for loose objects such as stones,
remains of birds, insects, etc., and any structural damage made good. Using thinners, all dope
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should be removed from the fabric surrounding the damaged area before any stitching is carried
out, since doped fabric will tear if any tension is applied to the repair stitches.
Repair of Cuts and Tears

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Cuts and tears in fabric are sometimes caused by stones thrown up by the slipstream or
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wheels, but more generally result from accidental damage during ground movement or
servicing. Damage may also be caused by bird strikes. Any damaged structure should be made
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good and fabric repairs carried out according to the type of damage, as detailed in the following
paragraphs.
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Herring-Bone Stitch
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The herring-bone stitch (also known as the „ladder stitch‟) should be used for repairing straight
cuts or tears which have sound edges. The stitches should be made as shown, with a lock knot
every 6 in (150 mm).
There should be a minimum of four stitches to the inch (two stitches to the centimetre) and the
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stitches should be 0.25 in (6 mm) from the edge of the cut or tear.
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After the stitching has been completed, 1 in (25 mm) wide serrated tape should be doped over
the stitching. A square or rectangular fabric patch should then be doped over the whole repair,
ensuring that the edges of the patch are parallel to the warp and weft of the fabric covering and
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that they overlap the repair by 1.5 in (37 mm). The original doping scheme should then be
restored.
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Repairs with Woods Frames
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On some aircraft, repairs to cuts and tears with jagged edges, which cannot be stitched as
described in the previous paragraphs, can be repaired by using the Woods frame method.
Repairs of up to 2 in (50 mm) square may be made, provided they are clear of seams or
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attachments by a distance of not less than 2 in (50 mm). The affected area should be cleaned
with thinners or acetone and repaired in the following manner:
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 The Woods frame should be doped into position surrounding the damaged fabric and, if
the frame is of the square type, the edges should be parallel to the weft and warp of the
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covering. When the dope has dried, the damaged portion of the fabric should be cut out
and the aperture covered by a fabric patch.
 If Woods frames are not readily available they can be made from cellulose sheet 0.030 in
(0.8 mm) thick with minimum frame width of 1 in (25 mm); in the case of the square type
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of frame the minimum corner radii should be 0.5 in (12 mm). In some special cases,
aircraft manufacturers use 0.080 in (2 mm) plywood for the manufacture of the frames, in
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which case it is important to chamfer the outer edges of the frame to blend with the
aerofoil contour.
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Repair by Darning
Irregular holes or jagged tears in fabric may be repaired by darning provided the hole is not
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more than 2 in (50 mm) wide at any point. The stitches should follow the lines of the warp and
weft and should be closely spaced as shown. The whole repair should be covered with a
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serrated fabric patch in the usual way, with an overlap of 1.5 in (37 mm) from the start of the
darn.
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Repair by Insertion
For damage over 4 in (100 mm) square, insertion repairs are generally used, either of the two
methods described below being suitable.
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Normal Insertion Repair
 The damaged area of the fabric should be cut out to form a square or rectangular hole
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with the edges parallel to the weft and warp. The corners of the hole should then be cut
diagonally, to allow a 0.5 in (12 mm) wide edge to be folded under the fabric and this
should be held in position with tacking or hemming stitches.
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 The patch should be made 1 in (25 mm) larger than the cut-out area and its edges
should be folded under for 0.5 in (12 mm) and tacked in position in a manner similar to
that described above. In this condition the size of the insertion patch should be similar to,
or slightly smaller than, that of the cut-out area.
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 The insertion patch should be held in position inside the cut-out area with a few tacking
stitches and then sewn in position using a herring-bone stitch of not less than two
stitches to the centimetre (four stitches to the inch), as shown. A 1 in (25 mm) wide tape
should then be doped over the seams.

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For small repairs a square or rectangular cover patch, with frayed or serrated edges,
should be doped in position ensuring that the patch overlaps the edge of the tape by 1.25
in (31 mm). Where the size of the insertion patch is more than 9 in (225 mm) square, a 3
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in (75 mm) wide fabric serrated tape is often used; the tape should be mitred at the
corners and doped in position. The original finish should then be restored.
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Alternative Insertion Repair
An alternative repair is shown diagrammatically below. This consists of cutting away the
damaged fabric as described above, but, in this case, the edges of the aperture as well as the
edges of the insertion patch are turned outwards. The insertion patch is attached to the fabric
cover by stitching along the folded-up edges as near to the contour of the component as
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practicable (i.e. about 0.0625 in (1 mm) above the surface) using the boot stitch. The edges are
then doped down and the repair covered with a doped-on fabric patch.
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Boot Stitch. Two threads should be used for the boot stitch. The stitches should be made as
(150 mm), and at the end of a seam.

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shown (diagrammatically) and the ends of both threads tied together in a lock knot every 6 in
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Rejuvenation of the Dope Film
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If fabric loses its strength, there is nothing to do but remove it and recover the aircraft. But if the
fabric is good and the dope is cracked, it may be treated with rejuvenator, a mixture of very
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potent solvents and plasticizers, to restore its resilience. The surface of the fabric is cleaned
and the rejuvenator sprayed on in a wet coat. The solvents soften the old finish so the
plasticizers can become part of the film. When the rejuvenator dries, the surface should be
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sprayed with two coats of aluminium-pigmented dope, then sanded and a third coat of
pigmented-pigmented dope applied, followed with the coloured dope finish. When repairing,
rejuvenating, and refinishing covering materials approved under an STC, instructions in the
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manual furnished by the material supplier should be followed.

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Module 6
Licence Category
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A, B1, B2 and B3
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6.4 Corrosion
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Module 6.4 Corrosion 4.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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LEVEL 2
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examples.
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subject.
subject.
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manner.
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instructions.
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Table of Contents
6.4 Corrosion _______________________________________________________________ 9
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Introduction ______________________________________________________________ 9
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Chemical Oxidation _______________________________________________________ 9
Chemical Reaction _______________________________________________________ 11
Types of Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 13
Galvanic Corrosion ______________________________________________________ 13
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Surface Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 16
Pitting Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 18
Crevice Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 19
Intergranular Corrosion ___________________________________________________ 21
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Laminar or Exfoliation Corrosion ____________________________________________ 23
Fretting Corrosion _______________________________________________________ 25
Stress Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 26
Filiform Corrosion________________________________________________________ 28
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Mercury Contamination ___________________________________________________ 29
Microbial Corrosion ______________________________________________________ 31
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Hydrogen Embrittlement __________________________________________________ 32
Corrosion Fatigue _______________________________________________________ 33
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Common Metals and Corrosion Products _____________________________________ 34
Acid Spillage ___________________________________________________________ 36
Alkali Spillage __________________________________________________________ 36
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Protection of Metal from Corrosion __________________________________________ 37

Anodizing ______________________________________________________________ 38
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Chemical Treatments _____________________________________________________ 43

Passivation ____________________________________________________________ 44
Metal Coating ___________________________________________________________ 45
Metal Spraying __________________________________________________________ 46
Electroplating ___________________________________________________________ 47
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Other Coatings __________________________________________________________ 52

Painting _______________________________________________________________ 53
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Finishes _______________________________________________________________ 54
Paint Stripping __________________________________________________________ 55
Paint Shop Safety _______________________________________________________ 56
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Corrosion Inhibiting Compounds ____________________________________________ 57

Protection Philosophy ____________________________________________________ 59
Corrosion Prevention _____________________________________________________ 60
Corrosion Removal and Reprotection ________________________________________ 61
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Preparation ____________________________________________________________ 61
Safety Precautions _______________________________________________________ 61
Degreasing ____________________________________________________________ 62
Paint Removal __________________________________________________________ 62
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Mechanical Removal of Corrosion Products ___________________________________ 62

Hidden Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 63
Surface Smoothness _____________________________________________________ 63
Contamination __________________________________________________________ 63
Cracks ________________________________________________________________ 64
Damage _______________________________________________________________ 64
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Assessment ____________________________________________________________ 64
Abrasive Blasting Method of Corrosion Removal ________________________________ 66
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Chemical Removal of Corrosion Products _____________________________________ 68
Rectification of Corrosion _________________________________________________ 69
Clad Aluminium Alloy Sheet ________________________________________________ 69
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Aluminium Alloy Castings and Forgings, Milled Skin Panels etc. ____________________ 70
Blend of a Single Depression _______________________________________________ 71
Blending Ratios _________________________________________________________ 72
Blend of Multiple Corrosion Areas ___________________________________________ 73
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Using a Dial Type Depth Gauge ____________________________________________ 74
Rectification of Corrosion on Magnesium Alloys ________________________________ 75
Rectification on Corrosion of Steel ___________________________________________ 76
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Objective
Corrosion 6.4
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Chemical fundamentals; (a) 1 1 1 1
Formation by, galvanic action process,
microbiological, stress;
Types of corrosion and their identification; (b) 2 3 2 2
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Causes of corrosion;
Material types, susceptibility to corrosion.
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6.4 Corrosion
Introduction
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Metallic elements are usually compounded with other elements, in the ground, before they are
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mined and (compared to the actual metals into which they are subsequently formed) they are
relatively stable. Corrosion is the tendency of metals to revert to the thermodynamically more
stable, oxidized, state. This occurs when they react with dry air to form metal oxides, or with
acids and alkalis to form metallic salts. Some metals, such as gold and platinum, strongly resist
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corrosion.
Reactions, between metals and their environments, can occur in either of two (often
simultaneous) ways:
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 chemical (oxidation)
 electrochemical (galvanic)
oxides or sulphates.
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In both cases, the metal is converted into metal compounds such as carbonates, hydroxides,
The corrosion process involves two concurrent changes. The metal that is attacked, suffers an
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Anodic change while the corrosive agent undergoes a Cathodic change. The result is that
material is lost from the Anode and gained by the Cathode, forming an ionic bond.
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Chemical Oxidation
In a strict chemical sense, oxidation occurs whenever a metal is converted to its ions. An ion is
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a neutral atom that has gained or lost one or more of its electrons. The term oxidation is,
however, normally used to describe the direct combination of a metal with the oxygen of the
atmosphere. The phenomenon is essentially a „dry‟ one, although water vapour, in the air, does
play a part in the oxidation of some metals. With the exception of gold and platinum, all metals,
in contact with air, form a very thin, visible oxide film.
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Chemical corrosion can be caused by direct exposure, of the metal surface, to caustic liquids or
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gaseous agents such as:

 Spilled battery acids or battery fumes. Spilled acids are less of a problem now that Nickel
Cadmium batteries are in common use.
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 Flux deposits from inadequately cleaned joints. Flux residues are hygroscopic (readily
absorb moisture).
 Entrapped caustic cleaning compounds. Caustic cleaning solutions should be kept capped
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when not in use. Many corrosion-removal solutions are, in fact, corrosive agents and
should be carefully removed after use.
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Effect of Oxide Thickness
The oxide film that forms on metals, generally tends to protect them from further corrosive
attack. The oxidation rate normally falls sharply as the film thickness increases so that, at some
time, there is virtually no further increase in film thickness.
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Metals that form this type of tenacious and impervious film include pure aluminium, titanium and
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chromium.
Occasionally, there is a continuation of oxidation, due to the fact that oxides may react
chemically, or combine with, water to produce a film that is porous to the passage of further
oxygen through it. The oxide skin may also crack or flake and expose the metal surface to
further oxidation.
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Effect of Temperature
The effect of an increase in temperature usually results in an increase in the rate of oxidation of
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a metal.
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Chemical Reaction
Of the first type, the powdery Rust formed on ferrous metals is probably the most familiar. Iron
(Fe) at the surface of a component undergoes a number of simple changes. Firstly,
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Fe Fen+ + n electrons,
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i.e. the iron atom can lose some electrons and become a positively charged ion. This allows it to
bond to other groups of atoms that are negatively charged.
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We know that wet steel rusts to give a variant of iron oxide so the other half of the reaction must
involve water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) something like this;
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O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH

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This makes sense as we have a negatively charged material that can combine with the iron,
and the electrons, which are produced in the first reaction, are used up. We can, for clarity,
ignore the electrons and write;
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2Fe + O2 + 2H2O 2Fe(OH)2

Iron + Water with oxygen dissolved in it Iron Hydroxide
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Oxygen dissolves quite readily in water and because there is usually an excess of it, reacts with
the iron hydroxide;
4Fe(OH)2 + O2 2H2O + 2Fe2O3H2O

Iron hydroxide + oxygen water + Hydrated iron oxide
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(brown rust)
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The appearance of this corrosion on different metals is normally as follows:
 Steel - Reddish brown (Rust)
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 Aluminium alloy - Whitish powder
 Magnesium alloy - Greyish white powder
 Copper and its alloys - Green coating
(Verdigris)
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 Cadmium and zinc White powder.
Pollutants in the environment such as acids, alkalis

and salts may alter and accelerate the reaction.
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Types of Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
This may also be known as electrolytic, electro-chemical or dissimilar metal corrosion.
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Consider a simple electric cell. It consists of a plate of copper and a plate of zinc, both of which
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are immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid.
If the plates are not touching each other in the solution and are not connected to each other
outside the solution then no action takes place; but as soon as they are connected, a current of
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electricity flows through the completed circuit. At the same time bubbles of hydrogen form at the
copper plate while the zinc plate begins to dissolve in the acid to form zinc sulphate, a salt. The
chemical potential energy of the zinc is being converted into electrical energy.
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Note that the electric current referred to here is the flow of negatively charged particles or
electrons from the zinc anode (-) to the copper cathode (+), as opposed to the convention which
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assumes that an electric current flows from positive to negative. Zinc is anodic towards copper
so that when these metals are connected and immersed in an electrolyte the zinc will dissolve
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or corrode far more quickly than if immersed in the electrolyte by itself. The electrolyte here
means any solution which will conduct electricity e.g. impure moisture.
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This will apply to any pair of dissimilar metals, one of which will always be anodic to the other.
The rate of electrolytic action will often be extremely slow and the flow of current between the
two, very small, however, over time a great deal of damage can be done.
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The electro-chemical series shown here includes some familiar metals. Should any two of the
metals be in contact, with an electrolyte between them, then the one which is higher in the table
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will be anodic to the other and will be the one which will corrode.
If a steel screw is used to secure an aluminium alloy inspection panel and impure moisture gets
between the two metals, the aluminium alloy, being the anodic metal will corrode and be eaten
away.
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If two sheets of dissimilar metals are riveted together, impure moisture (due to atmospheric
humidity) will be trapped between them providing an electrolyte, causing a current to flow from
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the anodic metal to the cathodic metal. As a result, corrosion will take place on the surface of
the anode and molecules of corroded metal will be deposited on the cathode. If aluminium alloy
and magnesium alloy are in contact, both will corrode.
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Similar action may take place on the surface of an alloy, the elements in the surface of the
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metal may be anodic and cathodic to one another.
Graphite deposited on aluminium alloy will cause electro-chemical corrosion. Therefore graphite
pencils should never be used to mark out aircraft material.
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Surface Corrosion
This is usually due to direct chemical attack. Spillage from batteries, aircraft toilets, galleys,
drinks etc. cause direct chemical attack.
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Indirect chemical attack can be caused by chemicals present in the air. The very small amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in the rain forming very weak carbonic acid which
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corrodes metal. In and near large towns the atmosphere contains smoke and fumes containing
sulphur dioxide which dissolves in rain to form sulphurous acid; this is oxidised into dilute
sulphuric acid which again corrodes metal. Near the coast the salt in the atmosphere forms
hydrochloric acid and caustic soda and severe corrosion occurs in these areas. Engine Exhaust
gases contain nitric acid and moisture which may blow back over the aircraft. Cement dust and
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water on floors forms a corrosive alkaline solution.

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If these corrosive deposits are not removed and the surface protected against further action the
surface will become rough and the corrosion will deepen.
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Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion by which cavities or “holes” are produced in the
material. Pitting is considered to be more dangerous than uniform surface corrosion damage
because it is more difficult to detect as corrosion products often cover the pits. A small, narrow
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pit with minimal overall metal loss can act as a stress riser and lead to the failure of an entire
engineering system.
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Pitting corrosion can be caused by;
 Localized chemical or mechanical damage to the protective oxide film; water chemistry
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factors which can cause breakdown of a passive film are acidity, low dissolved oxygen
concentrations (which tend to render a protective oxide film less stable) and high
concentrations of chloride (as in sea water)
 Localized damage to, or poor application of, a protective coating
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 The presence of non-uniformities in the metal structure of the component, e.g. non-
metallic inclusions.
It may be detected by the appearance of lumps of white powder or alternatively small

depressions on the surface.
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Protection from surface corrosion is normally by painting or coating.
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Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is the most common type found in aluminium structures. It is a localized form
of corrosion usually associated with a stagnant solution on the micro-environmental level. Such
stagnant microenvironments tend to occur in crevices (shielded areas) such as those formed
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under insulation material, fastener heads, washers, surface deposits, disbonded coatings,
threads, clamps, lap joints and corners. Crevice corrosion is initiated by changes in local
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chemistry within the crevice:
 Depletion of inhibitor in the crevice

 Depletion of oxygen in the crevice
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 A shift to acid conditions in the crevice
 Build-up of aggressive ion species (e.g. chloride) in the crevice
A typical scenario is that the solution will absorb oxygen from the air. The liquid near the surface
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will then contain more oxygen than the liquid near the bottom of the crevice. This will produce
anodic and cathodic areas in the liquid.
The anodic area is usually at the bottom of the crevice so corrosion starts there. The corrosion
products at the bottom of the crevice will increase the difference in potential in the liquid,
speeding up the corrosive action in that area.
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Crevice Corrosion can sometimes be detected in structures by the bulging or 'pillowing' of the
skin between fasteners. This is caused by the build-up of corrosion products between the plates
of lap joints or between the skin and stringers or frames, and will lead to splitting of the skin or
failure of the fasteners. By the time it is visible, the corrosion has usually progressed beyond the
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point at which it can be repaired and the material will have to be replaced.
This form of corrosion may be prevented by protecting both metal joints, and joints between
metals and non-conductors, with a coating of primer and wet jointing compound or sealant prior
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to assembly and by use of filleting or sealing compound after assembly. All enclosed regions in

aircraft structures should be vented and drained as adequately as possible; this also helps to
prevent the accumulation of condensation and discourages the growth of moulds and bacteria
which can also cause corrosion.
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Intergranular Corrosion
This is also known as intercrystalline corrosion. It is usually confined to aluminium alloys and
stainless steel.
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It is normally caused in the first place by incorrect heat treatment although it could be due to the
effects of heat in or on the aircraft itself. During solution heat treatment any delay between
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removal of the metal from the salt bath and quenching, will allow the grains of the metal to grow
in size. This enlargement of the grains may allow areas of dissimilar metals to provide efficient
anodes and cathodes for galvanic corrosion formation. The corrosion spreads along the grain
boundaries and is accelerated if fluctuating stresses are applied. This may cause a complete
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failure of the part without any external indication. Hairline cracks or small blisters on the surface
may be an indication of intergranular corrosion.
This type of corrosion is particularly dangerous because in most cases it cannot be detected: if
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it is suspected, it can only be confirmed with X-ray equipment. Any part found to have
intergranular corrosion must be scrapped
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Laminar or Exfoliation Corrosion
This is a form of intergranular corrosion that takes place in extruded or rolled metals; mostly
aluminium alloys. As the grains run in the direction of the extrusion or rolling, the corrosion will
do the same and there will be layers (laminations) of metal with corrosion between.
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This corrosion will be more obvious than normal intergranular corrosion, because the expansion
caused by the corrosion will cause lifting and flaking of the surface. As with other types of
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intergranular corrosion, by the time it is evident on the surface, the strength of the metal has
been greatly decreased.
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
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AC
O N
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IA
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N
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US
ND
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Fretting Corrosion
This corrosion takes place between two heavily loaded surfaces where there is a very small
continuous relative movement. The rubbing movement which may be very minute removes any
natural protective film and also removes particles of metal from the surface. These form an
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abrasive which aggravates the effect of the rubbing action. This form of corrosion, which can
eventually cause cracking and fatigue failure, sometimes affects splined drives and gearwheels.
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It may be recognised by the appearance of „cocoa' powder staining on steels while on
aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys a fine dark grey to black powder is produced.
Jointing compound or sealant applied during construction will prevent fretting corrosion in
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structures. Molybdenum disulphide grease is used as an anti-fretting agent in mechanisms
when approved by the manufactures of the equipment or aircraft.
AC
O N
TI
IA
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N
TA
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ND
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Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion may occur when a metal has a tensile stress applied to it and is in an
environment where corrosion is likely to occur, when neither on its own would not cause a
problem. It often occurs when an unusual load, or contaminant, is applied to a component which
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performs well in a normal situation.
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Stress on aircraft parts may be residual within the part as a result of the production process or
an externally applied operational loading. Press-fit bushings, interference fasteners and severe
metal forming are examples of the high residual tensile stresses which can lead to stress
cracking.
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Environmental contaminants may include sea water, cleaning fluids, oils and process
chemicals.
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Examples of materials and environments which do not mix under stress include:
Aluminium Hydrogen
Stainless Steel Chlorides
High Strength Steel Hydrogen
O N
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IA
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N
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Cracks caused by stress corrosion lengthen rapidly because the corrosion takes place at the
end of the crack instead of along its sides and the loss of material intensifies stress at this point.
Crack may follow the grain deep into the item. This leads to the sudden and unexpected failure
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of a component.
Stress corrosion affects not only structural components but fasteners, pipe work and pressure
vessels as well.
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
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N
TA
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ND
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Filiform Corrosion
Filiform corrosion usually occurs under thin oil, grease or varnish films and is likely to be found
on metal surfaces which have a protective film. It appears like worm casts or thread like lines of
corrosion on aluminium and magnesium alloys. This type of corrosion often starts at rivets and
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extends along the surface of painted sheet beneath the paint.
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Filiform corrosion might also be the result of incorrect application of paint finishes especially
polyurethane paint. In order to speed up painting operations on large aircraft etch primers are
used which contain some phosphoric acid. The acid etches the surface and converts into a
phosphate film after about thirty minutes provided there is sufficient moisture present in the air
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to properly convert it. If an epoxy or zinc chromate primer or a polyurethane top coat is applied
before the etch primer has properly converted then acid will be trapped against the metal.
These finishes are not sufficiently porous to allow moisture to penetrate to complete conversion
of the acid and filiform corrosion will occur.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
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Mercury Contamination
If mercury is spilled in an aircraft it will combine with aluminium alloy to form an amalgam which
has no appreciable structural strength. The mercury rapidly 'soaks' in and attacks along the
grain boundaries of the aluminium alloy particularly in moist conditions and when the metal is
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under stress. The affected component may be completely destroyed. This corrosion may be
recognised on aluminium alloys by the appearance of a greyish powder fuzzy deposit or a
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whiskery growth.
It is most important that all spilled mercury is retrieved and a thorough inspection of the
structure carried out.
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After a spill the aircraft must not be moved and no action taken which might disturb the mercury.
Protective clothing and rubber gloves must be worn. Care must be taken not to inhale or
swallow mercury and its vapour. The area must be well ventilated.
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The mercury can be picked up using any of the following methods:
 A vacuum cleaner incorporating a mercury trap.
 A medicine dropper or rubber battery water syringe.
contaminated area and picks up the mercury.

O N
 A special brush with nickel plated carbon fibre bristles. This is drawn over the
 A special foam pad pressed on to the mercury to absorb it.

 By pressing adhesive tape on to the small mercury globules. When the tape is removed,
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the mercury is removed also.

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When all the visible mercury has been collected, the area must be x-rayed to ensure that
mercury has not lodged in crevices.
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Finally a film of oil should be applied to the area.
The area should be inspected for signs of corrosion at regular intervals.
Any corrosion damage must be repaired and contaminated components replaced.

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Ensure that toxic vapour precautions are observed at all times during the following operation:
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 Do not move aircraft after finding spillage. This may prevent spreading.
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 Remove spillage carefully by one of the following mechanical methods:

 Capillary brush method (using nickel-plated carbon fibre brushes).
 Heavy-duty vacuum with collector trap.
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 Adhesive tape, pressed (carefully) onto globules may pick them up

 Foam collector pads (also pressed, carefully, onto globules).
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Alternative, chemical methods, of mercury recovery entail the use of:
 Calcium polysulphide paste.
 Brushes, made from bare strands of fine copper wire
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 Neutralise the spillage area, using „Flowers of Sulphur‟.
 Try to remove evidence of corrosion.
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 The area should be further checked, using radiography, to establish that all
globules have been removed and to check extent of corrosion damage.
 Examine area for corrosion using a magnifier. Any parts found contaminated
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should be removed and replaced.
Note: Twist drills (which may be used to separate riveted panels, in an attempt to clean
contaminated surfaces) must be discarded after use.
AC
Further, periodic checks, using radiography, will be necessary on any airframe that has suffered
mercury contamination.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
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Microbial Corrosion
Microbial (Microbiological) corrosion occurs in the integral fuel tanks of aircraft using aviation
kerosene and is caused by fungal growths such as Hormoconis resinae (previously called
Cladosporium resinae) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The fungus spores can remain dormant
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in kerosene for extended periods and grow actively when water is present at the correct
temperature. Aviation kerosene holds more water in suspicion than gasoline and this moisture
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condenses out in low temperature conditions and collects in the bottom of the fuel tanks.
The organisms live at the water/fuel interface and feed off the hydrocarbons in the fuel. The
fungal growth becomes attached to the aircraft structure and as they grow, they form mats that
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are dark in colour and appear jelly-like. Their waste includes water, sludge, acids and other
harmful by-products which attack metal structures, protective coatings and rubber seals.
Dislodged fungus can also block filters.
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Water should be drained from tanks on a regular basis and aircraft which operate in a tropical
environment for prolonged periods may require an approved fungicide such as Biobor added to
their fuel. Aircraft stored in a heated hangar should have their tanks drained or treated with
biocide.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
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ND
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Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is a phenomena that occurs in various metals, particularly ferrous,
aluminium and titanium alloys, under sustained loads at stresses far below the actual ultimate
tensile strength. Certain stainless steels and precipitation hardened steels are not affected.
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Ferrous Alloys
EM
In susceptible ferrous alloys hydrogen embrittlement occurs when a component containing
small amounts of hydrogen is subjected to a sustained load. Fracture of the part can occur
under loads as low as 30% of the yield strength after only a few thousand service hours. The
hydrogen will migrate to an area of stress (such as occur at notches, corrosion pits, or other
stress risers) once it is present in the metal surface. The resulting hydrogen concentration then
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causes the initiation and propagation of a brittle crack.
Certain solvents and plating processes can introduce hydrogen into a part. Since only a very
thin surface layer will be affected, the hydrogen can be easily removed by a bake operation at
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375°F (191°C) as long as the part is unplated or plated with a porous finish such as some
cadmium plating. Hydrogen is also produced as a product of corrosion. Under certain
conditions, corrosion can occur without evidence of rusting. Any resultant pitting magnifies the
problem but embrittlement is impossible to detect. It is therefore essential that an adequate
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protective finish be maintained on all high strength steel parts.
The stresses required for an embrittlement failure may be caused by improper processing or
installation induced residual stresses rather than service induced. The susceptibility of steel
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parts to hydrogen embrittlement increases as the hardness and strength increase. Steel parts
heat treated to 200 KSI (thousands of pounds per square inch tensile strength) and above are
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highly susceptible, whereas parts heat treated to 180-200 KSI are only susceptible if they are
subjected to high sustained stresses.
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Titanium
The problems of hydrogen embrittlement in titanium occurs under the same situations as they
do in steel but the mechanism is different. The hydrogen can become chemically bonded with
the titanium and cannot be baked from the part without resorting to extremely high temperatures
in a vacuum.
N
Hydrogen embrittlement of titanium can occur on contact with acids at room temperature or
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when exposed to steam, oil or other substances containing hydrogen at temperatures above
550°F ( 288°C).
When introduced into the titanium, hydrogen collects at high stress areas. If this is residual
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stress (as caused by bending, forming or welding) a stress relief operation should be done. This
is done at 975°F ( 524°C) for approximately 6 hours. The hydrogen embrittlement of titanium will
cause delayed cracking and a reduction in notch tensile and impact properties.
ND
Hydrogen pick-up can be avoided by using non-embrittling solutions during any wet processing
and by using protective coatings when subjecting the parts to high temperature processing in a
hydrogen containing environment.
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Tetrachloroethylene, carbontetrachloride, and other chlorinated solvents must not be used with
titanium if the part will subsequently be exposed to either processing or service imposed
temperature in excess of 550°F (288°C).
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Corrosion Fatigue
EM
Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the combined effect of corrosion and
fatigue, which can cause failure of a structural component far quicker than either of those
components if they were working alone. It is the mechanical degradation of a material under the
joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures experience some
form of alternating stress and are exposed to harmful environments during their service life. The
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environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high strength structural materials like steels,
aluminium alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with high specific strength are being developed
to meet the requirements of advancing technology. However, their usefulness depends to a
large extent on the extent to which they resist corrosion fatigue.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
The photo above shows a propeller blade – broken by corrosion fatigue. Evidence is the classic
„beach marks‟ of the fatigue crack propagation, and the staining of corrosion
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In normal fatigue testing of smooth specimens, about 90% of the life is spent in crack nucleation
and only the remaining 10 % in crack propagation. However, in corrosion fatigue, crack
nucleation is facilitated by corrosion and typically about 10 % of life is sufficient for this stage.
The rest, 90 % of life is spent in crack propagation. Thus it is much more informative to evaluate
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the crack propagation behaviour during corrosion fatigue.

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Common Metals and Corrosion Products
One of the problems involved in corrosion control, is the recognition of corrosion products
whenever they occur. The following brief descriptions are of typical corrosion products, common
to materials used in aircraft construction.
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Iron and Steel
EM
The most common, and easily-recognizable, form of corrosion is red rust. The initial oxide film,
formed on freshly exposed steel, is very thin and invisible. In the presence of water, or in a
damp atmosphere, especially if sulphur dioxide (industrial atmosphere) or salt (marine
environment) is present, thick layers of hydrated oxide develop. These layers vary in colour
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from brown to black. Rust promotes further corrosion by retaining salts and water. Mill scale (a
type of oxide formed at high temperatures), also promotes rusting, by forming an electrolytic cell
with the underlying steel. Heavy deposits of rust can be removed only by abrasive blasting or by
immersion in rust-removing solutions.
AC
Surface rust can develop on steel nuts, bolts and other fasteners and may not adversely affect
the operational integrity of the equipment. Its appearance is an indication that adequate
maintenance procedures have not been followed.
Aluminium Alloys N
The corrosion of aluminium and its alloys, takes a number of different forms. It may vary from
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general etching of the surface, to the localized, intergranular-attack, characteristics of some
strong alloys in certain states of heat-treatment. The corrosion products are white to grey and
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are powdery when dry. Superficial corrosion can be removed by scouring, light abrasive
blasting, or by chemical methods.
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In general, pure aluminium sheet and „Alclad‟ surfaces have good corrosion resistance, except
in marine environments. In these areas, aluminium and its alloys need protection and high-
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strength aluminium alloys are always given a substantial protective treatment.
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium corrosion products are grey and voluminous,
compared to the base metal. When the failure of
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protective coatings on magnesium alloys occurs, the

corrosive attack tends to be severe in the exposed areas,
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and may penetrate totally through a magnesium structure

in a very short time. Any corrosion, on magnesium alloys,
therefore requires prompt attention. In contrast to high-
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strength aluminium alloys, the strong magnesium alloys,

used in aircraft, do not suffer intergranular attack.
Corrosion is readily visible on the surfaces of Magnesium
Alloys.
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Titanium
Titanium is highly corrosion-resistant, but should be insulated from other metals to avoid
dissimilar metal corrosion of the adjacent material. Titanium alloys can suffer stress corrosion at
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temperatures above 300C when in the presence of salt and fatigue cracks can develop more
quickly in a saline atmosphere.

Cadmium can penetrate the surface of titanium alloys and embrittle them at all temperatures
above ambient (as can Lead, Tin and Zinc at temperatures higher than approximately 120°C)).
Embrittlement can occur if the cadmium is plated onto the titanium or if cadmium-plated steel
parts (and cadmium-contaminated spanners) are used with titanium. Great care must be taken
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to ensure that these conditions never occur if at all possible.
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Copper Alloys
Copper and its alloys are relatively resistant to corrosion.

Tarnishing has no serious consequences in most
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applications (apart from electrical resistance increase).
Long-term exposure to industrial or marine atmospheres
gives rise to the formation of the blue-green patina (aerugo
or verdigris) on copper surfaces, while brasses can suffer
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selective removal of zinc (de-zincification). In aircraft
construction, copper-based alloys are frequently cadmium-
plated, to prevent dissimilar metal corrosion.
“verdigris”
O N
The corrosion on copper is green in colour and often called
Cadmium and Zinc

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Cadmium and zinc are used as coatings, to protect the parts to which they are applied. Both
confer sacrificial protection on the underlying metal. Cadmium is normally chosen for use in the
aircraft industry, as it is more durable under severe corrosive conditions such as in marine and
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tropical environments. Both metals produce white corrosion products.

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Nickel and Chromium

Electroplated nickel is used as a heat-resistant coating, while chromium is used for its wear-
resistance. Both metals protect steel only by excluding the corrosive atmosphere. The degree of
protection is proportional to the thickness of the coating. Once the underlying steel is exposed
(through loss of the coating, due to abrasion or other damage), then the coatings actually
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accelerate the rusting, due to the fact that the steel is more anodic than the protective coating.
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Chromium is also highly resistant to corrosion, whilst Nickel corrodes slowly in industrial and
marine atmospheres, to give a blue-green corrosion product.
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ND
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Acid Spillage
An acid spillage, on aircraft components, can cause severe damage. Acids will corrode most
metals used in the construction of aircraft. They will also destroy wood and most other fabrics.
Correct Health and Safety procedures must be followed when working with such spillages.
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Aircraft batteries, of the lead/acid type, give off acidic fumes and battery bays should be well
EM
ventilated, while surfaces in the area should be treated with anti-acid paint. Vigilance is required
of everyone working in the vicinity of batteries, to detect (as early as possible) the signs of acid
spillage. The correct procedure to be taken, in the event of an acid spillage, is as follows:
 Mop up as much of the spilled acid using wet rags or paper wipes. Try not to spread the
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acid.
 If possible, flood the area with large quantities of clean water, taking care that electrical
equipment is suitably protected from the water.
AC
 If flooding is not practical, neutralise the area with a 10% (by weight) solution of
bicarbonate of soda (sodium bicarbonate) with water.
 Wash the area using this mixture and rinse with cold water.

been cleaned up.
O N
Test the area, using universal indicating paper (or litmus paper),to check if acid has
 Dry the area completely and examine the area for signs of damaged paint or plated
finish and signs of corrosion, especially where the paint may have been damaged.
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 Remove corrosion, repair damage and restore surface protection as appropriate.

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Alkali Spillage
This is most likely to occur from the alternative Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) or Nickel-Iron (Ni-Fe)
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type of batteries, containing an electrolyte of Potassium Hydroxide (or Potassium Hydrate). The
compartments of these batteries should also be painted with anti-corrosive paint and adequate
ventilation is as important as with the lead/acid type of batteries. Proper Health and Safety
procedures are, again, imperative.
N
Removal of the alkali spillage, and subsequent protective treatment, follows the same basic
steps as outlined in acid spillage, with the exception that the alkali is neutralised with a solution
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of 5% (by weight) of chromic acid crystals in water.

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ND
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Protection of Metal from Corrosion
There are three basic methods of protecting metal from corrosion:
 To convert the surface by either chemical or electrolytic methods to produce a corrosion
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resistant coating.
 To coat the surface with a metal that will not corrode or is more resistant to corrosion
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than the base metal.
 To coat or paint the surface with a non-metallic substance to produce a protective skin.
Before any protective treatment can be carried out, components or parts must be thoroughly
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cleaned and degreased. This is normally done by one of the following:
 A trichloroethylene vapour bath.

 A mixture of equal proportions of white spirit and naphtha.
AC
 An approved degreasing agent.
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N
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Anodizing
Aluminium alloy fittings made by casting or forging are normally protected from corrosion by
anodising. This is known as a surface conversion treatment.
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In electrolysis a DC current is passed through an electrolyte between two plates or electrodes.
The positive plate is termed the anode and the negative plate the cathode. The chemical effect
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of the current causes oxygen to be liberated at the anode and hydrogen to be released at the
cathode.
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AC
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In the case of anodising, splitting of the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen is important. The
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part to be anodised is suspended in an electrolyte and made the anode of the electrical circuit
which will also have a cathode. Hydrogen forms at the cathode but the oxygen, which forms at
the anode, actually combines with the surface of the part being anodised, to form a continuous
film consisting mainly of aluminium oxide. In other words a controlled corrosion takes place on
the surface of the part and the aluminium oxide surface will have a high resistance to further
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corrosion. As the aluminium oxide is also an insulator, no current can flow between an anodised
part and a contacting surface, so galvanic corrosion is resisted.
TA
US
ND
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Y
EM
AD
AC
The Chromic Acid Anodising Process
Anodising conveniently divides into 3 major areas:
Chromic Acid Anodising - Produces coatings of exceptional corrosion and chemical

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resistance for its film thickness in an electrolyte, which is non-corrosive towards aluminium.
These coatings are thin, and relatively soft and generally only used in specialised applications.
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Sulphuric Acid Anodising - Embraces anything from heavy duty black dyed coatings for high-
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tech instruments to cheap coloured ashtrays, expected to last in a pub for a few weeks. It also
includes architectural anodising primarily for protecting aluminium window frames etc. from the
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elements. The natural colour of these films is light grey; other colours are achieved by dyeing
the film.
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Hard Anodising - Is a branch of sulphuric acid anodising where process conditions have been
pushed in a certain direction to achieve significantly harder, thicker, denser films. Applications
involve resistance to wear, corrosion, temperature effects etc.
N
TA
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ND
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The chromic acid process provides a coating of aluminium oxide 0.0001 inches thick. It is also
known as the Type 2 anodising process. Basic details of the process are shown in the
illustration. Separate mild steel or stainless steel plates can be used as cathodes instead of the
bath.
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The DC supply voltage must be controlled as shown in the graph. Initially the current may be up
to 10 amps per square foot of anode area, but drops to about 3 to 4 amps per square foot
EM
during processing.
After anodising, the parts must be thoroughly rinsed in cold water. The porous anodic coating is
then sealed by immersing for ten minutes in water at a temperature not less than 96°C.
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The chromic acid process will show up any flaws or cracks through the appearance of yellow
stains on the surface of the part after washing but before sealing.
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The Sulphuric and Anodising Process
The sulphuric acid process, also known as the Type l anodising process, provides a coating of
aluminium oxide 0.0003 to 0.0005 inches thick.
The basic details of this process are shown in the illustration.
Y
EM
The bath may be lined with rubber but a ceramic bath is also suitable. If the bath is rubber lined
or ceramic, lead or aluminium plates can be used as the cathode.
Suspension wires, hooks etc. should be made of aluminium or titanium.
AD
The bath should be operated at between 15 and 18 volts and the current should be 12 to 15
amps per square foot of anode area. The process normally takes thirty minutes.
After anodising, the parts are rinsed in cold water. The aluminium oxide coating is then sealed
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by immersing the part in a solution of 70 to 100 grams of potassium or sodium dichromate plus
18 grams of sodium carbonate per litre of water for 5 to 10 minutes at a temperature, not less
than 96°C.
N
If the anodic coating is required to be coloured for identification or decorative purposes, the
parts are immersed in a dye solution before final sealing. Both Type 1 and Type 2 coatings may
be dyed.
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N
TA
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The Hard Anodising Process
The hard anodising process, also known as the Type 3 anodising process provides a harder
thicker coating which has greater resistance to abrasion, corrosion and electrical breakdown.
Coatings up to 0.003 inches thick can be produced. The treatment reduces the fatigue strength
of the part but this can be partially restored by the sealing process.
Y
EM
The process is similar to the sulphuric acid anodising process. Low concentrations of sulphuric
acid are used with electrolyte temperatures between -5 and +5°C. Higher currents and voltages
are also used. A low temperature on the surface of the part is achieved by cooling the
electrolyte outside the bath then directing the flow of cooled electrolyte on to the part being
treated. Hard anodising is often applied to limited areas of aluminium alloy items which have
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been previously anodised using the chromic acid process, the areas to be hard anodised having
been masked off with a lacquer.
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Checks After Anodising

All parts must be examined visually. All other tests specified shall be applied to 2 percent of all
parts anodised with a minimum of one part per anodising batch. A number of tests are specified
and two examples are given:
N
 Apply methyl violet dye to a test piece before sealing. There should be no appreciable
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loss of colour when rubbed vigorously with a damp cloth. The same test repeated on any
of the parts after sealing should result in every trace of the dye being removed.
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 The insulating properties of the anodic coating may be checked using a 60 volt dry cell
battery connected to a spring clip and a ¼ inch diameter metal ball. A voltmeter is also
connected into the circuit. One lead is clipped to the part in order to penetrate the anodic
film. The other lead with the ball end is moved over the surface, the voltmeter should
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maintain its reading of 60 volts if the coating is satisfactory.
NOTE Due to the danger to health from inhaling fumes from an anodic oxidation plant, suitable
fume extractors are usually necessary. Protective clothing including rubber gloves, aprons and
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boots are also required.

Chemical Treatments
These are proprietary non-electrolytic dip treatments. Basically they are all the same and
require immersion of the parts for a specific period of time in a bath containing a special
chemical solution, followed by washing. This forms a hard, non-porous oxide film, providing
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protection from corrosion.
EM
Examples of proprietary treatments given in DTD 900 are as follows:
 Alocrom 1000
 Alocrom 1200
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 Alodine
 Walterisation „L‟ Process
 Alaclene 300
 Bonderite 710
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 Tridure „Al‟ Process
 Alchromate process
 Kenvert 40
which gives a clear (slight blue/green) finish.

O N
The colour of the films produced varies from yellow to golden to brown except alocrom 1000
The basic Alocrom process requires degreasing and thorough cleaning of the component
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(solvent residue will affect the finish). Slight abrasion or a dip in deoxidising bath (Deoxidine or
similar) may be required.
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The component must then be immersed in a freshly made solution Alocrom. The immersion
period depends on the strength and freshness of the solution but will normally be in the range of
2-10 minutes. The finish should be pale golden and iridescent in appearance. A brown finish
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indicates over-treatment which can weaken the metal.
The component must be thoroughly flushed with clean water and a brush to remove all solution.
Alocrom contains a cocktail of acids which will continue to convert the aluminium and reduce its
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strength if not removed. The surface is delicate when wet and should be air dried or gently
padded dry, not rubbed.
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Once dried, the surface produced is a hard nonporous oxide film which may then be primed and
painted.
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Alocrom may be applied by brush to flat surfaces or by wet paper method to angled surfaces in-
situ. In both cases the area must be kept moist with solution during the treatment period. Great
care must be taken to ensure that surrounding structures are not contaminated with solution,
particularly joints and crevices. Washing must be as stringent as for dipped components.
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As Alocrom decomposes it gives off a variety of toxic gasses including cyanide. It should
therefore be used in a well ventilated area. It is also a strong oxidising agent and when it dries
on organic material (such as paper towels and cloths) there is a risk of spontaneous
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combustion. These materials as well as the solution itself must be disposed of in the approved
manner.

Passivation
Certain Alloy Steels, Corrosion Resistant Steels (CRES) and Stainless Steels can have their
corrosion resistance enhanced by Passivation.
Y
This is a process that produces a chemically passive layer at the surface of the alloy by
removing the exogenous ("growing outside") iron or iron compounds from the surface of the
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steel by means of a chemical dissolution. The "free iron" is dissolved in a solution usually
composed of nitric acid which also produced a thin transparent oxide film further protecting the
metal.
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The solution strength, exposure time and temperature are determined by the specific alloy being
treated and the wrong treatment can have a detrimental effect on the metal.
AC
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N
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Metal Coating
The production of a metal coating may be achieved by several methods. Which one is chosen
depends on the metal to be protected, its form, the environment in which it will be used and the
level of protection required.
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Cladding
EM
Aluminium alloy in sheet form is usually protected from corrosion by cladding with pure
aluminium. Thin aluminium layers are rolled on to each side of the aluminium alloy. The
aluminium adds 5% to the thickness of the sheet.
The most commonly used aluminium alloys in aviation contain copper and/or zinc along with
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other metals. This gives the material superior strength but also makes it more susceptible to
galvanic corrosion. The pure aluminium cladding protects against corrosion. The aluminium is
anodic to the aluminium alloy and therefore gives sacrificial protection, even to the cut edges
and where holes are drilled. The pure aluminium also forms its own oxide coating which
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excludes oxygen and gives added protection.
O N
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N
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Metal Spraying
Metallic coatings of aluminium, zinc, tin, copper, lead, brass, bronze and many others may be
applied by a Metal or Flame Spraying process which uses the metal in wire form. The wire is
drawn through the gun and nozzle by a pair of powered feed rolls. Here the wire is continually
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melted in the oxygen propane or acetylene flame and atomised by a compressed air blast which
carries the metal particles to the previously prepared surface. No alloying occurs and the
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surface should be clean and preferably roughened. There are two processes:
 METALLISING - where 0.003 in to 0.005 ins (0.076 to O.13mm) of zinc of aluminium is

required. See BS 2569 Part 1.
AD
 ALUMINISING - Where a minimum coating of 0.007 in (0.178 mm) of aluminium alloy
only, is required. See BS 2569 Part 2.
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Note: Metal Spraying can be used to produce a conductive coating on non-metallic surfaces
such as GRP panels used as antenna.
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Electroplating
The most common method used to protect steels is electroplating. Metallic coatings produced
by electroplating fall into two classes:
Coatings less noble than the metal to which they are applied e.g. cadmium or zinc on steel.
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The coating surface oxidises and forms a protective skin around the basic metal but if it fails it
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will give sacrificial protection to the basic metal. The coating is anodic to the basic metal and if
the basic metal is exposed a current will flow from the anodic to the cathodic metal and the
coating will corrode eventually leaving the basic metal open to corrosive attack.
AD
AC
N
Coatings more noble than the metal to which they are applied e.g. nickel or chromium on
steel. These metals do not easily corrode in air or water, are resistant to attack by acids and
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provide a tough protective skin around the part. However, as the base metal is anodic to the
coating it will corrode locally by electro-chemical action if the coating is broken, resulting in
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pitting corrosion. The products of corrosion may eventually lift the coating locally.
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Sometimes chromium or nickel plating is used for restoring worn parts by building up lost
material and not primarily to give protection from corrosion.
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N
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The basic principle of electroplating is to make the part to be plated the cathode of an electrical
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circuit and the plating metal the anode while both are immersed in a suitable electrolyte. Salts of
the plating metal are added to the electrolyte partly to ensure that the minimum quantity of gas
is emitted while the maximum effect is obtained in depositing the metal. The DC current flows
from the anode to the cathode and causes metal from the electrolyte to be deposited on to the
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part (cathode) while the anode (plating metal) slowly dissolves to maintain the metal content of
the electrolyte. In some cases, as in chromium plating, an insoluble anode may be used, the
chromium is provided by the electrolyte itself.
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During electroplating the electrolyte must be agitated to prevent hydrogen bubbles clinging to
the parts; this would make the plating brittle.

The time required for electroplating depends upon the type of plating and on the thickness
required. On completion, the parts must be thoroughly washed in clean water then dried.
There are two methods of electroplating:
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The Bath or Vat Method
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The bath or vat method is used for electroplating larger parts and is illustrated below left.
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The Barrel Method
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The barrel method is used for small parts. The current flows from the plating metal on the anode
rod, through the electrolyte to the parts and finally to the cathode wire suspended from the
centre of the anode rod. The barrel is made of a material that will not be plated.
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One of the main advantages of this method of plating is that because the barrel is slowly
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rotating the small parts are subjected to a slight continuous burnishing action which produces a
smooth finish.
N
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ND
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Removal of Hydrogen Embrittlement
All plated steel parts having a tensile strength in excess of l004N/mm 2 (65 tons sq. in) must be
baked as soon as practicable after plating to remove hydrogen embrittlement. This is usually
done at a temperature of between 130°C and 200°C The time require varies according to
temperature, the lower the temperature the longer the time. Details are given in the appropriate
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plating specification.
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Partial Plating
If a component or part is required to be left unplated over a particular area e.g. the unplated
shank of a close tolerance bolt, one of the following methods may be employed:
AD
A special wax is heated and brushed on to the area to be left unplated then allowed to cool and
solidify. Plating is then carried out in the normal way and afterwards the wax is peeled off.
A special lacquer is brushed on to the area to be left unplated and allowed to dry. After plating
AC
in the normal way the lacquer can be peeled off.
The area to be left unplated is masked with lead foil and covered with adhesive vinyl tape which
is then varnished. The masking can be removed after plating in the normal way.
machine operation.
O N
The part can be plated all over then the plating not required can be removed during the final
Re-plating Local Areas (Dalic Process)

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Local repairs to damaged metallic plating, and the deposition of metals where accessibility is
limited, can be carried out by a specialised plating process without immersion in a plating bath.
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The part to be plated is made the cathode by connecting it to the DC supply of the special
power unit. The electrolyte is brushed over the metal surface using an absorbent pad attached
to the end of a graphite anode. The manufacturer of the parts must approve the use of this
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equipment and recommended plating solutions and currents should always be used.
Cadmium, copper, zinc and tin can be deposited very rapidly by this method.
N
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Y
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Checking the Serviceability and Thickness of Electroplating
AC
There are various methods of testing the effectiveness of plated coatings, some which are
destructive and must be done on a test piece, and others which may be done to production
item. They are too numerous to detail in full but some of the more common ones are listed here.
N
Corrosion resistance can only be really tested by exposure to a corrosive environment. The
Copper-Accelerated Acetic Acid-Salt Spray (CASS) test method exposes a test piece to a
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strong corrosive agent in fine mist form for accelerated testing which must be resisted for a set
period.
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Thickness measurement may be done in a number of ways. One very accurate, but
destructive, method is the use of coulometry, the measurement of the number of coulombs and
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time required to deplete the coating by electrolysis.
The BNF jet test may be used to check the thickness of electroplated coatings. In this test a
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corrosive chemical solution is allowed to fall from a calibrated jet on to a test piece. The time
taken to penetrate the plating is noted together with the temperature of the solution, and the
thickness of the plating calculated from these figures.
N
X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF) is a very accurate non-destructive method of thickness

determination but is of limited portability. It may also be used to determine the composition and
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purity of the plating material.
Hand portable non-destructive thickness testers are less accurate and may use electromagnetic
induction to measure non-magnetic coatings on ferrous metals and eddy current principles on
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non-ferrous metals.
The adhesion of the plating may also be determined by a number of potentially destructive
methods.
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A simple method involves rubbing an area of one square inch for 15 seconds with the smooth
edge of a copper coin. If no lifting of the plating is noted the adhesion is satisfactory.
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Special high adhesion tape is available. This is stuck on the part being tested then pulled rapidly
off. If the plating remains intact it is considered serviceable.

Wet and dry thermal tests may be carried out where the work piece is heated to a
predetermined temperature, heat soaked then cooled rapidly. Inspection will reveal any disbond
between the coating and the substrate.
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Other tests which may be required include;
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 Abrasion/Wear Resistance
 Chip Resistance
 Coefficient of Friction
 Solvent Resistance
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 Impact Testing
 Plating/Coating Hardness
 Plating/Coating Contamination Analysis
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 Peel Testing
 Coating Weight
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Other Coatings
Chromate Passivation
Chromate passivation reduces corrosion (“white rusting”) of cadmium and zinc, particularly
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under humid conditions. It also improves the adherence of paint to cadmium. The process
consists of immersing the part for 5 to 10 seconds in a solution of 200 grams of sodium
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dichromate and 6.6 millilitres of sulphuric acid in 1 litre of water at room temperature. This gives
the parts their characteristic golden appearance. The process is described in specification DEF
130.
AD
Hot Dipping
This treatment consists of dipping the steel to be coated into another molten metal and then
removing it. Zinc is normally used, the process being called 'Galvanising'. Tin can also be used
to coat steel sheet producing 'Tinplate'. Clean mild steel sheets are passed through squeeze
rolls to remove the surplus tin. Steel sheet coated in a lead/tin alloy is known as 'Terneplate'.
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Cementation Process
In each of the following methods the steel parts are heated in a rotating drum surrounded by
powdered metal when alloying of the two metals occurs.
Sheradising
O N
A uniform coating of zinc is formed by heating the component in zinc dust at about 370 degrees
C for 3 to 12 hours. A coating thickness of 0.06 mm is obtained. See BS 492l.
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Calorising
A layer of an iron aluminium alloy 0.62mm to 0.75mm in thickness is obtained by heating mild
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steel in powdered aluminium at 850 degrees C to 1000 degrees C. Calorised steel has good
resistance to oxidation at high temperature.
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Phosphating
This process consists of heating the parts to be treated in a bath of dilute iron phosphate. The
bath is heated to about 90 degrees C by steam coils. When the parts are immersed in the bath,
a rapid stream of bubbles occurs for a period of 30 to 45 minutes. When the bubbling stops the
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coating process is complete. The parts are removed from the bath and thoroughly washed. The
treatment converts the surface of the part into a crystalline structure which is porous and must
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be protected by the application of paint or other specified protective.
There are a number of different phosphating processes, e.g. 'Parkerising', 'Granodising' and
'Walterising'. The colour produced varies from grey to black.
US
Parko Lubrizing
This is a chemical treatment applicable to iron and steel parts which converts the surface into a
non-metallic oil absorptive phosphate coating. It is designed primarily to reduce wear on moving
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parts.
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Painting
The primary reason for painting an aircraft is to protect the skin and structure from corrosion.
Paint does this by excluding air and liquids from contact with the bare metal. Primer provides a
supply of chromate which inhibits corrosive action on the metal surface. The top coat of paint
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provides an abrasion and fluid resisting cover to the primer and also the decorative finish.
EM
Painting Materials
Painting is carried out in accordance with a scheme. Painting schemes may be in accordance
with British Standards, DTD, DEF or may be prepared by a manufacturer. Primers, filler coats
and finishing coats may be made from different materials.
AD
Paint may be applied by conventional spray gun, airless spray gun, dipping, brushing and by
means of a roller.
Primers
AC
The main purpose of a primer coat is to provide adhesion to the metal surface. If a standard
primer is used, the surface must not only be cleaned and degreased, it must also be etched by
mechanical or chemical means before the primer is applied. Alclad surfaces are only etched
using chemical methods. Anodised and chemically treated surfaces do not require etching
before the application of paint.
O N
There are four main types of primers - synthetic, stoving, etch and epoxy.
TI
Synthetic and stoving primers are very similar. They contain chromates and produce a thick
coating but their resistance to the fluids used in modern aircraft is not very good.
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Etch primers differ in that they contain phosphoric acid and have very good adhesion on
untreated sheet metals. Primers can often be applied directly to aluminium and its alloys without
any pre treatment other than cleaning but Alclad must be etched prior to the application of these
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primers.
This may be done using Deoxidine 202, which removes any residual oils and grease and lightly
etches the surface of the metal.
N
Approved solvents are used to remove any obvious oils and greases. Deoxidine 202 paste is
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then brushed over the surface and left for 15 to 20 minutes. The Deoxidine dries and can be
removed by washing with clean water and a sponge. A clean dry air blast is then used to dry the
surface which is now chemically clean and microscopically etched. Etch primer should now be
applied as soon as possible.
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Epoxy primers are supplied in two containers, the contents of which must be mixed before use.
They have a very good resistance to the fluids used in modern aircraft e.g. ester based
hydraulic fluids and synthetic lubricants used in gas turbine engines. They provide maximum
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resistance to corrosion, may also be used as a primer in stove enamel paint schemes and are
frequently used under polyurethane finishes.
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Finishes
There are six main finishes available, cellulose, synthetic, stoving enamel, acrylic, epoxy and
polyurethane.
Cellulose and synthetic finishes were widely used in the past, mainly because they are easily
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applied, polished and repaired. Both have good adhesion and weathering properties but are not
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resistant to the fluids used in modern aircraft. Synthetic paint may be applied if necessary on
top of cellulose paint. Epoxy paint applied on cellulose or synthetic paint will cause the existing
finish to wrinkle or blister.
Stoving enamels generally have a high resistance to abrasion and are used for engine and
AD
airframe internal components which are not adversely affected by the stoving temperature.
There are two stoving schemes currently in use:
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DTD 56 - The parts are sprayed, dipped or brushed with an enamel paint which is allowed to
dry and then heated for 2 hours at a temperature not exceeding 170°C in a stove
or oven. Another coat of enamel is then applied and again heated for 2 hours.
BSX 31 - N
This is similar to the above except that the first coat is a primer instead of enamel
and the temperature must not exceed 125 °C
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Acrylic paint has a good resistance to high temperatures, but has poor resistance to the fluids
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used in modern aircraft. It dries rapidly and is a single pack material. It is easy to strip when
required.
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Epoxy paint relies on a chemical reaction for curing and is supplied in twin pack form. It
produces a hard glossy surface, and is resistant to aircraft fluids and acids. Its weathering
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properties are poor from the appearance point of view and tends to „chalk‟ or dull quickly. It is
difficult to strip off.
Polyurethane paint is supplied in twin pack form. It dries to a hard glossy finish often referred to
as the „wet look‟ and has good weathering properties and resistance to fluids used in modern
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aircraft. It is however very toxic during spraying.

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Notes on Painting
While some finishes are known as paints others may be called enamels varnishes or lacquers.
An enamel, like paint, cures by the conversion of some of its solvents, by heat, oxidation or by
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catalytic action. An enamel however is usually a heat resisting finish.
A lacquer is a finish which cures by the evaporation of its solvents and one which can always be
put back into its original condition by the use of thinners.
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A varnish is generally a clear finish which cures by oxidation rather than by evaporation of its
solvents. It usually produces a tough water resistant film which is not softened by the solvents
used in the varnish.
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Aircraft battery compartments are sometimes painted with an acid/ alkaline resisting black
bituminous paint to specification DEF 1402.
Provided paints are stored in their original sealed containers, the storage life is normally 12
months in the United Kingdom but this might be reduced to 6 months in tropical conditions.
Y
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Paint Stripping
When refinishing an aircraft the original paint is stripped back to the bare metal. Approved
proprietary paint strippers are available for removing particular types of paint. Epoxy and
polyurethane paints are the most difficult to remove.
AD
It is most important to use the paint stripper approved by the manufacturer in the specified
manner because most paint strippers are caustic and:
AC
 May have an adverse effect on structural bonding adhesives.
 May damage sealants, plastics and composite materials.
 May cause hydrogen embrittlement of steels having a tensile strength in excess of 1004
Newtons per square millimetre. (65 tons/in2)
 May cause severe chemical burns to the skin
O N
Care must be taken when masking components. Vents and drains should be plugged to prevent
the entry of paint stripper, washing water and paint particles.
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The paint stripper should be applied carefully to the surface of the paint and left until the paint
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has softened. Remember it may run or drip onto those working below. When the paint has
softened, it can be removed with a scraper. Residue should be washed off with water. A short
bristled nylon brush can be used to remove residue from seams and crevices. It may be
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necessary to apply the paint remover a second time.
Softened paint must be removed from piano hinges, control rod bearings and other moving
parts. After the surface has been washed, it should be wiped with a cloth soaked in solvent, to
remove any traces of paint.
N
Where an epoxy primer has been used, the top coat may be stripped off leaving the primer
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intact. After removal of the top coat the primer should be washed with solvent to remove any
contaminants.
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WARNING: DO NOT BREATH THE VAPORS OF THE CAUSTIC STRIPPER. DO NOT GET IT
IN YOUR EYES, ON YOUR SKIN, OR ON YOUR CLOTHES. SERIOUS INJURY TO
PERSONS CAN OCCUR.
ND
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Paint Shop Safety
The following precautions are to be observed in paint shops:
 The paint shop must be well ventilated with temperature and humidity controls.
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 Barrier cream should be applied to all exposed skin.
 A full face mask with an independent air supply should be used when spraying paints
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and solvents.
 Avoid splashing paint and painting materials on to the skin or into the eyes.
 Wear goggles, PVC gloves, protective clothing and suitable breathing apparatus when
using paint strippers.
AD
 Ensure areas where paint stripper is applied are cordoned off to prevent accidental
exposure.
 Ensure all masking and blanking is removed after painting, especially from pitot/static
vents and probes, and drains.
AC
O N
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Corrosion Inhibiting Compounds
Various corrosion inhibiting compounds (CICs) are used for both temporary protection in
storage and additional protection in service, in problem areas and harsh environments. They
are usually in the form of a waxy organic compound suspended in a solvent carrier. This allows
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them to penetrate joints and crevices before the solvent evaporates leaving a viscous coating.
Some dry to a tack free lacquer like finish.
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They may be applied by brush, pump spray or aerosol and must only be used in accordance
with the manufacturer‟s instructions.
AD
Typical areas treated include:
 Freight holds and bilge areas

 Undercarriage bays and wheel wells
AC
 Unpressurised fuselage areas
 Bulkheads and pressure decks
 Floor structure below galleys and toilets
 Structure around entry doors and hatches



Wing dry bays
Wing leading and trailing edge cavities
Stabiliser in spar areas.
O N
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These areas will be periodically reprotected in accordance with the maintenance schedule or as
required.
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Examples of CICs used include:
 Dinotrol AV8, AV30 etc.

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 LPS 3, LPS 4 etc.

 Astrolan 31, 32 etc.
As with all solvent based and spray applied chemicals, correct protective clothing and
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procedures must be used at all times. Extreme care must be taken when spraying in enclosed
spaces.
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ND
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Protection Philosophy
The following is a description of the protection philosophy applied by Boeing during airframe
manufacture. The numbers preceded with 'BAC' are Boeing Airplane Company process
specifications, those preceded by 'BMS' are Boeing Material Specifications. The italic
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references are brand names or descriptions of products which meet these specifications.
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Finishes - General
The finishing of aluminium is designed to provide adequate corrosion protection in environments
of varying severity. Corrosion protection of aluminium is a function of several parameters:
substrate, environment, weight of proposed protective scheme, appearance, and aerodynamics.
Specific schemes vary according to the particular airplane model.
AD
Corrosive Environments
Minimal aluminium protective schemes for the interior in general require either alodine (BAC
5719) (Alocrom) or chromic acid anodizing (BAC 5019) depending on whether the aluminium is
AC
clad or bare, and one coat of epoxy primer (BMS 10-11 Type I) (Base Epoxy Primer) .
The minimum protective system for exterior painted areas is in general surface treatment of
alodine (BAC 5719) (Alocrom) on clad aluminium or chromic acid anodizing (BAC 5019) on bare
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aluminium and one coat of epoxy primer (BMS 10-79). BMS 10-79 Type II primer is formulated
to provide increased resistance to filiform corrosion and to provide better corrosion protection.
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Additional coatings are used in areas where the corrosive environment is severe, or where
decorative finish is needed. Areas which tend to collect moisture and corrosive chemicals
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include the interior bilge, wheel wells, and locations below lavatories and galleys. These areas
generally receive two coats of epoxy primer (BMS 10-11 Type I) over a chromic acid anodize
finish (BAC 5019) and are top coated with an epoxy enamel (BMS 10-11 Type II). Joints in
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these areas are sealed with either BMS 5-95 (Chromate-loaded repair sealant) or BMS 5-79
(Fuel resistant repair sealant) sealants.
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Wing skins are subject to standing water and continuous exposure to the weather. The initial
finish system for wing skins is chromic acid anodize (BAC 5019) and prime with one coat each
epoxy primer (BMS 10-20) (Fuel Tank Finish). The upper wing skin is then given 2 coats of
BMS 10-100 (Aeroflex), a polysulfide containing coating, and the lower wing skin and spar
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cavities are given a topcoat of flexible urethane enamel (BMS 10-60 Type II).
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BMS 10-20 is an epoxy system, heat cured in manufacturing, but can be cured at room
temperatures during repairs. It is formulated for increased corrosion resistance and is used in
one or two coats in all of the integral fuel tank structure.
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Interior empennage structure such as bilge areas in general receives chromic acid anodize
(BAC 5019) and two coats of epoxy primer (BMS 10-11). Some models require an additional
topcoat of white enamel.
ND
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Corrosion Prevention
Another weapon in the fight against corrosion is prevention by design. From experience gained,
manufacturers can design structures which are less prone to the normal causes of damage.
Y
The collection of water from condensation and leakage is a common cause of corrosion in the
structure. Although drainage paths to the overboard vents have been provided, these have
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often been inadequate, tending to become blocked, or not covering all the areas in which water
can become trapped.
Analysis of these faults has lead to changes in design as shown here.
AD
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Corrosion Removal and Reprotection
No matter how well protected the aircraft is at manufacture, the general wear and tear of airline
operation will expose the airframe to corrosive attack. While a knowledge of corrosion
rectification procedures is most important for the aircraft engineer, it is emphasised that frequent
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thorough cleaning can minimise the occurrence of corrosion in and on aircraft. Thorough
inspection at the times specified in the Approved Maintenance Schedule should ensure that any
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corrosion is detected in its early stages thus simplifying rectification.
Preparation
Before attempting any corrosion removal procedure carry out the following:
AD
 Position the aircraft in an area with washing facilities for rapid rinsing of all surfaces.
 Bond the aircraft to the ground.
 Remove the battery if corrosion is in that area.
AC
 Cover pitot static heads, static vents and engine openings. Protect aircraft interior from
moisture and chemicals.
 Protect surfaces adjacent to the working area from chemical paint strippers, corrosion
removal agents and surface treatment materials.
 N
Before commencing corrosion rectification, reference must be made to the aircraft
Structural Repair Manual. The following notes are of a general nature only.
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Safety Precautions
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The following are general safety precautions which should be observed when handling solvents,
special cleaners, paint strippers, etchants and surface conversion chemicals:
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 Barrier cream must be rubbed on the hands before starting work.

 Avoid prolonged breathing of solvent or acid vapours and do not use them in confined
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spaces without adequate ventilation or approved respirator.

 Never add water to acid. Always add acid to water.
 Always mix chemicals using the approved procedure, with containers which will
withstand heat.
 Ensure that a supply of clean water and eye irrigator bottles for emergency use is
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available in the immediate area.

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 Use rubber or PVC gloves, goggles or plastic face shields and suitable protective
clothing.
 Immediately wash any harmful material from body, skin or clothing.
 Harmful materials splashed in the eyes must be immediately flushed out with water and
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medical aid obtained.

 Do not eat or keep food in work areas and always wash hands before eating or smoking.
 Clean all equipment after work has been completed.
 Many chemicals employed in remedial or corrosion preventative procedures can cause
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pollution if discharged into a waterway via a surface water drainage system. Local
regulations vary and the Local Water Authority must be contacted regarding the disposal
of effluent.
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Degreasing
Before attempting to remove corrosion from any metal surface, it must be cleaned and
degreased.
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There are a number of solvents and solvent cleaning processes used in aircraft and component
maintenance. Some of these solvents and processes may have a denigrating effect on aircraft
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materials, or pose a threat to health. Therefore, the use of solvents and processes such as
immersion, spraying and vapour bath cleaning etc., should be carried out strictly in accordance
with the procedure stated in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or Maintenance Process
Specification.
AD
Paint Removal
Approved non-flammable paint strippers should be used to remove paints. The surrounding areas should
be masked off or covered with suitable protective material e.g.., polyurethane sheet. The strippers
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should be brushed over the paint, left on the surface for a few minutes and the softened paint then
removed using a non-metallic scraper. After the paint has been removed all traces of the stripper must
also be removed.
Mechanical Removal of Corrosion Products

O N
Mechanical methods of corrosion removal are:
TI
 Manual abrasion with scrapers, metal wool and abrasive pads or papers
 Grinding using abrasive wheels, discs, rotary files etc. mounted in a power drill. Use of
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grinding method is restricted, always check the Structural Repair Manual for applicability.
 Abrasive blasting using a Vacu-blast, a compressed air powered, abrasive blasting
machine. It incorporates a vacuum system, which retains the abrasive within the blasting
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gun, and makes the operation dust free. Abrasive of the wrong type can damage aircraft
structures. The equipment should only be used by trained personnel. Blasting with fine
glass beads or aluminium oxide removes corrosion products and damaged material,
leaving the sound metal surface ready for protective treatment.
N
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ND
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Y
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AD
AC
When removing corrosion the essential requirements are:


Remove all the corrosion, visible and hidden
Leave the surface smooth, without stress raisers
O N
 Leave the surface uncontaminated by the removal process
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 Do not blend material into a crack
 Do not cause metallurgical or thermal damage to the surface
 The amount of metal removed must be within the specified limits for the part to be
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assessed as serviceable.
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Hidden Corrosion
Not all corrosion is visible at the surface of the part being examined, special measures may be
needed to determine its extent. Intergranular corrosion, in its early stages, cannot always be
detected beneath a paint film. The full extent of the damage may only be revealed by separating
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the joints and mating surfaces. To ensure that all corrosion damage has been removed, an
appropriate NDT technique may be required on completion of corrosion removal.
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Surface Smoothness
Surface smoothness requirements depend mainly on strength factors. Highly stressed, critical
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structural components usually require a high degree of smoothness. Depressions remaining

after removal of pitting, exfoliation or cracks, should be saucer-shaped and without ridges.
Contamination
ND
Contamination of the surface by the materials used to remove the corrosion can cause further
attack. This can be caused by contaminated abrasive in Vacu-blast equipment, grinding wheels
previously used on a different metal, and by the use of steel wire brushes or wool on light alloys,
titanium and stainless steels. Scotchbrite Cleaning Pads used on aluminium alloy must not
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subsequently be used on other metals and vice versa, since small particles may become
embedded in the surface and cause dissimilar metal corrosion.

Silicon Carbide abrasive, steel brushes and steel wool must never be used on aluminium or
magnesium alloys.
Cracks
The indiscriminate use of grinding wheels and abrasives, can close over a crack or blend in
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delamination. This can be avoided by grinding out visible corrosion and then abrasive blasting
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the area. This may cause hidden delamination to peel. NDT techniques may also be used when
this condition is suspected.
Damage
AD
Surface heating during grinding operations, can cause thermal damage. Some grinding
techniques can cause flow in the surface material to a depth of 5 microns (0.0002 inches).
Surface flow can conceal minute cracks which could accelerate stress corrosion cracking, and
only laboratory techniques can reveal this condition. Special grinding points may be specified to
AC
overcome these effects. These avoid an unacceptable temperature rise and leave a surface in
which the microstructure is undisturbed.
Assessment
the SRM.
O N
The maximum depth of metal removed is measured and assessed for serviceability in accordance with
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N
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ND
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Y
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Abrasive Blasting Method of Corrosion Removal
Abrasive blasting is a corrosion removal process in which small, hard particles are shot at high
speed against a corroded area from a gun powered by compressed air. The abrasive particles
shatter the relatively brittle corrosion products. Although a range of abrasive particles are
Y
available commercially only glass beads and aluminium oxide are used as a blasting medium in
the aerospace industry.
EM
Glass bead blasting has a light peening effect on the surface of the metal being treated making
the metal more resistant to stress corrosion and fatigue. Peening of the surface material can,
however, be detrimental if corrosion products are trapped and cracks hidden. Aluminium oxide
AD
does not tend to trap corrosion products owing to the sharper profile of the particles, but the
peening effect is not as great as that of glass beads. The SRM will specify the type and grade of
blasting medium to be used.
On magnesium alloy structures only glass beads are used.
AC
Safety Precautions
Fine dry particles of certain metals e.g., titanium and magnesium can form explosive mixtures in
air and can ignite spontaneously. Operators are briefed on the precautionary measures as part
of their training.
•
O N
A face mask and protective goggles must be worn. Ear defenders are required when
working in confined spaces.
TI
• Spilled abrasive is to be picked up immediately as it can make surfaces slippery.

IA
• The blasting machine must be bonded to the aircraft and the aircraft bonded to earth.
AV
• Paint must be removed from the area and the area cleaned before blasting starts.
• Care must be taken not to remove excessive material. Excessive pressure can distort
thin skins.
N
• Adjacent areas are to be masked to prevent damage and ingress of beads into
intakes etc.
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
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AD
AC
O N
Abrasive blasting medium which has been used, for example, on ferrous metal must not
subsequently be used on non-ferrous structures.
TI
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AV
N
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US
ND
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Chemical Removal of Corrosion Products
Chemical methods of neutralising corrosion are used mainly on aluminium and magnesium
alloys. The safety precautions details earlier for handling chemicals etc., must be observed.
Y
Where thickened phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) is approved for use on aluminium alloys the
following procedure is generally used.
EM
 Remove paint. Degrease the area.
 Remove as much of the corrosion products as possible by mechanical methods. Feather
the edges of surrounding paint.
AD
Apply a coat of the specified thickened phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) by brush to the corroded
area, taking care to avoid ingress to crevices or joints. Avoid contact with ultra-high tensile
steels by masking as necessary. Fresh solution must be used for each application.
AC
 Allow 5 to 20 minutes for the solution to act; agitate with a stiff bristle brush where heavy
corrosion is present. Wipe off, and wash the area with clean water.
 If necessary, repeat the above procedures.



Dry all surfaces thoroughly. N
Apply the Alocrom 1200 process and allow to dry for a minimum of two hours, then apply
O
a primer and paint finish scheme within 48 hours.
TI
NOTE: Deoxidines must not be used on magnesium alloys. The chemical method used for
removing corrosion from magnesium is described in the section headed „Rectification of
IA
Corrosion on Magnesium‟.
AV
N
TA
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ND
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Rectification of Corrosion
Clad Aluminium Alloy Sheet
Y
After degreasing and removing the paint finish, remove the corrosion. The mechanical methods
of removing corrosion are preferred.
EM
 For light deposits a stiff fibre brush may be used followed by flushing with a detergent.
Rinse with water and dry afterwards.
 Fine grade scotchbrite cleaning pads.
AD
 Aluminium wool when the part is not in-situ.
 Abrasive paper/cloth.
 Vacu-blast abrasive blasting using glass beads or aluminium oxide.
 For heavier deposits an approved chemical corrosion remover such as thickened
AC
phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) may be used. Surrounding areas or parts must be masked
with suitable protective material.
After removal of corrosion, the surface must be thoroughly rinsed with clean water and finally
dried.
Assessment for Serviceability

O N
The maximum depth of metal removed may be determined by using a dial test indicator
TI
mounted in a steel block or a depth gauge as illustrated. The SRM or Service Bulletin will give
the maximum permissible reduction in thickness which is acceptable. For example, in the case
of l6swg Alclad, 0.l7mm (0.007in) and for 18 SWG 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) nominally 10% of the
IA
original thickness.
AV
Reprotection
Apply the BRUSH ALOCROM 1200 process as follows:
Brush Alocrom is supplied as two liquids, Parts A and B.

N
To make the working solution, mix equal volumes of Part A and Part B in a plastic container. Stir
well.
TA
Make up only sufficient mix for use within 24 hours. Any mix remaining after 24 hours must be
disposed of in the approved manner.
US
Thoroughly degrease the area to be treated and apply the solution with a nylon brush or cotton
cloth until the surface turns to a golden yellow colour. This takes from one to ten minutes
depending on the temperature.
ND
Rinse with clean water then allow to dry for a minimum of two hours.
Finally - Apply the specified primer, e.g. epoxy primer and the appropriate final finish within 48
hours.
HI

NOTE Etch primers should not be applied over Alocrom 1200 Care must be taken when mixing
and applying Alocrom 1200. PVC gloves and eye shields should be worn. Cloths used
with Alocrom must be washed before discarding, otherwise they may create a fire hazard.
Y
Aluminium Alloy Castings and Forgings, Milled Skin Panels etc.
After degreasing and removing the paint finish, remove the corrosion. The mechanical methods
EM
of removing corrosion are preferred, e.g.:
 Scotchbrite pads.
 Aluminium wool when the part is not in-situ.
AD
 Abrasive papers.
 Vacu-blast abrasive blasting using glass beads or aluminium oxide.
 Carbide tipped scrapers.
 Grinding wheels and flap wheels.
AC
The corrosion pits should be transformed into saucer shaped depressions which relieve stress
concentrations. Care must be taken when using power driven tools to avoid overheating.
O N
The SRM or Service Bulletin will give the required proportions for blended areas.
Thickened phosphoric acid (Deoxidine) may be used if approved by the SRM.

TI
The maximum depth of metal removed must be within the limits specified in the SRM, Service
Bulletins etc. Initial assessment is normally carried out after removal of the loose corrosion, to
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determine whether or not the component can be salvaged.

AV
It is usually specified that no pitting is permissible. Where pitting may be blended out the
maximum depth and area will be specified, or it may be required that the dimensions of the part
must remain within the drawing limits.
In general, the removal of corrosion must not weaken a part to such an extent that it will
N
endanger the safety of the aircraft. If in doubt, the part must be repaired or replaced.
TA
The depth of a blended area may be measured as shown in the illustrations.
Reprotection
Apply the BRUSH ALOCROM 1200 process as described for clad aluminium alloy sheet.
US
Finally apply the specified primer, e.g. epoxy primer and the appropriate final finish within 48 hours.
ND
HI

Blend of a Single Depression
Y
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O N
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N
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Blending Ratios
Y
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O N
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N
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ND
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Blend of Multiple Corrosion Areas
Y
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AC
O N
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N
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ND
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Using a Dial Type Depth Gauge
Y
EM
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AC
O N
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N
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ND
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Rectification of Corrosion on Magnesium Alloys
Degrease and remove paint from the affected area.
The following mechanical methods are usually specified:
Y
 Stiff non-metallic brush, e.g. nylon. Abrasive papers.
EM
 Vacu-blast using glass beads.
 Scotchbrite pads.
 Carbide tipped scrapers for blending out pits.
AD
Care must be taken not to remove the original chromate film unnecessarily.
Where there is no danger of trapping the solution, light corrosion can be cleaned off by
swabbing with a solution of 10% by weight of chromic acid and 0.1% by volume of sulphuric
AC
acid in water. This solution may be made up as follows:
 2 ounces of CHROMIC ANHYDRIDE

 1 pint of WATER
 8 drops of SULPHURIC ACID
O N
Using a clean non-fluffy cloth, rub the solution into the corroded area until all the corrosion has
been removed. Rinse thoroughly with clean water and dry the surface. Care should be taken to
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confine the solution to the corroded area, as the solution can damage the existing chromate
film.
IA

The procedure followed during the assessment of magnesium parts is the same as that
described for non-clad aluminium alloy castings and forgings.
AV
Reprotection
Magnesium alloy should be reprotected by applying the BRUSH ALOCROM 1200 process.
Finally apply the specified primer, e.g. epoxy primer and the appropriate final finish within 48 hours.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Rectification on Corrosion of Steel
Degrease and remove paint from the affected area using approved paint remover. Any specific
instructions for removing corrosion given in the aircraft Structural Repair Manual (SRM) or
Service Bulletins or their equivalent must always be followed.
Y
Steels in aircraft structures are normally plated with zinc, cadmium or chrome. The aim is to
EM
remove only the minimum of plating during corrosion removal.
The most effective and preferred method of removing corrosion products from ferrous surfaces
is by mechanical means. On all components, especially highly stressed parts, ensure that the
AD
corrosion damage is within acceptable limits.
The following methods may be used:
AC
 Grinding wheels
 Wire brushes
 Abrasive papers
 Vacu-blast equipment using glass beads or aluminium oxide abrasives
 Oilstones
 Carbide tipped scrapers
O N
Great care must be taken when removing corrosion from highly stressed parts, that no
scratches are produced or remain on the surface. If possible, remove the corrosion with crocus
TI
paper, if not, use fine grade wet and dry abrasive paper finally restoring the mirror finish.
IA
Cadmium compounds, including dust created by disturbance of corrosion products on cadmium

plated surfaces are toxic. They can cause serious illness if ingested or inhaled. All cadmium
contaminated waste materials such as wet abrasive paper and Vacu-blast abrasive are to be
AV
treated as industrial waste and disposed of accordingly. Contaminated overalls are to be

bagged, marked as such and sent for cleaning.
Chemical methods for removing corrosion must not be used in situ unless specified by the
N
manufacturer and must also be of an approved type. Before using a corrosion removing
chemical, remove loose corrosion by mechanical means and mask surrounding areas where
TA
applicable, by covering with a suitable protective material.
Chemical corrosion removers fall into two categories: phosphoric acid or alkaline based.
Approved phosphoric acid or alkaline based corrosion removers may be used on steels having
US
a tensile strength up to 1000 N/ mm2 (65 tons/sq. in).
Only alkaline corrosion removers contained in DTD 901 may be used on steels having a tensile
strength greater than 1000 N/mm (65 tons sq. in), when specified by the manufacturer and
ND
provided the parts are only lightly corroded (rusted).
NOTE: The use of phosphoric acid based corrosion removers causes hydrogen embrittlement in
steels having a tensile strength greater than 1000 N/mm2 (65 tons/sq. in).
HI
After using rust removers, the area must be thoroughly rinsed with clean water and dried.

The procedure followed during the assessment of steel parts is the same as that described for
non-clad aluminium alloys.
Reprotection
Y
Where possible, cadmium plated steel parts should be replated in accordance with the aircraft
manufacturer‟s instructions. For small local repairs in situ, the cadmium plating may be omitted
EM
but one coat of primer and two coats of final finish must be applied. Any special instructions
given in the SRM or Service Bulletins must be followed.
Stainless Steels, Nickel Based Alloys, Titanium and Titanium Based Alloys
AD
If corrosion is found on these alloys reference must be made to the aircraft SRM for guidance.
AC
O N
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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6
Licence Category
O N
A, B1, B2 and B3
TI
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AV
6.5 Fasteners
N
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Intentionally Blank
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Module 6.5 Fasteners 5.2

Maintenance Licence
Y
EM
AD
LEVEL 1
AC
examples.
O N
LEVEL 2
TI

IA
examples.
AV
subject.
subject.
N
LEVEL 3
TA
manner.
US

ND
instructions.
HI

Y
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O N
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Intentionally Blank
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ND
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Table of Contents
Y
6.5 Fasteners ______________________________________________________________ 13
EM
6.5.1 Screw Threads ________________________________________________________ 13
Principle ________________________________________________________________ 13
Screw Thread Terminology ________________________________________________ 14
AD
Definitions _____________________________________________________________ 14
Classes of Fit ___________________________________________________________ 16
Single and Multiple Threads _______________________________________________ 17
Right and Left Hand Threads _______________________________________________ 18
AC
Power Transmission Threads ______________________________________________ 19
Thread Systems __________________________________________________________ 21
General _______________________________________________________________ 21
Unified Thread System ___________________________________________________ 22
N
Metric Screw Threads ____________________________________________________ 24
Self Tapping Threads_____________________________________________________ 25
O
Future Trends __________________________________________________________ 25
TI
Cutting Screw Threads at the Bench _________________________________________ 27
General _______________________________________________________________ 27
Taps __________________________________________________________________ 27
IA
Care and Use of Taps ____________________________________________________ 28

Dies __________________________________________________________________ 30
AV
Thread Manufacture ______________________________________________________ 33

Thread Gauges __________________________________________________________ 35
Screw Thread Gauges ____________________________________________________ 35
Plug Screw Gauges ______________________________________________________ 35
N
Ring Screw Gauges ______________________________________________________ 35

Direct Measurement______________________________________________________ 36
TA
6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws ________________________________________________ 39

Features ________________________________________________________________ 39
General _______________________________________________________________ 39
US
Head Style _____________________________________________________________ 40

Grip Length ____________________________________________________________ 42
Material _______________________________________________________________ 43
Surface Finish __________________________________________________________ 43
ND
Critical Bolted Joints _____________________________________________________ 44

Locking Facilities ________________________________________________________ 44
Usage ________________________________________________________________ 45
Nuts ___________________________________________________________________ 46
HI
General _______________________________________________________________ 46

Stiffnuts _______________________________________________________________ 47
Anchor Nuts ____________________________________________________________ 49
Sheet Spring Nuts _______________________________________________________ 50
Point-Wrenching Nuts ____________________________________________________ 50
Shear Nuts _____________________________________________________________ 51
Y
Klincher Locknuts________________________________________________________ 51
EM
Thread Inserts ___________________________________________________________ 52
General _______________________________________________________________ 52
Wire Thread Inserts ______________________________________________________ 52
Thin Wall Inserts ________________________________________________________ 57
AD
Key-locked Inserts _______________________________________________________ 57
Swaged Inserts _________________________________________________________ 58
Ring-locked Inserts ______________________________________________________ 60
Washers ________________________________________________________________ 62
AC
Studs __________________________________________________________________ 64
General _______________________________________________________________ 64
Standard Studs _________________________________________________________ 64
Waisted Stud ___________________________________________________________ 64
N
Stepped Stud ___________________________________________________________ 65
Shouldered Stud ________________________________________________________ 65
O
Insertion and Removal of Studs _____________________________________________ 66
Bolted Joints ____________________________________________________________ 74
TI
Torque Loading __________________________________________________________ 78

General _______________________________________________________________ 78
IA
Torque Wrenches _______________________________________________________ 80

Calibration of Torque Wrenches ____________________________________________ 84
AV
Torque Loading _________________________________________________________ 85

Torque Correction _______________________________________________________ 88
Pre-Load Indicating Washers _______________________________________________ 90
Fastener Systems ________________________________________________________ 92
British Fastener Standards ________________________________________________ 92
N
British Standard Fasteners with Unified Threads ________________________________ 96

„AS‟ Bolts and Screws ____________________________________________________ 99
TA
BA and BSF Bolts ______________________________________________________ 102

Nuts of British Manufacture _______________________________________________ 104
Stiffnuts of British Manufacture ____________________________________________ 106
US
American Fastener Standards _____________________________________________ 109

Air Force/Navy (AN) _____________________________________________________ 112
Military Standards (MS) __________________________________________________ 113
National Aerospace Standards (NAS) _______________________________________ 114
ND
Special Bolts __________________________________________________________ 117

Screws _______________________________________________________________ 120
6.5.3 Locking Devices ______________________________________________________ 124
HI
Purpose _______________________________________________________________ 124

Split Pins ______________________________________________________________ 124

Rollpins _______________________________________________________________ 126
Locking Washers ________________________________________________________ 127
Spring Washers ________________________________________________________ 127
Crinkle Washers _______________________________________________________ 127
Y
Cup Washers __________________________________________________________ 127
Shakeproof Washers ____________________________________________________ 128
EM
Tab Washers __________________________________________________________ 128
Locknuts and Locking Plates ______________________________________________ 130
Locknuts _____________________________________________________________ 130
Locking Plates _________________________________________________________ 130
AD
Wire Locking ___________________________________________________________ 132
General ______________________________________________________________ 132
Wire Locking Procedure__________________________________________________ 133
Locking Tabs __________________________________________________________ 136
AC
Examples of Wire Locking ________________________________________________ 137
Wire Sealing (Tell-Tale Wire) ______________________________________________ 138
Peening and Grub Screws ________________________________________________ 140
N
Peening ______________________________________________________________ 140
Grub Screws __________________________________________________________ 140
O
Locking by Adhesives____________________________________________________ 142
TI
Pins ___________________________________________________________________ 144
General ______________________________________________________________ 144
Clevis Pins ____________________________________________________________ 146
IA
“Pip” Quick Release Pins _________________________________________________ 147

Circlips and Locking Rings _______________________________________________ 150
AV
Keys and Keyways ______________________________________________________ 152

Quick Release Fasteners _________________________________________________ 154
General ______________________________________________________________ 154
Dzus Fasteners ________________________________________________________ 155
N
Camloc Fasteners ______________________________________________________ 158

Oddie Fasteners _______________________________________________________ 159
TA
Latches ________________________________________________________________ 160

Trigger Action Latch _____________________________________________________ 160
Hook Latch____________________________________________________________ 161
US
Pin Latch _____________________________________________________________ 162

Sealed Latch __________________________________________________________ 163
6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets _______________________________________________________ 164
ND
Solid Rivets ____________________________________________________________ 164

General ______________________________________________________________ 164
Heat Treatment of Rivets _________________________________________________ 166
Compatibility of Rivets and Metals __________________________________________ 168
HI
Rivet Types ___________________________________________________________ 169

Rivet Identification ______________________________________________________ 171

American Specifications__________________________________________________ 172
British Rivet Identification_________________________________________________ 173
Riveting _______________________________________________________________ 176
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 176
Y
Types of Riveted Joints __________________________________________________ 177
Rivet Clearance ________________________________________________________ 179
EM
Rivet Allowances _______________________________________________________ 180
Rivet Grip _____________________________________________________________ 180
Strength of Joints _______________________________________________________ 181
Rivet Positions _________________________________________________________ 182
AD
Rivet Layout ___________________________________________________________ 184
Rivet Selection _________________________________________________________ 186
Hole Preparation _______________________________________________________ 187
Cleco Clamps and Pliers _________________________________________________ 191
AC
Aerodynamic Smoothness ________________________________________________ 193
Countersinking _________________________________________________________ 194
Dimpling ______________________________________________________________ 198
Riveting Procedure ______________________________________________________ 202
N
Solid Riveting Tools _____________________________________________________ 202
Hand Riveting _________________________________________________________ 203
O
Pneumatic Rivet Guns ___________________________________________________ 204
Rivet Snaps ___________________________________________________________ 206
TI
Bucking Bars __________________________________________________________ 207
Pneumatic or Air Drill Motors ______________________________________________ 208
Rivet Cutters __________________________________________________________ 210
IA
Rivet Miller or Shaver____________________________________________________ 211

Maintenance of Air Tools _________________________________________________ 212
Riveting Procedure _____________________________________________________ 213
AV
NACA Method of Flush Riveting ___________________________________________ 215

Rivet Squeezers _______________________________________________________ 216
Rivet Inspection ________________________________________________________ 217
Rivet Removal _________________________________________________________ 221
N
Hollow Rivets ___________________________________________________________ 224

General ______________________________________________________________ 224
TA
„Pop‟ Rivets ___________________________________________________________ 225

Chobert Rivets _________________________________________________________ 227
Avdel Rivets ___________________________________________________________ 232
American Blind Rivets ___________________________________________________ 240
US
Pull Through Rivets _____________________________________________________ 241

Self-Plugging (Mechanical Lock) Rivets______________________________________ 242
Cherry Rivets __________________________________________________________ 243
ND
CherryMAX Rivets ______________________________________________________ 246

Cherry Rivet Head Styles _________________________________________________ 248
Cherry Rivet Specifications _______________________________________________ 249
Hole Preparation for Cherry Rivets _________________________________________ 251
HI
Cherry Rivet Selection ___________________________________________________ 252

Cherry Installation ______________________________________________________ 253

Cherry Rivet Inspection __________________________________________________ 256
CherryLOCK and CherryMAX Removal ______________________________________ 258
Imex Rivets ___________________________________________________________ 260
Huck Blind Rivets _______________________________________________________ 262
Y
Pin Rivets and Lockbolts _________________________________________________ 264
General ______________________________________________________________ 264
EM
Hi-Shear Fasteners _____________________________________________________ 266
Collar Removal ________________________________________________________ 272
Huckbolts _____________________________________________________________ 274
Blind Bolts _____________________________________________________________ 278
AD
General ______________________________________________________________ 278
Jo-Bolts ______________________________________________________________ 280
Rivnuts ________________________________________________________________ 286
AC
Threaded Pin Fasteners __________________________________________________ 288
General ______________________________________________________________ 288
Hi-Lok / Hi Tigue Fasteners _______________________________________________ 289
Other Threaded Pin Fasteners ____________________________________________ 295
Tapered Shank Fasteners ________________________________________________ 298
N
Fastener Inspection _____________________________________________________ 300
O
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Objective
Fasteners 6.5
AD
Screw threads 6.5.1 2 2 2 2
Screw nomenclature;
Thread forms, dimensions and tolerances for
standard threads used in aircraft;
AC
Measuring screw threads
Bolts, studs and screws 6.5.2 2 2 2 2
Bolt types: specification, identification and
marking of aircraft bolts, international
standards;
Nuts: self locking, anchor, standard types;
O
Machine screws: aircraft specifications;
N
Studs: types and uses, insertion and
TI
removal;
Self tapping screws, dowels.
Locking devices 6.5.3 2 2 2 2
IA
Tab and spring washers, locking plates, split

pins, pal-nuts, wire locking, quick release
fasteners, keys, circlips, cotter pins.
AV
Aircraft rivets 6.5.4 1 2 1 2

Types of solid and blind rivets: specifications
and identification, heat treatment.
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Intentionally Blank
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6.5 Fasteners
Y
6.5.1 Screw Threads
EM
Principle
A wedge is a simple machine which can be used to apply a load. If a wedge is driven under an
AD
object it will raise it, the distance being governed by the inclination of the wedge. A steeper
wedge will move it a greater distance, but a shallower wedge will raise a greater weight. Of
course a wedge may also be used to prevent movement as in a door stop.
AC
A screw may be considered as an inclined plane or wedge wrapped around a cylinder or shaft
to form a helix. The distance along the cylinder by one full turn of the helix is the 'pitch' (P).
It can be seen from the diagram that a shallow wedge angle produces a fine pitch thread while a
steeper angle produces a course pitch thread.
O N
When a male thread is engaged in a female thread, e.g. a bolt in a nut the full surface area of
the female "wedge" is in contact with the male. More force (F) may be exerted between the two
TI
surfaces of a shallow wedge than when the wedge angle is greater. Also, as friction is
dependent on applied load and surface area, it can be seen that a shallow wedge angle will
produce more friction and greater resistance to both tightening and loosening. This is a
IA
desirable property in threaded fasteners, particularly in smaller threads where the surface area
is already limited by size.
AV
When a thread is used to produce motion, e.g. a worm screw, greater travel (P) will be
produced by a course thread but again more force can be applied by a fine one.
N
TA
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ND
HI

Screw Thread Terminology
Definitions
Y
The screw thread is a complex geometrical figure involving several elements.
EM
Pitch
The pitch of a screw thread is the distance in inches or millimetres from any point on a thread to
the corresponding point on the next thread measured parallel to the axis.
AD
The pitch is equal to
AC
Effective Diameter
This may also be called the pitch diameter, and is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder (Pitch
Cylinder) which splits the fundamental triangles exactly in half.
Minor Diameter
O N
The minor diameter is the distance measured between the roots of the thread, in the case of a
male thread and between the crests of the thread in the case of a female thread.
TI
Major Diameter
IA
Is the measured diameter over the crests of the thread (roots in the female).
AV
N
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ND
Crest
The top surface joining the flanks of the thread.
HI

Root
The root is the bottom of the groove joining adjacent sides or flanks of the thread, whether of
the male screw or of the female screw.
Flank or Side
Y
The surface of the thread form which connects the crest with the root.
EM
Thread Angle
The included angle between the flanks measured in the axial plane.
AD
Lead
The distance a screw thread advances axially in one complete turn (i.e. same as pitch for single
start thread).
AC
Length of Engagement
The axial distance over which two mating threads are designed to make contact.
Angular Depth
is the angular depth.

O N
The triangle formed by the intersection of the extended flanks. The vertical height of this triangle
Actual Depth
TI
The distance between the crest and the root of the thread measured perpendicular to the axis
Fundamental Triangle
IA
The triangle formed by the intersection of the extended flanks

(XYZ).
AV
Truncation
The distance measured radially from the crest or root of the thread to the adjacent apex of the
fundamental triangle.
N
TA
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ND
HI

Classes of Fit
As with all mechanical 'fits' screw threads are subject to tolerances. This tolerance is designated
by Thread Class. In the Unified thread system there are five classes of fit, Class 1 is a loose fit,
Class 2 is a free fit, Class 3 is a medium fit, Class 4 is a close fit and Class 5 is a tight fit. In a
Y
specification the thread will have the letter A added for male (external) threads and B for female
(internal) threads. Both partners must be of the same class.
EM
Classes 1A and 1B are intended for special applications involving replacement parts, for quick
and easy assembly even when the threads are slightly damaged or dirty.
AD
Classes 2A and 2B are general purpose threads used for most commercial applications.
Classes 3A and 3B are used for closer tolerances than those available from classes 2A and 2B.
This makes them suitable for high performance precision applications.
AC
Class 4 and 5 are little used and give a wrench or force fit requiring the application of high
torque for semi-permanent assembly.
Aircraft bolts are almost always manufactured in the Class 3, medium fit.
N
In the metric thread system there are separate tolerances for the major and minor dimensions of
O
a thread. These are indicated by upper case letters for female threads and lower case for male.
There are:
TI
 5 tolerance grades (grades 4 to 8) available for the minor diameter of the nut thread.
IA
 3 tolerance grades (grades 4,6 and 8) for the major diameter of the bolt thread.
 5 tolerance grades (grades 4 to 8) for the pitch diameter tolerance of the nut thread.
 7 tolerance grades (grades 3 to 9) for the pitch diameter tolerance of the nut thread.
AV
N
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Single and Multiple Threads
When formed by one continuous groove a thread is said to be single or single start. The
majority of threads used for adjustment and fastening are single thread. In such threads the
lead, that is, the distance travelled axially by an engaged threaded part in a complete turn, is
Y
always equal to the pitch of the thread.
EM
Multiple start threads consist of two or more ridges left by grooves cut side by side. In this way
the axial travel or lead of the thread is increased without changing the pitch. For example, a nut
engaged with a doublestart thread will travel twice as far in one complete turn as one engaged
with a single thread of similar pitch. In multiple threads the lead is equal to the Pitch of the
AD
thread (P) multiplied by the number of starts.
AC
O N
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Note that Lead (L) = Pitch (P) x Starts
Y
EM
AD
AC
Right and Left Hand Threads N
A right hand thread is one on which the thread is cut so that turning of the nut in a clockwise
O
direction will tighten it on a bolt. A left hand thread requires the nut to be turned anti-clockwise
to tighten it. Left hand threads are only used for special purposes.
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N
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Power Transmission Threads
There are several forms in common use:
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Square Thread
The thread form is a square. It is used on lead screws and feed shafts in machine tools. The
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rams of aircraft lifting jacks have a square thread for the locking collars.
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Acme Thread
A modified form of square thread with sloping faces and flat roots and crests. Largely employed
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in making lead screws and feed shafts for machine tools. May be multi-start to provide fast
traversing motion when this is necessary.
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Buttress Thread
The form is triangular with one face 900 or nearly so to the screw axis and a second face
inclined at 450. It combines low friction with resistance to shear. The thread takes axial loads in
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one direction only. It is used in bench vices having quick release jaws.
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Ball Screw Thread

A modified square thread for use with recirculating ball nuts in which the
female thread element is comprised of hardened steel balls. This type of
high strength, low friction thread is commonly used on aircraft for flap
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drive and stabiliser drive units.

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Thread Systems
General
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In the early days of the industrial revolution each manufacturer produced screw threads of their
own devising. This led to a lack of compatibility and interchangeability, and variable quality. In
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1841, Sir Joseph Whitworth announced a standard thread form. The Whitworth thread had a
pitch and depth based on the fractional diameter of the bolt and a thread angle of 55°. In 1902
the British Standards Institute (BSI) was founded and adopted Whitworths thread as British
Standard Whitworth (BSW).
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The BSW thread is fairly course and is suited to steam engines and bridges, but not for the
small threads required for precision engineering. In 1908 the British Standard Fine (BSF) thread
was introduced. Developed from BSW, BSF shared the 55° thread angle but with a range of
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smaller pitches. British Association (BA) threads with a 47.5° thread angle was also introduced
for threads below 1/4 inch diameter.
British Standard Pipe (BSP - also based on Whitworth) for fluid tight pipe connections and
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British Standard Cycle (BSC) for the bicycle and motorcycle industries were also devised.
BSW and BSC were never used in the aviation industry, however, BSF, BA and BSP can all be
found on older aircraft.
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In the United States, standard course and fine threads were also developed in the nineteenth
century and in 1918 the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) adopted the National Course
and National Fine (NC and NF) threads. These, like BSW and BSF, were based on fractional
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bolt diameters, at least for sizes over 3/16 inch, but with a thread angle of 60°.
Meanwhile, most of Europe had converted to the metric system and a series of metric threads
were developed, also based on the 60° thread form
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The second world war highlighted to the allies the problems caused by the plethora of standards
and in 1956 Britain, Canada and the United States agreed to standardise on the 60° NC and NF
threads which became known as Unified threads (hence UNC and UNF). These were adopted
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by British Standards and a gradual change over began.

As the UK became more involved with our European neighbours, trade requirements dictated
the increased use of metric units and in 1965 the BSI decreed that we adopt the International
Standards Organisation (ISO) metric system (and, of course, it's threads).
However, throughout the 1950s, '60s and '70s the Americans dominated the commercial aircraft
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building business and so the Unified thread system remained the standard for the aviation
industry. Today all western aircraft, even those of European origin like Airbus products,
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predominantly employ Unified threads.
Unified Thread System

As previously stated, this is a common standard screw thread agreed and introduced by Britain,
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America and Canada to fulfil a need for interchangeability of threaded products. The thread
angle is 60° and the thread root is always radiused while the thread crest can be either radiused
or flattened.
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The types of Unified threads are:
 UNC - Unified Coarse

 UNF - Unified Fine


UNEF
UN
- Unified Extra Fine N
- Unified with constant pitch regardless of diameter
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 UNS - Unified with special pitch/diameter combinations
 UNJF - Unified fatigue resistant fine thread.
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The unified threads used in the aerospace industry are UNC, UNF or UNJF and are normally
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manufactured as a Class 3 fit.
A Unified thread is specified by it‟s nominal diameter and it‟s pitch (number of Threads Per Inch
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or TPl). The nominal diameter of a fastener thread is dependent on the diameter of the shank
on which it is cut.
Thread sizes of 3/16 inch and below are referred to by a number from #0 (0.060 inch diameter) to
#10 (0.190 inch diameter) in 0.013 inch increments, followed by the number of TPI. Usually only
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the even number sizes are used and sizes below #8 have coarse threads, e.g. 6-32 UNC.
Threads of #10 size are available as either 10-24 UNC or 10-32 UNF however the 32 TPI UNF
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form is preferred. (Note: 8-32 UNC and 10-32 UNF have the same TPI and may appear to
engage, but will not carry the designed loading).
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Thread diameters of 1/4 inch and above are referred to by their fractional size followed by the
number of TPI. The range rises in 1/16 inch increments to 5/8 inch then 1/8 inch increments beyond.
Most common fasteners in this range have UNF threads e.g. ¼ - 28 UNF (or 0.25-28 UNF).
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The full abbreviation system for the identification of Unified threads includes the class of fit e.g.
¼-28 UNF 3. For a left handed thread the suffix „L‟ is added. The numbered threads are
designated in a similar way e.g. 10-32 UNF 3 (or 0.190 -32 UNF 3). The part number is prefixed
by the specification number.
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The following sizes are commonly used in the aerospace industry:

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UNJC and UNJF threads
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“J” threads are made in both external and internal forms. The external thread has a much larger
root radius than the corresponding UNC or UNF threads. This radius is mandatory and its
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inspection is required, whereas no root radius is required on UNC, UNF, or UNEF threads.
Since the larger root radius increases the minor diameter, a UNJF or UNJC fastener has a
larger net tensile area than a corresponding UNF or UNC fastener. This root radius also gives a
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smaller stress concentration factor in the threaded section. Therefore, high-strength (180 ksi or
more) bolts usually have “J” threads. These threads are manufactured to Class 3 fit only.
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Because of the enlarged root radius a UNJ bolt cannot be used with a UN nut, but a UN bolt is
compatible with either a UN or UNJ nut. Thread types are not interchangeable i.e. a UNF screw
must be used with a UNF nut of the same size.
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The size of the hole to be drilled for tapping an internal thread and holes for screw thread
clearance are given in the applicable National Standard. However tapping and clearance drill
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sizes are reproduced in readily available charts e.g. ZEUS reference tables.
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Metric Screw Threads

Metric screw threads have a thread angle of 600 and those used in the aerospace industry use
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the MJ profile which is suitable for highly stressed applications. The MJ profile thread is a metric
version of the imperial UNJ thread.
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Aerospace screws, bolts and nuts are manufactured in a series of diameter and pitch variations
from 1.6mm to 39mm.
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The metric screw thread is identified by the letters MJ to identify the metric J thread form
followed by the nominal size and pitch in mm (separated by the sign X) and followed by the
tolerance class (separated by a dash from the pitch). Example MJ6 x 1 - 3 = Metric fatigue
resistant thread form, 6mm diameter, 1mm pitch, class 3 fit.
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Self Tapping Threads
Self Tapping threads are tapered male screw threads which are designed to cut their own
mating thread in softer materials such as wood, plastic and aluminium. They are not used
structurally on modern aircraft but are often found securing internal trim items and fittings.
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The thread form and dimensioning varies depending on the intended use of the fastener and
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various numbering systems are employed. They should always be installed into pre-drilled holes
at or below the core diameter.
Future Trends
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Because of the importance of reducing weight in the construction of an aircraft, designers are
constantly seeking means of using higher strength or lighter alloys for structural purposes. This
trend applies particularly to fasteners and it is apparent that the use of smaller diameter bolts,
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bolts with a shorter threaded portion and miniature anchor nuts will become more widespread. It
will be accompanied by the use of threads of UNJF form.
Because of the vast experience gained, particularly in America, in the use of both standard and
miniature components, it has been internationally agreed to use Unified inch threads on
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fasteners. However, with the introduction of metric dimensions in other fields, it is probable that
a metric thread series will eventually become more widely accepted.
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Cutting Screw Threads at the Bench
General
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Screw threads of up to about 1 1/4" can be successfully produced by hand methods using taps
for internal threads and dies for external threads.
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Before tapping, a hole must be drilled which should be equivalent to, or slightly larger than the
minor diameter of the thread. Reference tables giving recommended drill tapping sizes are a
part of every engineer‟s tool kit.
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Taps
These are used for cutting internal screw-threads. Made of hardened and tempered high carbon
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steel or high speed steel, they are fluted shafts with multiple cutting edges and driving flats on
one end. The flutes are provided to clear the swarf during the cutting process. Usually
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manufactured in sets of 3, comprising taper, intermediate and bottoming.
Taper Tap (or First)

Used for starting thread, diameter at point is less than the minor diameter of the thread.
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Intermediate (or Second)
Used to deepen thread cut by taper tap.
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Bottoming (or Plug)
This is not tapered and its purpose is to finish the thread to the bottom of blind or deep through
holes.
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Care and Use of Taps

Care must be taken not to damage the cutting edges and a chipped tap must never be used.
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When not in use, taps should be kept clean, and stored in a rack.
Taps are normally used in a tap wrench. At the start of the tapping process great care must be
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taken to ensure that the tap is perpendicular to the hole in both planes. It must be kept square
to the hole throughout the cutting process. The tap must turned 90° forward to cut and then 90°
backward to release the swarf. Use of a cutting compound will lubricate the tap, help clear swarf
and produce a better finish.
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Dies
Dies are used for cutting external screw threads.
Circular Split Dies
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Made of hardened and tempered high carbon steel or high speed steel, these are split rings with
multiple cutting edges and cut-outs to clear the swarf. These usually cut a full thread in one
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operation, but a split in the die allows adjustment of the depth of cut. The threads in the die are
tapered on one side to aid starting so it is important to use the die the right way up.
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Dies are used in a Die Stock, which has three grub screws for retention and adjustment. The
centre screw must be aligned with the split in the die and is used to 'spread' it and reduce the
cutting depth. The outer two screws align with dimples in the die and are used to retain it in the
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stock and prevent rotation. When the centre screw is released, the outer two can be used to
'close' the split and deepen the cut. Care must be taken not to over-adjust the die as they are
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brittle and fracture easily.
Use of Dies
The rod to be threaded should have a 45° chamfer to aid starting the cut and provide a lead-in
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on the finished thread. The die must be presented the correct way up and perpendicular in both
planes. Again the cut is made 90° forward and 90° back to clear the swarf and cutting
compound will improve the quality of the thread.
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Half Dies
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Take smaller cuts to reach the desired size as the amount of material removed can be
controlled.
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Die Nuts
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Used to run down an existing thread which has become damaged. They are not adjustable and
should only be used where permitted.
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Thread Manufacture
Production threads are usually machine made. Threads may also be formed by cutting on a
lathe or grinding on a specialised machine.
Y
On a lathe, a cutting tool of the correct angle and form can be used with the automatic feed
mechanism to produce a high quality thread in one operation. This allows greater accuracy than
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the tap and die method.
Ground threads are more accurate still and are used for gauges and precision threads in
measuring instruments, and large drive threads for flap mechanisms etc. Taps and dies are also
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manufactured in this way.
Both of these methods are, however, expensive. For mass produced items, such as bolts,
thread rolling is often used. In this method the rod is held between a set of hardened steel
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rollers with the reverse of the desired thread form ground on them. As the rod is rotated,
pressure is applied to the rollers and the metal is deformed, to produce the crests and roots. As
there is no cutting, the metal grains are displaced but not damaged and the thread is cold
worked, improving its strength. O N
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Thread Gauges
Screw Thread Gauges
Y
The simplest method of checking threads in the production shop is by means of screw-thread
limit-gauges. These gauges possess the same thread form as the mating thread, and are
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assembled with the thread being checked. Thread gauges ensure that screw threads are of the
correct size as specified in the applicable standard.
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Plug Screw Gauges
When gauging nuts or internal threads of full-form a “GO”, "NOT GO" plug gauge is used. The
gauge is accurately made to the minimum dimensions of the required thread, therefore if it will
assemble with the component it will ensure that the major, minor, and effective diameters are
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not below the minimum dimensions; it will also ensure that any errors in pitch, angle and thread
form are insufficient to reduce the effective diameter below its minimum.
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Ring Screw Gauges

For the gauging of bolts or external threads the equivalent mating gauges are known as ring
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screw gauges. As in the case of plug screw gauges a limit system can be provided by a full-
form “Go” and “Not-Go” effective ring gauge. As the factors involved are exact counterparts of
the gauging of internal threads. The “Go” ring gauge has a full-form thread, and the “Not Go”
gauge is truncated on the minor diameter, and cleared on the major diameter at the root of
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thread.
GO and NOT GO screw ring gauges are used to check that an external thread is correct. Plain
ring or calliper gauges are used to check the diameter of an external thread.
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Direct Measurement
Occasions are likely to occur when a threaded product is manufactured in quantities which
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make it uneconomical to provide suitable gauges. Direct measurement of diameters, pitch and
flank angles is then carried out. Various devices are available for this including optical machines
in which projection of the thread form on to a screen allows the thread roots and flanks to be
checked for correct formation. O N
For workplace thread identification purposes a micrometer to determine the major diameter and
a set of thread gauges to determine the thread form and TPI is usually sufficient.
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6.5.2 Bolts, Studs and Screws
A modern commercial aircraft is composed of many individual component parts, units and
assemblies. Amongst the most numerous of these are the fasteners, the nuts, bolts, screws and
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rivets, that hold the whole thing together. In fact a Boeing 747 contains over 2 400 000
individual fasteners of many different types and sizes.
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The word “fastener” is used as a general term to describe all of the various types of fastening
device employed in the construction of an aeroplane. It is necessary to use this term because
the meanings of the words “bolt” and “screw” for instance, may be interpreted differently by
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separate organisations.
One commonly used definition says the word “bolt” describes a threaded fastener with a plain
(unthreaded) shank portion, whilst “screw” refers to a fully threaded item regardless of thread
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size, head style or material. Another definition hold that any external wrenching (e.g. hex drive)
is a bolt, while and internally driven (e.g. slotted or Allen socket) item is a screw.
To avoid confusion it is easier to use the term threaded fastener although 'bolt' and 'screw' are
often used and are often interchangeable.
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Features
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General
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The fastener systems discussed in this section are standard threaded fasteners and their
mating parts (washers, nuts, locking devices etc.). The various types of rivet, lock pin and
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special threaded fastener are considered elsewhere.
A standard fastener comprises of a threaded portion, a head and sometimes a plain shank or
grip. Between the shank and the thread is a small tapered transition zone or lead-in and
between the shank and the head is stress relieving fillet radius.
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A fastener will be defined by a number of parameters which are laid down in detail in it‟s
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specification. These include it‟s Thread Form, Shank Diameter, Head Style, Grip Length,
Material, Surface Finish and Locking Facilities.
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Head Style
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The design of a fastener will be dictated by the specification requirements and the environment
that it is intended to operate in.
Where a flush surface is required, the fastener hole may be countersunk to accommodate the
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head. The standard countersink angle is 1000 although variations do occur.
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Flush fastener heads are provided with a Recess Drive or “slot”. This slot may be of one of the
following forms:
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 Straight
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 Radiused straight (“Hi-Torque”)

 Cruciform (cross shaped e.g. “Philips”)
 Off set cruciform (“Torq-set”)
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 Off-set three point (“Tri-wing”),

 Splined (e.g. "Torx")or
 Hexagonal (Allen).
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It is important to use the correct type and size of screwdriver or 'bit' as the wrong tool will
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damage the head and may prevent successful removal of the fastener. Many fasteners have the
tool size stamped on the head.
The straight screwdriver should fit snuggly into the slot to its full depth most of it's width. It
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should not be used on the Hi-Torque head which has a special curved slot and a dedicated
screwdriver bit.

Cruciform fasteners should be carefully identified as Philips, Reed and Prince, Posidrive and
Torque-set fasteners each have their own dedicated drivers, use of the wrong one will damage
the fastener slot and impair or prevent removal.
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Tri-wing screws are easy to identify as they are the three point slots, however, it is important to
select the correct bit size.
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Torx is a trade name for the hexalobular internal driving slot or Star head. It is a standardised
design so different sized drivers will fit fasteners from different manufacturers.
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The Hexagonal socket or Allen head is driven by a hexagonal key sized in fractions of an inch.
Protruding head fasteners may have any of the above Recess Drive slots in a variety of head
styles or may be External Wrenching.
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External Wrenching fasteners have flats on the outer edges and may be turned with a spanner
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or socket. They are normally hexagonal (6 point) or Bi-Hex (12 point). The head size for both
types is specified as the distance Across the opposite Flats of the hexagon (AF) as a fraction of
an inch or metric measurement. Therefore a 7/16 inch AF Bi-Hex socket will fit both a 7/16 inch AF
hex. bolt head and a 7/16 inch AF 12 point bolt head.
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Note: BA, BSW and BSF head sizes are directly related to thread size, and spanner sizes are
specified by this, e.g. a 1/4 BSF spanner only fits a bolt or nut with a 1/4 BSF thread.
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Fasteners holding parts together may be subjected to two types of “load”. Loads carried along
the length of a fastener are known as Tension loads whilst those felt across the fastener are
called Shear loads. A fastener in tension will require a head and nut of sufficient strength to
spread the load to the surrounding structure. A fastener taking only shear loads may have the
size of the head reduced to save weight. Most fasteners take a combination of both loads and
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will be designed to carry them with an adequate safety margin.
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Grip Length
O N
The nominal length depends on the style of the fastener in question. If the item has a plain
shank and protruding head the nominal length or “grip” is measured from the underside of the
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head to the end of the plain shank.

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If the item has a protruding head and is fully threaded the nominal length is a measure of the
threaded portion.
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If the item has a Flush head (countersunk) the depth of the head is included in the nominal
length or grip.
The increments in which the length is measured varies between the standards systems and
must be determined before fastener identification can take place.
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Material
Like head style, the material used will be dictated by the design requirements and operating
environment.
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Factors to be considered in the selection of fastener material include required tensile strength,
corrosion resistance, temperature tolerance, weight and cost.
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Materials commonly used include Alloy Steels, Corrosion Resistant and Stainless Steels,
Titanium Alloys, Nickel Chrome Alloys and Aluminium Alloys.
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Each has its own properties, strengths and weaknesses. For instance Titanium Alloys are
lighter than steel, stronger and more heat resistant than Aluminium Alloys, have good corrosion
resistance characteristics and are more fatigue resistant than either of the above. They are,
however, prone to cracking if exposed to certain solvents and are more expensive to produce.
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Surface Finish
Most materials require some sort of coating to improve their corrosion resistance. The coating
or plating applied will depend on both the material and the intended environment.
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The most common forms of protection for aircraft fasteners include Aluminium coating,
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Anodising, Cadmium plating, Chromium plating, Nickel-Cadmium plating, Passivating,
Phosphate Fluoride coating and Silver plating.
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Cadmium plating is the most common method of protecting steel and other ferrous alloy
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fasteners. When electroplated onto a fastener it produces a tough golden-brown coloured

coating. However in areas where high temperatures occur, cadmium causes Hydrogen
Embrittlement in the component which may lead to it‟s failure. In these circumstances small
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components may be Silver Plated while other alloy‟s must be selected for larger parts.
Some steels can be Passivated. This is an electrochemical process whereby the surface of the
component is converted to a chemically “passive” corrosion resistant state which does not
require plating. Aluminium Coating is another method of protecting fasteners. Pure aluminium is
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extremely resistant to corrosion and a layer deposited on the fastener will prevent it‟s exposure
to a corrosive environment. This coating is however, easily damaged.
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Titanium Alloys may be protected by any of the above coatings or may be left un-coated
depending on the intended use.
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Aluminium Alloy fasteners are usually Anodised. This is an electrochemical process which
produces a film of oxidised material on the surface which protects the item from further
corrosion.
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Other coatings or surface treatments may be used and some fasteners may be treated with
organic coatings such as grease, wax or paint to protect them in transit.
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Critical Bolted Joints
Many bolted joints on aircraft are regarded as being critical to the integrity of the structure. To
ensure the quality of the joint is acceptable, the tolerances of both bolt and hole are carefully
controlled. Bolts of this kind are referred to as Close Tolerance bolts and they are normally
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installed into reamed holes.
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Close Tolerance bolts are identified by a number of different markings, it is, however, vital that
all fasteners are selected by part number and installed as instructed, with reference to the
Approved Technical Publications.
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If the hole has become elongated or has worn larger than the diameter of the bolt, the whole
purpose of the close tolerance concept has been destroyed. Reference must be made to the
Structural Repair Manual but repair will normally involve replacement by a similar fastener with
an oversized shank. Oversizes are normally available in 1/64" increments.
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Holes for close tolerance bolts may require special preparation. For instance certain holes
require Cold Working, a process where the hole is broached with a tool of specific diameter.
This compresses the material around the hole, improving fatigue resistance. If the hole has to
be oversized, this process may have to be repeated.
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Locking Facilities
Most fasteners require some form of locking to prevent them from becoming loose when
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subjected to vibration in operation. This may be provided by the mating parts or by a feature of
the fastener itself.
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Many fasteners have holes drilled in the heads to allow them to be wire locked to an adjacent
fastener or a suitable part of the structure. Others have a hole drilled through the threaded
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portion to allow a split pin to be used in conjunction with a suitable nut. Some have a small
nylon pellet inserted into a cutout in the thread or a patch of dry adhesive on the thread to
increase the friction and lock the nut in place.
The subject of locking will be covered later in these notes.

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Usage
As can be seen there are a wide variety of fastener styles each with their own properties. It is
important that only the fastener specified for a particular location is used in that location.
Installation of the incorrect type of fastener may have catastrophic consequences.
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The Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC) for the aircraft, equipment or unit, specifies each individual
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fastener by Part Number and must always be used to identify the parts needed for any job.
When a part is unavailable or has been superseded, an alternative part can only be substituted
under suitable authority. One source of information on acceptable alternatives is the Structural
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Repair Manual (SRM) for an aircraft which gives a recognised substitutions table.
Repair Schemes, Modifications and Service Bulletins (SB's) will also give information on
fastener substitution and replacement. An example is the issue of an SB by Boeing calling for
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the replacement of all structural fasteners made from H11 alloy steel with fasteners made of
Inconel (Nickel Chromium alloy) on all Boeing airliners.
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Nuts
General
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Fasteners have to mate with a female thread form. This may be a threaded hole in a structure
or component or, more frequently, a nut. Like fasteners, nuts come in all shapes and sizes,
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made from many different materials. It is therefore important to select replacement nuts by part
number from the Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
Standard nuts are hexagonal in shape and are usually the same size across flats as a bolt of
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the same thread size. Often they are symmetrical, but some have an enlarged bearing surface
on one side and so must be used the right way up, these are sometimes referred to as Engine
nuts. Nuts are normally six to ten threads deep but thinner light weight versions are available for
shear applications.
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Many are provided with locking facilities which include wire locking holes and split pin slots.
Some nuts have a plain raised portion to accommodate the slots without compromising the
screw thread, these are referred to as Castellated nuts.
hexagonal counterparts and are thus lighter.

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Bi-hex or twelve-point nut are often used and these are of a smaller diameter than their
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Wing nuts are used in non-structural applications where a quick release is required. The wing
may be drilled for wire locking.
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Pal nuts are light weight pressed steel nuts of various designs which contain only a partial
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thread and are usually used for non-structural purposes.

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Stiffnuts
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Stiffnuts are commonly used in the aerospace industry and have an element or feature which
increases the friction between the nut and its mating part to prevent loosening caused by
vibration. The most common methods are 'thread disruption' where part of the thread is
distorted radially or axially, and the 'insert' type where the fastener has to cut a thread in a
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plastic or fibre insert.

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In order to check the effectiveness of the friction element of a small diameter stiffnut, it is
general practice to turn the nut onto its mating thread by hand. If it is possible to pass the thread
through the friction element by hand, then the locking is unsatisfactory. However, certain
manufacturers specify acceptable limits of „in-built‟ or frictional torque for various thread types
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and sizes and in these instances each stiffnut should be checked with a torque wrench before
re-use.
Oddie Stiffnut
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The top of this nut is counterbored, slotted vertically and depressed inwards to form a circle of
six tongues with the diameter slightly smaller than the bolt thread core diameter. As the nut
installed the threads of the bolt displace the tongues upwards, and a load is applied to the
contacting thread faces.
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Philidas Stiffnut

This nut is made with a circular crown in which two slots are cut, one above the other with an
arc of about 270°. The wings are displaced downward thus providing locking tension.
Aerotight Stiffnut
This nut is made with a circular crown which is slotted across the diameter and also on each
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side through an arc of 150°. The resultant wings are depitched and forced inwards, thus causing
a sideways as well as downwards tension on the bolt threads.
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Note: These types are seldom encountered on modern aircraft.
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Nyloc Stiffnut
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This nut is counterbored at the top and spun over to retain a nylon insert, the insert is not
threaded and has an internal diameter slightly less than the diameter of the bolt to which it is
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fitted. On assembly, the bolt displaces the nylon in forming a thread, and a high friction value is
set up between the load carrying sides of the thread in contact with the nylon. They may be
used only once and are not suitable for hot locations.
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Nyloc Cap Nut

Similar to the Nyloc nut but incorporates a nylon insert in cap form to seal the end of the bolt or
screw to which the nut is fitted. A cap nut is used for special applications, such as in pressurised
cabins, fuel and oil tanks etc., when leakage or seepage along the bolt thread is undesirable.
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Kaylok
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This nut is pressed from sheet steel and is both light and strong. The rear portion of the
threaded 'tube' is deformed to produce an ellipse. The mating thread will overcome the
distortion but the resilience of the nut will maintain a grip on the bolt. These nut have the
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additional advantage that an internal Kaynar socket can be used in areas of restricted access.
Lightweight Stiffnut
Like the Kaylok the top of this nut is distorted to an oval shape. When the nut is screwed on to
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the bolt, the top of the nut is forced to assume the round shape of the bolt and thus provides a
locking device. When the nut is removed from the bolt it assumes its original shape.
Care must be taken not to reject these stiffnuts as unserviceable due to the distortion which is
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an integral feature of their design.

The term Lightweight is used because this type of stiffnut has the equivalent strength of larger
nuts with the same thread diameter. They are available in both hex and bi-hex form.
Y
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Anchor Nuts
N
Anchor nuts are stiffnuts which are retained (either fixed or floating) on a plate which is riveted
to the structure to provide a blind attachment. Where more than one nut is attached to a plate
O
they are referred to as Strip nuts.
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N
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Clip nuts are self locking threaded elements retained by a spring steel clip housing. When slid
over the edge of a thin flange, a small spring section centres it in the fastener hole.
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Clinch Nuts have an unthreaded spigot which is swaged into the attachment hole in sheet
metal to retain them.
Y
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Sheet Spring Nuts
These nuts are used with standard and sheet metal self-tapping screws to support line clamps,
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conduit clamps, electrical equipment, and access doors. The most common types are the float,
the two-lug anchor, and the one-lug anchor. The nuts have an arched spring leek that prevents
the screw from working loose. They should be used only where originally used in the fabrication
of the aircraft. O N
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Point-Wrenching Nuts
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These nuts are generally used where a nut with a high tensile length is required. These nuts are
installed with a small socket wrench. They are usually self-locking.
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Shear Nuts
These nuts are designed for use with devices such as drilled clevis bolts and threaded taper
pins that are normally subjected to shearing stress only. They are usually self-locking.
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Klincher Locknuts
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Klincher locknuts are used to ensure a permanent and vibration proof, bolted connection that
holds solidly and resists thread wear. It will withstand extremely high or low temperatures and
exposure to lubricants, weather, and compounds without impairing the effectiveness of the
locking element. The nut is installed with the end that looks like a double washer toward the
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metal being fastened. Notice in figure 5.20 that the end that looks like a double hexagon is away
from the metal being fastened.
AC
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Thread Inserts
General
Y
With the assembly of units and components, fasteners are often installed in threaded holes.
With the periodic disassembly and reassembly of these parts during their maintenance cycle,
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threads in softer metals will become worn and damaged. Thread inserts are usually fitted in light
alloy materials such as aluminium, magnesium, bronze and brass, to provide a more resilient
screw thread. They also produce a large diameter thread and thus a stronger attachment point
in the softer materials.
AD
In addition, thread inserts are often specified for repair work in steel components, where the
original thread has been damaged and fitment of an insert enables the original size bolts to be
used without affecting interchangeability.
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There are basically two types of inserts available. One is known as a wire thread insert (often
referred to by the trade name "Helicoil") and is made from specially formed wire wound into a
helical coil. The other is known as a thin wall insert and is made from a tube with threads
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formed on both the inside and the outside surfaces. Both types are manufactured in a variety of
materials and finishes and may have either plain or selflocking threads.
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Thread inserts should only be used when specified in the relevant manual, drawing or repair
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scheme and care should be taken to ensure that the correct insert is used.
Inserts should be installed strictly in accordance with the manufacturer‟s instructions, since
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there may be slight variations between inserts conforming to the same specifications.
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Wire Thread Inserts

A wire thread insert is a precision formed wire of
diamond section (usually of spring steel or stainless
steel) wound into a helical coil, the crosssection of
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the wire forming a thread both inside and outside the

coil. When correctly installed, the coil provides a
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thread which conforms to a particular British

Standard or other specification with a good surface
finish and the inherent flexibility to compensate to
some degree for any errors of form in the engaging
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bolt or screw. The radial pressure attained in fitting

the insert produces good self-locking characteristics.
The possibility of thread failure from vibration,
fatigue, corrosion or seizure is also reduced. Wire
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thread inserts have a tang at the inner end to

facilitate fitting with a special tool; this tang may be
removed after installation if required.
HI

Y
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Installation
N
Since the internal and external threads on a thread insert have the same number of threads per
inch and the internal thread is designed to be of standard size, then a special size tap is
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required to cut the threads into which the insert is fitted. These special taps and checking
gauges are provided by the insert manufacturers. Installation procedures, which comprise
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drilling and tapping the hole, thread gauging, insertion of the insert and removal of the tang, are
outlined.
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Drilling
The hole for the insert should be drilled to the diameter and depth specified in tables supplied
by the insert manufacturer, the depth being calculated from the fitted length of the insert, plus
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the thread runout, plus a half pitch gap at each end of the insert (see graphic). Care should be
taken to ensure that the hole is drilled in the correct location and square to the surface, and that
all swarf is removed before tapping. In some cases, particularly when the hole is near to the
edge of the component, it may be necessary to check for cracks by a specified non-destructive
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testing method.
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Thread Tapping
The thread should be tapped with a special tap provided by the insert manufacturer, a straight-
fluted tap being used for hand tapping and a spiral-fluted tap for machine tapping where this is
possible. Normal workshop practices should be used for tapping, with special emphasis on
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cutting the thread coaxially with the hole. Lubricant should be used according to the type of
metal being cut, e.g. a light mineral oil is generally recommended for tapping light alloys.
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Thread Gauging
O N
After the insert thread has been cut it should be cleaned of all swarf and foreign matter. The
thread should then be checked with a special GO/ NO GO plug gauge provided by the insert
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manufacturer to ensure that the thread is satisfactory. Any thread imperfections indicated by
tightness of the GO gauge should be removed by further use of the original tap or, if this is
ineffective, by use of a new tap.
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Fitting the Insert

An insert should be screwed into the tapped hole by the use of either an inserting key or an
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inserting tool of the prewind type, depending upon which is recommended for the particular
insert. A different sized key or tool is provided for each size of insert.
The inserting key should be used by sliding the insert onto it so that the tang is engaged in the
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driving slot at its forward end; the assembly should then be applied to the tapped hole,
compressing the insert downwards with the thumb and forefinger of one hand while turning the
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key with the other hand; no downward pressure should be applied on the key. The insert will
wind into the thread and should be installed so that the outer end of the insert is at least half a
pitch below the surface of the component.
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When a prewind tool is used, the insert should be placed in the chamber with the tang towards
the nozzle and the mandrel pushed forward through the insert to engage the tang in the slot.
The mandrel should be rotated clockwise and pushed gently forward to engage the insert coil in
the nozzle threads, rotation being continued until the insert is about to emerge from the outer
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end of the nozzle. The tool should then be placed squarely over the tapped hole and the handle
rotated to transfer the insert from the tool into the tapped hole; no forward pressure should be
used.
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Unless otherwise stated, inserts should be installed so that the outer coil is at least half a pitch
below the component surface.

Absolute cleanliness of the tapped hole and freedom from burrs is essential to prevent distortion
of an insert. When jointing compound or anti-corrosive compounds are specified, they should be
applied strictly according to the relevant instructions and surplus compound should be removed
as specified after installing the insert.
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Removal of the Tang

It is not normally necessary to remove the tang of a wire thread insert from a blind hole, but
removal is usually specified in through holes for screw clearance or product appearance. A tang
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in a through hole is removed by use of the inserting key used as a punch, with the tang outside
the engaging slot, or by use of a special punch. A sharp blow with a hammer on the key or
punch will fracture the wire at the notch where the tang joins the coil. To remove the tang from
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an insert fitted in a blind hole, long round-nosed pliers are required; the tang should be bent
backwards and forwards through the insert bore until it fractures at the notch and can be
removed.
HI

Y
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Removal of Inserts
AC
If an insert has to be removed because of bad fitting, damage or wear, this can be done by
carefully picking out the top coil and bending it inwards to form a rough tang and unscrewing it
with the insertion tool or a pair of pliers.
Some manufacturers recommend the use of a tapered lefthand tap of appropriate size, which
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grips the top coils internally and unwinds the insert when rotated. Others provide a range of
extractor tools which are fitted with hardened and tempered blades, the blade will bite into the
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inner surface of the insert, which can then be unscrewed. After removal of an insert, the threads
in the hole should be carefully examined for damage before fitting a new insert.
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If thread damage is excessive, a repair insert or "Twinsert" can be fitted into the re-drilled and
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tapped hole and a standard insert installed in to this.

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Thin Wall Inserts
A thin wall insert comprises a tube with threads formed on its internal and external surfaces.
These inserts do not exert any outward radial pressure on the threaded holes into which they fit,
and are locked in position by various methods. Inserts are supplied in a variety of types,
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materials and finishes, and the internal thread may be non-locking, or self-locking by means of a
deformed thread or nylon insert; inserts are identified and ordered by manufacturer‟s part
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numbers.
Key-locked Inserts
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Drilling and Tapping
Tables provided by the manufacturer give details of the drill diameters, hole depths and taps to
be used to form the threaded holes for each size of insert. When preparing the threaded holes,
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the general precautions outlined should be carefully followed.
Installation
The inserts may be screwed in by hand or by the use of an installation tool until the keys butt
against the component surface, this being the correct installed depth. The keys are then driven
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into place by hammer blows or a press, using the installation tool as a punch. When the keys
are flush with the top of the insert, installation is complete.
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Removal
Should it become necessary to remove a key-locked insert, this may be done as follows:-
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 Drill out the insert to a diameter equal to the distance between two opposing key slots and to the
depth of the key heads.
 Deflect the keys inward with a punch and break them off.
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 Remove the insert with a standard extractor.
After removal of the insert, the threads on the part should be inspected for damage. If the
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threads are undamaged a replacement insert of the same size may be fitted, but care should be
taken to ensure that the keys are located in different places from the original keys.
HI

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Swaged Inserts

N
The holes for these inserts must be drilled with a special drill and counterboring tool supplied by
the insert manufacturer for each size of insert. Holes should be drilled so that the counterbore
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depth is as specified in the relevant tables for the insert concerned, and the precautions outlined
should be observed. The hole should be tapped using a tap of the relevant size, to the drawing
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requirements. All swarf should then be removed and the thread inspected.
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Installation
A special insertion tool is used for installing these inserts (see graphic). The insert internal
thread is deformed in such a way as to permit the insertion of the hexagonal driver (unified
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threads), or has three axial grooves (metric threads), so that the insert can be rotated. The
insert should be screwed into the threaded hole until it is the specified distance below the
component surface. The insert is swaged by hammer blows on the end of the tool and
installation is complete when the stop washer face contacts the component surface.
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Note: Insertion tools for the larger sizes of inserts are power operated.
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Removal
Where necessary, swaged inserts may be removed in the following way:
 Using a drill of the relevant diameter, drill the insert to the depth specified in the
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manufacturer‟s tables to separate the swaged portion of the insert.

 Carefully remove the swaged portion with a scriber or similar tool.
 Using the installation tool, unscrew and remove the threaded part of the insert.
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 The thread and counterbore should be checked for size and damage. If satisfactory, a
replacement insert of the same size may be fitted.
HI

Y
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Ring-locked Inserts

The holes for these inserts should be drilled and counterbored in a similar way to those for
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swaged inserts. Similar drilling/counterboring tools should be used and the dimensions of the
holes should conform to those listed in the tables provided by the manufacturer; the precautions
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outlined should also be observed. The holes should be tapped using a tap of the specified size,
to drawing requirements. All swarf should then be removed and the thread should be inspected.
Installation
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A special tool is used to install these inserts the bore having serration‟s which fit the serration‟s
of one particular size of insert. The insert should be screwed into the prepared hole until its
upper surface is 0.25 to 0.5 mm (0.010 to 0.020 in) below the component surface. The locking
ring should then be placed over the insert, so that the inner serration‟s engage those of the
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insert. Installation is completed by fitting the drive tool (see graphic) into the locking ring
(ensuring that it is square to the component surface), and hammering the end of the tool so that
the outer serration‟s on the locking ring bite into the material surrounding the counterbore. The
installed locking ring should be flush with the surface of the component.
O N
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Removal
When necessary, ring-locked inserts may be removed in the following way:
 Drill out the insert to the depth of the counterbore, using a drill of the diameter specified
in the tables provided by the manufacturer.
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 Remove the insert by use of a standard stud extractor or a lefthand threaded tap of
suitable size.
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 If necessary, use a punch to separate and remove the remaining portion of the locking
ring.
 Provided the hole thread is not damaged, a replacement insert and locking ring of the
same size may be fitted.
AD
AC
O N
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Washers
Plain washers are used to provide a smooth bearing surface between the nut an the structure or
component to protect it when tightening the nut. They may be used to spread the load on a
tightened bolt across a larger area. They may also be used to adjust the grip length of a
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fastener.
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Washers are produced in a variety of materials, sizes and thicknesses and must be identified by
part number and used accordingly.
Those intended for use under a bolt head often have a chamfer or countersink to accommodate
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the under-head radius and must be used in the correct orientation.
Various anti-vibration and locking devices may be incorporated in washer design. Among these
are spring washers and shakeproof washers which are axially deformed to increase friction
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between the nut or bolt and the structure it is installed on. These should be used once and
discarded. When used on light alloy structures a plain washer is also installed to protect the
surface.
Tab washers have a lug, which is located on the edge of a surface or in a hole provided to
prevent loosening.
O N
prevent rotation, and two tabs which are bent up against the flats of the nut, once tightened, to
The 'Tinnerman' type washer is a large diameter aluminium washer with a countersunk recess.
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It is used to attach fibreglass and composite panels, the large flange spreading the load of the
countersunk fastener to the surrounding material.
IA
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HI

Y
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Studs
General
Y
Studs are metal rods which are threaded at each end. They are used, where it is not desirable
or possible to drill through both components for the fitting of bolts. One end of the stud is
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screwed, to the full extent of the thread, into a tapped hole in one component - the 'fast' end, a
second component is placed onto the exposed plain portion of the stud and clamped by a nut.
They also provide a means of alignment control, particularly when they are irregularly spaced.
AD
AC
O N
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Standard Studs
These are supplied in the following sizes: 3/16 , 1/4, 5/16 and 3/8 UNF. The plain portion is the same
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diameter as the major diameter of the thread and the length is indicated by the part number.
The lengths of the threaded portions is dictated by the specification.
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Waisted Stud
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The diameter of the plain portion of the waisted stud is reduced to the
minor diameter of the threaded ends, making the stud lighter in weight,
without impairing its ultimate strength.
ND
HI

Stepped Stud
This type is made with one threaded end of larger diameter than the other. The large end
screws into the unit, which is usually of soft metal, so providing greater holding power. Stepped
studs are also used as replacements for damaged studs where the stud hole in the job, which
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may also have been damaged, has to be drilled and tapped to a larger diameter.
EM
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Shouldered Stud
The integral shoulder, machined on the plain portion of the stud, seats firmly on the surface of
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the job into which the stud is screwed, providing a more rigid assembly than could be obtained
with the use of an ordinary stud.
O N
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Where greater depth of thread engagement is required i.e., soft material, a coarse series thread
may be employed at the „fast‟ (secured) end and a fine series thread at the clamping nut end of
the stud.
AV
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ND
HI

Insertion and Removal of Studs
Stud Replacement
A stud must be a good fit and should remain in position when the nut is removed. Studs that are
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damaged or loose are to be removed and new ones fitted. There are a number of accepted
methods of stud replacement, some of the more common ones are detailed in the following.
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Note: If a anti-seize or locking compound is specified this must be applied prior to replacement
and in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
AD
Locknuts
Two plain nuts are screwed onto the top thread and locked against each other, the lower nut
being held by a spanner whilst the upper nut is tightened down onto it. The complete assembly
is screwed in using the top nut. When the stud is finally screwed down into position both
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locknuts are removed and discarded. For removal, the two nuts are locked in the same way and
the lower one turned to loosen the stud.
O N
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Stud Box
This consists of a hexagonal body, with two different sized threads at each end and is suitable
for the insertion of two sizes of studs. The stud box is screwed onto the stud and locked by a
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bolt, a soft metal disc between them is used to prevent damage to the stud and the locking bolt.
The stud is then fitted by turning the box body with a suitable spanner. Stud box removal is
effected by slackening the locking bolt and unscrewing the box body from the stud.
ND
HI

Y
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AC
Stud Tool
The Stud Tool consists of a hollow body with a handle attached. The upper end is threaded to
accommodate a locating screw, the other end contains internally machined cam faces. Located
in this end is a cage containing three hardened steel rollers which are free to move radially
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within the limit of their axis holes in the cage. The cage assembly is retained within the body by
an end plate. The stud to be inserted or extracted, is passed through the hole in the end plate
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until the plain portion of the stud is positioned within the cage. The locating screw is adjusted to
prevent further entry of the stud into the tool and prevent damage to the threads.
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When the tool body is rotated the light frictional grip of the rollers on the stud shank cause them
to rotate within the housing and ride round the cam faces. The rotating cam faces force the
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rollers inwards, thus providing a tight grip on the stud shank. The stud then turns with the tool in
the direction of rotation. Partial rotation in the opposite direction will allow the rollers to
disengage from the stud shank thus permitting the tool to be removed. This tool is not suitable
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for waisted studs.

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Stud Removal
Loose or undamaged studs may be removed by the use of locknuts - (use spanner on the lower
nut), stud tool or universal stud extractors.
Universal Stud Extractors consists of a body machined to accommodate the square drive socket
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bush (for use with ratchet handle or knuckle bar) and an eccentrically mounted knurled wheel.
The body is bored to allow the insertion of the largest diameter stud of the tools range.
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The stud is placed in the extractor until the plain portion is in line with the knurled wheel, a
suitable handle is inserted in the square drive socket. Initial movement of the handle rotates the
socket bush forcing the knurled wheel to contact and grip the plain portion of the stud, further
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movement of the handle will turn the extractor body and stud. Slight rotation in the opposite
direction causes the knurled wheel to disengage from the stud shank allowing the extractor to
be removed.
AC
The Stud Removal Wrench is a one piece tool that works on the same principle.
Note: These tools damage the plain portion of the stud which must be discarded after removal
O N
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Damaged Studs
Those damaged or broken above the surface of the component may be removed by one of the
following methods:
 Unscrew stud with a suitable pipe wrench or stud removal tool
Y
 File flats on projecting part of stud and use an open ended spanner or tap wrench to
unscrew.
EM
 Cut and file screwdriver slot in projecting part and unscrew with a screwdriver.
Sheared or Broken Studs

For studs broken flush with or below the surface of the component one of the following methods
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should be used:
 Drill out stud, tap over-size and fit stepped stud.

 Drill out stud, tap and fit threaded insert (or Twinsert).
AC
 Drill (minor diameter of stud), pick out old loose thread, re-tap to standard size - use only
when accurate drilling and marking out facilities are available.
 Drill a hole approximately half the stud diameter. Drive in a square or splined tapered
drift, unscrew with a spanner - care must be taken not to expand the stud.

unscrew.
O N
Drill and tap the stud with a thread opposite hand to that of the stud, insert a bolt and
TI
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Ezy-Out Screw Extractor

This resembles a coarse left hand tapered tap and is used in conjunction with a tap wrench. The
recommended size of hole (indicated on the screw extractor) is drilled centrally in the stud and
the „Ezy-Out‟ is inserted and tapped in. Rotating the wrench in an anti-clockwise direction
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causes the extractor to screw in and grip the stud tightly until, when sufficient turning movement
is applied, the stud commences to unscrew. This type of extractor is suitable for right hand
threads only. Where space allows, step drilling the hole increases the contact area between the
stud and the extractor.
ND
CAUTION: THE HARDNESS OF THIS TOOL MAKES IT VULNERABLE TO BREAKING IF

SIDE LOADS/HIGH TORQUE IS APPLIED.
HI

Y
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AD
Rigid Type Screw Extractor
This extractor is issued as a boxed set; the set consists of a quantity of twist drills, drill guides,
AC
extractor shafts and hexagonal adapters, covering a specified range of screws. A table
containing all relevant data is contained on the lid of the box supplied with the set. The specified
drill guide is placed in the hole of the sheared stud and a drill is passed through, boring a hole in
the centre of the stud, (this accessory can only be used when the stud is broken beneath the
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surface of the component). The extractor shaft, which is hardened and serrated is driven into
the drilled hole and the internally serrated hexagonal adapter is placed in position on the shaft.
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A suitable spanner is applied to the adapter and the whole assembly including the stud, is
turned to unscrew it.
TI
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Spark Erosion
Hardened steel studs and screws can be removed by this method. The metal is removed by the
thermal effect of electric discharges across the gap between the tool electrode and the broken
stud. The electrode which is approximately the minor diameter of the stud, is mechanically
vibrated so that periodic contacts with the metal to be removed is made. When contact is made
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the current will flow and as the electrode leaves the workpiece an arc will be struck, this
however, will be quenched by the fluid in which the specimen is immersed. The spark gap is
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maintained automatically as erosion proceeds. On completion of this process the remaining
threads are removed.
Note: These methods which detail the repair action, may only be used when authorised
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in the relevant repair schedule.
AC
O N
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O N
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Intentionally Blank
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Bolted Joints
The strength and reliability of bolted joints, or any joint dependant on a screw thread, is
governed by the quality of the assembly.
Y
In order that the full strength of a nut is to be realised, it is essential that the bolt thread is fully
engaged with the nut. Nut thickness standards have been drawn up on the basis that the bolt
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will always sustain tensile fracture before either the nut or bolt thread will strip. Typically the first
few pitches of a thread are only partially formed because of the chamfer and thread lead-in or
run-out areas. It is, therefore vital that the bolt thread protrudes through the nut. Failure to
ensure this runs the risk that thread stripping will occur.
AD
It is common practice to specify that one to two full thread pitches must protrude although
sometimes a measurement is given. Boeing and Airbus specify that for flat ended bolts of all
sizes the minimum protrusion is 1/32 inch, while for bolts with a chamfered lead-in the entire
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chamfer must protrude. A British requirement calls for the chamfer plus one full thread (i.e. 1.5 -
2.5 threads). When these requirements have been met the bolt is said to be "In Safety".
O N
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Conversely if the bolt is too long the nut may run out of thread before the desired tension is
achieved. In this situation the assembly is said to be "Thread-bound". Attempting to tighten the
assembly further will damage both the nut and bolt threads and may make disassembly difficult.
N
Ineffective clamping caused by a thread-bound bolt leaves the joint weakened and subject to
movement and wear.
TA
Selection of the correct fasteners using the Illustrated Parts Catalogue will usually prevent
assemblies having insufficient or excessive thread protrusion and differences from the stated
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part should be investigated. A certain amount of discretion is sometimes given by the

manufacturer and the engineer must select the best grip length for a given part number. The
use of packing washers to modify the grip length is permitted only within limits stated in the
Structural Repair Manual.
ND
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Y
EM
AD
Where a ring of bolts, or nuts on studs, are used to hold and assembly flange together, or a
cover plate in place, even clamping is essential to ensure a good seal is achieved. It is usual
practice to tighten the fasteners in stages and in a specific order to ensure the correct
AC
installation.
The order for tightening the fasteners is sometimes given in the maintenance or overhaul
manual but when it is not stated, fasteners should be tightened as diametrical opposites. The
O N
diagrams illustrate the order for various types of joint.
The manual may specify stages to tightening, e.g. tighten all bolts finger tight, then in sequence
to half required tightness, then in same sequence to fully tight, then back off half turn and
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tighten to final value in sequence. Some instructions require repeated tightening in sequence
until none of the fasteners drop out of the torque range. If no stages are specified it is good
practice to partially tighten diametric opposites to seat the component before applying final
IA
torque in the same sequence.

AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Intentionally Blank
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Torque Loading
General
Y
All fasteners must be tightened to a controlled 'tightness'. This is done not to prevent the
fastener from loosening (that is accomplished by the locking devices and mechanism described
EM
elsewhere) but to ensure that the clamping force of the fastener is adequate and the tensile load
on it has not exceeded it's limits.
When a nut is tightened onto a bolt, clamping material between them, the tendency is to stretch
AD
the bolt shank. This action controls the clamping force up to the elastic limit of the bolt material.
Beyond this point the bolt becomes permanently deformed and the clamping load can no longer
be relied upon. The bolt also becomes weakened at the elastic limit and if loaded further, either
during installation or in service, it will fail.
AC
For fasteners used in pure shear applications the clamping action is of little significance so the
upper limit is more important. However for most applications, which are in tension, or tension
and shear, the fastener must be tightened to a point between the critical upper and lower limits.
O N
The tension on a fastener can be determined by measuring the amount it stretches during
tightening and indeed this is done on some vital bolted joints. It is, however, an awkward
process and is not suitable for the majority of threaded fasteners installed on an aircraft. A more
TI
common method is to measure the amount of torque applied to the fastener.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
Torque is force applied in rotary motion. Knowing the pitch of the thread it is possible to
ND
determine the tension on the fastener from the torque applied to it. This method is easy to apply
but less accurate due to factors such as the friction between the threads.
Torque measurements are derived from the force applied and the distance from the axial centre
HI
at which it is applied;

Torque = Force X Length of Lever
It is measured in units such as pounds force/inches (lb/in, lbf.in, inch/ pounds), pounds/feet
(lb/ft, lbf.ft, foot/pounds), kilogram/metres (kg/m), newton/metres (N/m, mN) and deka-
Newton/metres (daNm, mdaN). While both imperial and metric values are quoted in
Y
maintenance manuals nowadays, in the UK aviation industry most organisations use imperial
measurements.
EM
The most basic method of measuring a torque value is to use a force measuring device such as
a spring balance on the end of a spanner or wrench of known length.
This method is, however, cumbersome an difficult to achieve in areas of restricted access. For
AD
this reason direct reading instruments have been developed.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Torque Wrenches
There are basically three types of torque wrench.
Y
Flexible Beam Type
One type contains a flexible beam which bends under load. On the more basic tool a pointer
EM
attached to the flexible beam indicates on a scale attached to the socket drive block, while the
more modern torque wrenches have a geared mechanism and the amount of bend is shown by
a needle on a dial which is graduated in units of torque. The dial often has a follow-up needle
which records the maximum torque achieved.
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
Break Type
The second type contains a spring loaded over-centre device which must be preset before use.
N
When this preset torque is reached, the wrench „breaks‟ with an audible click and jump. Further
tightening of the fastener will increase the torque. On this type the spring mechanism is
O
tensioned and the torque preset by rotating the handle or an attached knob, a scale on the shaft
indicates the torque value set. The socket drive can usually be pushed through to allow torque
TI
loading in either direction.
Similar to this is the Slipper type torque wrench containing a clutch mechanism which slips at
IA
the preset torque and prevents over-tightening. This type is usually used on production lines
and is factory set so it cannot be adjusted by the operative.
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
For smaller sizes of nuts and bolts screwdriver type torque wrenches are available which break
when the set torque is reached. Again it is important not to continue tightening the nut or bolt
IA
beyond the break point, otherwise the fastening will be over tightened. The torque setting may
be adjusted by turning a ring with a datum mark against a calibrated scale, or turning an allen
key.
AV
Slipper type torque screwdrivers are also available for production line use.
Dial Measuring Type

The Dial Measuring type torque wrench uses a calibrated spring to measure the torque, while a
gear mechanism produces the dial reading. An overload protection rod is included to protect the
N
mechanism, but it will not prevent too much torque being applied. The dial often has a follow-up
needle which records the maximum torque achieved, and sometimes a light or buzzer which
TA
operates when a predetermined torque is reached.
The socket head incorporates a ratchet mechanism so that fasteners can be spun down and
US
torqued with the same tool. It also has a socket drive on both sides so that torque can be
applied in both directions.
Due to it's accuracy and durability, the Dial Measuring torque wrench is the preferred type in the
ND
aircraft industry.
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
In instances where very high torque values are required, such as gas turbine engine shaft nuts,
AV
mechanical torque multipliers and hydraulically powered 'spanners' are used. The torque
multiplier is a gearbox which increases the input torque value by a set factor e.g. 4 X, 10X etc.
The hydraulic torque spanner has gauges which indicate hydraulic pressure applied and must
be converted into a torque value. These can achieve values in excess of 80,000 lb. ft.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Calibration of Torque Wrenches

IA
All torque wrenches that are used on aircraft must be regularly inspected, tested and calibrated
by a facility equipped to do so. The equipment must carry evidence of the facility that certified
AV
the equipment and the date that it is due for recalibration/inspection.
If the calibration sticker date has expired or it is believed the instrument is faulty do NOT use the
measuring equipment but return to the standards facility responsible for its calibration.
N
Prior to use, a confidence check should also be performed to satisfy the user that the wrench
calibration is accurate. Torque testing machines are available at all tool issue stores for this
TA
purpose.
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
Torque Loading
N
Where a Maintenance Manual does not give a specific torque loading for a fastener it is
assumed that the Standard Torque value applies. Standard Torque tables are included in
O
Chapter 20 - Standard Practices of the Maintenance Manual.
TI
Separate tables are often included for shear head fasteners, stiffnuts, pipe union nuts, clamps
and studs.
IA
Recommended Techniques
Torque loading instructions vary slightly between aircraft and engines and most manufacturers
AV
specify lubricated torque values i.e. threads and mating surfaces lubricated with oil or anti-seize
compound, but some applications require dry torque values. Due to the varying effects of friction
under different conditions of assembly it is important that torque be applied in accordance with
the manufacturer‟s instructions. The pre-load applied to a fastener at a specified lubricated
torque would be considerably higher than if the same torque were applied dry.
N
It is normal practice to tighten the nut, as friction between the fastener shank and the hole it
TA
passes through will give an inaccurate indication of the torque applied. The Standard Torque
table gives a correction factor for cases where the fastener must be turned.
US
It may be necessary to check the frictional torque of stiffnuts before reuse, using a torque
wrench, acceptable values are given in the Maintenance Manual. Also, the frictional or run-
down torque of a stiffnut may need to be added to the torque for the type and size of thread
('torque added rollon', T.A.R.)
ND
HI

Assembly
To remove the roughness from threads and mating surfaces when assembling new components
which require high torque loadings:
1. Clean, and where specified, lubricate the threads and mating surfaces of nut, bolt
Y
and washer.
2. Tighten the nut to half the specified torque value.
EM
3. Slacken the nut then finally re-tighten to the specified torque value.
Torque should be applied with a gently rising pressure, not jerks of the wrench and pressure
must be released as soon as the desired torque is indicated.
AD
When the torque loaded fastener is to be secured by means of a split pin or lock wire, tighten
first to the low limit of the torque range. If necessary, tighten the fastener so that the next slot
aligns with the hole, ensuring that the maximum torque is not exceeded. If the maximum torque
AC
is reached and the slot in the nut does not line up with the hole in the bolt, the nut and washer
must be changed.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

The torque wrench selected for a particular use should have a range such that the specified
torque falls within the upper range of the scale.
Ensure that a torque wrench with a floating drive is used the right way round e.g. Britool type.
Y
Fasteners which may have been tightened beyond the maximum specified torque value, must
be removed and scrapped.
EM
Where it is necessary to re-torque a fastener assembly, the nut must be backed off part of a
turn and re-tightened to the specified value.
AD
Whenever a torque wrench is used, it must be confirmed that the specified torque and the
wrench are in the same units. If they are not, then the specified torque should be converted, by
calculation, to the units shown on the wrench scale. Any measurements taken must be taken in
appropriate units.
AC
Some Useful Conversions
lb ft. x 1.35 = Nm
Nm
lb. in
Nm
x
x
x
0.74
0.113
8.849
= lb. ft.
= Nm
O
= lb. In.
N
lb. In. x 1.15 = Kg. Cm
TI
Kg. Cm x 0.87 = Ib. in.
Ib. ft. x 12 = Ib. in.
lb. in.   12 = lb. ft.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Torque Correction
If a torque wrench is used in conjunction with a socket type of spanner the nut and torque
wrench square drive will coincide and the torque applied to the nut may be read directly from
the wrench scale. However, in some cases an extension spanner or adaptor may have to be
Y
used in conjunction with a torque wrench and the torque applied to the nut will be different from
the torque shown on the torque wrench scale.
EM
The illustration shows a typical flexible dial measuring type torque wrench which has an
extension spanner attached. If this combination is used to torque load a fastener, then the
following formula must be used to calculate the torque wrench scale reading which corresponds
AD
to the specified torque value.
Scale Reading = Specified Torque x
AC
L = Distance between drive and centre of handle
X = Length of extension spanner between centres
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI
Example:

The specified torque to be applied to a particular bolt is 200 lbs. ins. The torque wrench is 12 in.
long between the centre of the handle and the drive and is used with a 3 in. extension. What
must the reading be on the torque wrench scale?
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
When using a torque wrench where it is necessary to diverge by more than 15 degrees from a
straight line, then the direct distance (D) between the nut and the wrench handle must be
IA
substituted for (L + X) in the formula;

AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Pre-Load Indicating Washers
Precision Torque Loading

The value of the pre-load applied to a fastener by means of a torque wrench may vary
Y
considerably and, because of this, specified torque loadings are usually low compared with the
actual strength of the fastener. In certain critical bolted joints the manufacturer may consider
EM
that more accurate clamping is required and specify the use of Pre-Load Indicating (PLI)
washers.
Pre-Load Indicating Washers
AD
PLI washers consist of concentric inner and outer rings and two highstrength steel washers as
shown. The outer ring is thinner than the inner ring and has a series of radial holes drilled
through it.
AC
A stiff wire tool is inserted in holes in the outer ring and used to check whether the ring is free to
rotate. As the nut is tightened the inner ring is compressed until, at a predetermined pre-load,
the outer ring is nipped between the washers; at this point the outer ring can no longer be
rotated and tightening is complete.
N
PLI washers are unaffected by thread or nut friction, or by lubrication and provide a means of
pre-loading a bolt which is more consistent than torque loading. The pre-load applied to the
O
particular size of bolt can be varied to suit its application by changes in the material or
dimensions of the inner ring. However, since the inner ring is compressed during tightening it
TI
can only be used once and if slackened must be replaced.

IA
Due to the method of tightening, PLI washers can only be used with selflocking nuts.
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Fastener Systems
British Fastener Standards
Y
Fasteners used on aircraft and aeronautical equipment constructed in Britain usually conform to
one of two national standards. These are the British Standards (BS) “A” Series of Aircraft
EM
Materials and Components, and the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC) “AS”
Series of specifications. The older Aircraft General Standards (AGS) system has been
superseded by these, however the term “AGS” is commonly used when referring to aircraft
Standard Parts even when they are of American origin.
AD
Threads
Historically, British fasteners had either British Association (BA) British Standard Whitworth
(BSW) or British Standard Fine (BSF) threads although more recently the standard Unified
AC
thread forms Unified Fine (UNF) and Unified Coarse (UNC) have become the international
industry standard. All modern commercial aircraft are constructed with fasteners having a
Unified thread form, the older British threads rarely being encountered.
Part Numbers
N
Parts conforming to the British Standards system have part numbers starting with the letter 'A'
O
followed by a three digit code which describes the physical shape, material, finish, thread form
and size range. This is followed by a dash (-) and for bolts a number representing the grip
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length then a letter indicating the shank diameter. The letter code used is common across the
British specification Systems. For screws the dash number and letter are reversed.
IA
The units in which the grip length is measured vary and may be 1/10, 1/16 or 1/32 inch increments
depending on the fastener type and size.
AV
Examples:
A102-10E
A102 = Bolt, Hex Head, High Tensile Steel, Cad Plate, Unified 2A thread size
440 UNC to 1 inch UNF.
N
10 = Grip Length in 1/10 inch = 1 inch,

E = 1/4-28UNF.
TA
A206-B 16
A206 = Screw, 1000 csk. Head, Corrosion Resistant Steel, Natural Finish,
Unified 2A thread, size 440 UNC to 10- 32 UNF.
US
B = 6-32UNC.
16 = Nominal length in 1/32 inch = 1/2 inch
ND
SBAC
The SBAC Aircraft Standards system offers a supplementary range of fastener designs using
different head styles and special materials. Some AS parts are coded in a similar manner to the
BS “A” series with the “AS” number defining the style, material, thread form and size range,
HI
followed by a dash number and letter for grip length and diameter.

Example:
AS2-5E
AS2 = Bolt, 1000 csk. Head, Titanium, Natural Finish, Unified Thread.
5 = Grip Length in 1/10 inch = 1/2 inch.
E = 1/4 -28UNF.
Y
Others however, have a range of numbers allocated to a particular fastener style, each number
EM
within that range describing a different diameter and grip length.
Example:
AS22450
AD
Falls into the range 22400-22799 and is a close tolerance, Bi-Hex bolt made from material
conforming to spec. DTD 5066 with a shank diameter and thread form from 10-32 to 3/8-24
UNF. The actual size of the item would have to be found from the specification Data Sheet
tables.
AC
Mating Parts
Unified British nuts usually conform to the British Standard, or SBAC specification Systems and
are numbered in a similar manner to the fasteners. The letter indicating thread size may be
N
followed by a further letter, added to indicate the nut style (P = Plain, T = Thin, S = Slotted, C =
Castellated) when this is not included in the basic specification.
O
Example:
TI
A105PC
A105 = Nut, Corrosion Resistant Steel, Natural Finish, Size range 4-40 UNC
to 1 inch UNF.
IA
P = 9/16 UNF.
C = Castellated.
AV
Washers, split pins and other common standard parts will conform to the British Standards,
SBAC or AGS specification systems.
British Standards parts generally start with the prefix “SP” followed by a number defining the
N
part and the letter code for the size. Further letters may be added for information about
materials, surface finish, another dimension etc.
TA
Example:
SP90C8
SP90 = Split Pin, Corrosion Resistant Steel.
US
C = Diameter 1/16 inch.

8 = Length in 1/16 inch increments = 1/2 inch.
AGS washers and standard parts, although intended for use with the older British fasteners (BA,
ND
BSW and BSF), may also be compatible with Unified components but should only be used
where specified.
HI
Markings

Where possible, fasteners will carry some form of identification marking, such as part or all of
the components Part Number or an identification code. Smaller parts, however, will usually have
no markings and can only be identified from their release documentation or by measurement
and careful comparison with the standards tables.
Y
Many British parts with Unified threads have markings to differentiate them from similar parts
with British thread forms. These markings may be contiguous circles stamped onto the bolt
EM
head or nut (A and B), a recess in the bolt head (C) or an extended shank or “Dog” point on the
end of the threaded portion (D).
Extensive information on the British Systems can be found in CAAIP's. Leaflets 3-3 and 3-4.
AD
Substitution
Alternative parts may be substituted as indicated in the Structural Repair Manual for the aircraft
concerned or under the authority of the Technical Services department. It is common practice
AC
within many organisations to replace British bolts with their American equivalents when required
as they are cheaper and more readily available.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
The identification of bolts and screws located on aircraft may not always be an easy task since
not all are marked to show the standard to which they conform. We set out to show the features
from which positive identification may be made, but it should be understood that items exist,
which although identical in appearance, may not be interchangeable. It is also important to
HI
understand the direction of stress in a particular bolt since a „shear‟ bolt must not be used to
replace a „tension‟ bolt. If any doubt exists as to the identity of a particular item the appropriate

Parts Catalogue should be consulted; replacement of an incorrect part may lead to failure in
service.
It will be found that a number of specifications are either obsolete or obsolescent, in some
instances due to the standardisation of a countersunk head of 100° included angle. The
Y
replacements are indicated in the tables.
EM
Information on the identification of nuts of British manufacture are provided later in these notes.
British Standards
Here we are concerned with the identification of bolts and screws complying with the British
AD
Standards „Aircraft‟ (A) series..
Bolts and Screws Having Unified Threads

The table opposite gives a list of current and obsolescent bolts and screws in the Unified range.
AC
The diagram also illustrates the type of head used in this range and also shows the general
„Unified‟ symbols, including (H) the cylindrical extension (dog point) sometimes used on parts
not having hexagon shaped heads.
N
It will be noticed that there are several styles of hexagon head; these are alternative methods of
manufacture and do not necessarily provide a means of identification, although A108 and A111
O
bolts, which have close tolerance shanks, have a cylindrical extension on top of the head and
shear bolts always have thin heads.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

British Standard Fasteners with Unified Threads
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
Bolts and screws of similar shape may be further identified by the material; aluminium alloy is
dyed green, high tensile steel is cadmium plated and corrosion resistant steel or brass are
normally uncoated. When the British Standard number is not marked on the bolt head,
ND
identification should be made as follows.
Identify the head, for example (g). Reference to the table shows that the bolt could be an A113,
A114 or A170. Complete identification is possible in this example from the type of finish; in other
HI
instances it may be derived from further information, such as diameter or thread length,
contained in the table.

Code System for Unified Bolts and Screws
The code system used for the identification of the bolts and screws listed in the previous table
consists of the Standard number followed by the part number of the particular bolt. The
diameter code shown in the table (below) is used on all parts but the measurement of length
varies with different Standards as follows:
Y
EM
Code Diameter Code Diameter
Y 0-80 UNF J 3/8" UNF (UNJF)
Z 2-64 UNF L 7/16" UNF (UNJF)
AD
A 4-40 UNC N 1/2" UNF (UNJF)
B 6-32 UNC P 9/16" UNF (UNJF)
C 8-32 UNC Q 5/8" UNF (UNJF)
AC
D 10-32 UNF UNJF) S 3/4" UNF (UNJF)
E 1/4" UNF (UNJF) U 7/8" UNF (UNJF)
G 5/16" UNF (UNJF) W 1" UNF (UNJF)

O N
All bolts from A102 to A212 inclusive, nominal length in tenths of an inch followed by
the diameter, e.g. an A102, 10-32 UNF bolt with plain length of one inch = A102-10D.
TI
Note: Some bolts are also supplied in lengths of 0.05 inch in some specifications, e.g. an A170-
1/2D bolt has a plain length of 0.05 inch.
IA
 All screws from A204 to A221 inclusive, diameter followed by length in thirty seconds
AV
of an inch, e.g. a 4-40 UNC A2l7 screw 1 inch long = A217-A32.

 All bolts from A226 to A232 inclusive, diameter followed by nominal length in
sixteenths of an inch, e.g. a 1/4 inch UNJF A229 bolt with plain length of one inch =
A229-E16.
N
Note: The position at which the nominal length of bolts is measured is shown opposite and
does not include the thread run-out.
TA
Extent or Marking
The markings actually applied to a bolt depend on the particular specification and whether
marking is practical. Adding the code „A17-Z32‟ to the head of a 2-64 UNF pan head screw
US
(head diameter 0.155 to 0.167 in), for example, would be very difficult, and having raised
characters on a countersunk head bolt would, in certain circumstances, defeat the object of
using that shape of head.
ND
HI

„Unified‟ Marking
Most bolts, and screws 4-40 UNC and larger, are marked with a symbol to show that they have
„Unified‟ threads. The markings consist of contiguous circles (hexagon headed bolts only), a
recessed head or shank dog point as illustrated previously.
Y
Note: At some future date, yet to be agreed, the „Unified‟ marking of screws will be
discontinued and identification of these items will be solely from the label on the
EM
package.
Code Markings
Most hexagon head bolts 10-32 UNF and larger are marked with the full code, i.e. Standard
AD
plus size code, but pan and mushroom head bolts may only be marked with the bolt length and
countersunk head bolts are not usually marked at all. The code is not applied to screws, or bolts
smaller than 10-32 UNF.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
„AS‟ Bolts and Screws

This paragraph is concerned with the identification of bolts and screws complying with the
US
Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC) „AS‟ series of specifications. The specifications
provide a range of bolts and screws in sizes, materials and head shapes not found in British
Standards specifications. The following are examples of this range.
ND
This table shows the AS specifications for „round head‟ bolts with a locking flat and Unified
threads. These bolts are manufactured from high tensile steel and are cadmium plated.
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Double Hexagon Head Bolts
This table shows the AS specifications for double hexagon head bolts manufactured from heat
resistant steel and having UNS (Unified Special) or UNJF threads. Requirements for protective
treatment vary between specifications, some bolts being silver plated while others have a
natural finish.
Y
Note: The UNS bolts listed in the table have reduced diameter threads for use in high
EM
temperature applications and should be fitted with nuts complying with specifications AS20620
to AS20639.
For purposes of standardisation a further series of heat resistant bolts with UNJF threads is
AD
being introduced to replace those with UNS threads.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

BA and BSF Bolts
Note: In the earlier UK system (which may be encountered on older, or home-constructed, light
aircraft), bolts more than ¼ inch diameter are normally BSF, whilst bolts less than ¼ inch
diameter (and most screws) are BA. Both of these items also use a number to represent their
Y
nominal length and a letter code (as can be seen in Table 5.3) to identify their diameter.
EM
Other bolts of this era may have nicks at the corners of the head (High Tensile Steel) or a raised
ring on the bolt head (Cold Rolled) to assist differentiation of their particular designations.
Code Size Code Size
AD
A 6 BA P 9/16" BSF
B 4 BA Q 5/8” BSF
AC
C 2 BA S 3/4" BSF
E 1/4” BSF U 7/8" BSF
G 5/16" BSF W 1" BSF
J
L
3/ 8" BSF
7/16" BSF
O X
Y
N 12 BA
10 BA
N 1/2" BSF Z 8 BA
TI
Examples of BA And BSF Bolt and Screw Codes

IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Intentionally Blank
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Nuts of British Manufacture
Introduction
This section provides guidance on the identification of nuts complying with British Standards „A‟
Y
Series of Aircraft Materials and Components, with Aircraft General Standards (AGS)
Specifications and with certain specifications in the Society of British Aerospace Companies
EM
„AS‟ Series.
Failure of a fastener through the use of an incorrect nut could cause malfunction and in certain
circumstances, lead to the jamming of controls. It is most important therefore, that engineers
AD
and inspectors should be acquainted with the features by which any particular type of nut may
be identified. A nut may have the correct type of thread but it may be unsuitable for some other
reasons such as material, temperature classification or length of thread; it is also possible to fit
a nut of incorrect size, e.g. a 10- 32 UNF nut may fit an 8-32 UNC screw. These dangers may
AC
be minimised by constant vigilance during servicing operations.
British Standards Nuts Having Unified Threads

The table opposite gives a list of the BS ordinary hexagon nuts and overleaf, the Standards
applicable to stiffnuts of various types.
Identification
O N
Nuts with Unified threads may be identified by their shape, type of finish and thread size.
Additionally, all nuts other than anchor nuts, 8-32 UNC and larger, are marked with the „Unified‟
TI
symbol of contiguous circles. The identification of smaller nuts may be more difficult, for
example, an A222, 2-64 UNF nut is similar to an old A47, 8 BA nut, and it may be necessary to
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try the nut on a bolt of known thread to achieve positive identification.
Nuts listed, larger than 3/8 inch diameter, are marked with the British Standard number.
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Note: Shear nuts (E) and (F) are 0.2 inch thick in all sizes.
Code System
The code system used for the identification of nuts having Unified threads consists of the British
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Standard number followed by a letter indicating the size of thread , followed, when appropriate,
by a letter indicating the type of nut, i.e. P (Plain nut), S (Slotted nut), C (Castellated nut) and T
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(Thin nut). These letters are not, however, applied to the nut. For example, the complete part
number used on drawings or when ordering a 7/16 inch UNF ordinary A107 nut is A107LP but the
nut is only marked „A107‟. Where stiffnuts are concerned, the part number is not marked on
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nuts of any size, but over 3/8 inch diameter a letter indicating thread size is applied.
Left-Hand Threads
Left-hand threads in nuts are indicated by the use of the suffix letter „L‟. Thus the reference
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number for a 4-40 UNC ordinary brass nut complying with BS A210 would be A210 APL, i.e. the
Standard number + the diameter letter + the nut type + left-hand thread. The letter „L‟ is also
applied to one of the hexagon faces of the nut. There is no provision made for left-hand threads
in the specifications relating to stiffnuts.
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Stiffnuts of British Manufacture
Stiffnuts ¼ inch UNF and larger which are manufactured from corrosion resistant steel, are
marked with the letter „Z‟, either on one flat or on the base plate; when the nut is also silver
plated, the letter „X‟ is added to or replaces the „Z‟. Brass anchor nuts are marked with the letter
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„B‟ and all hexagon brass stiffnuts have a washer face.
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Note: The shape of the friction element on a stiffnut should not be taken as an identification
feature. These are usually patented devices and depend on the design favoured by the
particular manufacturer. Nut specifications normally only quote the maximum dimensions of the
friction element and the frictional unscrewing torque required.
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Manuals for older types of aircraft may be found to contain only special torque loading
requirements and a single table applicable to non selflocking nuts, in these cases the frictional
torque of a stiffnut must be added to the torque quoted for the type and size of thread.
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Anchor Nuts
As previously mentioned, hexagon, clinch and strip stiffnuts are marked with a „Unified‟ symbol
to show the type of thread used. Anchor nuts are not marked as Unified because the shape of
the base plate is considered to be adequate for recognition purposes; these are much smaller
range of specifications.
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and less angular than those fitted to similar stiffnuts with the older thread forms in the AGS
Clinch Nuts, A122 to A124

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A similar coding system to that described above is used, followed by a number indicating the
length of spigot required. A choice of three spigot lengths is specified for each size of nut,
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depending on the thickness of material through which the nut is to be clinched.
When it is necessary to differentiate on the drawing or order between metallic and non metallic
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friction element stiffnuts in the steel and corrosion-resistant steel ranges, the suffix „/66‟ or „/77‟
respectively is added to the part reference. For example, the complete part reference for a 1/4
inch UNF steel nut with a metallic friction element is A125 E/66, and for a nut of the same size
with a non-metallic friction element A125 E/77. A part reference without such a suffix indicates
that either type of nut may be used.
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Stiffnuts complying with British Standards A180, A181, A186, A187, A192, A193, A200 and
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A201 may be supplied unplated for use in that condition, or for subsequent plating by the user
for applications where plating other than silver is required. When ordering such nuts, „/UP‟
should be added to the reference number. For example a 5/16 inch UNF corrosion-resisting steel,
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thin, double-lug, floating anchor nut unplated, is A193 G/UP.

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Double Hexagon Stiffnuts
A range of double-hexagon stiffnuts manufactured from heat resistant steel and having UNJF
threads, is provided in the SBAC, AS series 20623 to 20630, representing thread sizes 8-36
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UNJF to 9/16 -18 UNJF. These nuts are specified for use on the AS series of heat resistant bolts
with UNJF threads, and may be identified from the AS number marked on the extended washer
portion of the nut. They are illustrated here.
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No markings are applied to the nuts but they are quite different from either the BS or AGS
stiffnuts and may be identified purely from their shape. For storage and ordering purposes the
nuts are identified by the AS number, followed by a size code letter as shown previously.
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Ordinary and Anchor Stiffnuts

A series of AS specifications for lightweight hexagon and anchor stiffnuts has been produced in
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the range AS 8600 to 8661. These nuts are manufactured from high tensile steel and are
considerably lighter than conventional nuts; all are now manufactured with UNJ threads.
A further code is necessary for ordering strip nuts, and this consists of a number representing
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the distance between nut centres in eighths of an inch, followed by an additional number
representing the number of nuts required in a strip. A 10-32 UNF strip nut with 0.75 inch nut
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spacing and having 10 nuts would therefore be, AS 8612FD/6/10.
As with the BS and AGS stiffnuts, the shape of the friction device is optional, the specification
merely stating the maximum or minimum limits as appropriate. A further stipulation with this
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series of nuts is the maximum permissible weight per 100 units (and weight per inch for strip nut
channels).
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American Fastener Standards
Standards
Aircraft of American manufacture are considered with fasteners, parts and materials conforming
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to one of several Standards or Specifications Systems. These include:
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 Army Air Corps (AC),
 Air Force/Navy Specifications (AN),
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
 American Standards Association (ASA),
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 Federal Specifications (various codes),
 Military Standards (MS or Mil),
 National Aerospace Standards (NAS),
 Naval Aircraft Factory (NAF),
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 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
 Aeronautical Material Division of SAE (AMS),
 USA Standard (USAS).
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Those most commonly encountered for fasteners in modern commercial aircraft are the AN, MS
and NAS systems. In addition to these, airframe and equipment constructors often use their
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own specification Systems for both common and special fasteners. Some of these are listed
below.
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Boeing Aircraft Company Specifications

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 BAC
Lockheed Specifications
 LS
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McDonald Douglas Specifications

 Codes Vary
Specifications
The specifications for the individual parts are drawn up by the Standards organisations or
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bodies and recorded on Specification Data Sheets which are available to the approved
manufacturers and other user organisations from the National Standards Association.
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The Data Sheets contain all the information required to manufacture the part including a
drawing of the item with a full description of it, a list of the dimensions and their tolerances in all
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the nominal sizes in the components range, details of the materials, plating and any special
processes used. It will also contain details of how the part number is constructed and a
reference to a Procurement Specification.
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The Procurement Specification gives details of the sampling and testing procedures to be used
during manufacture as well as storage, packing and shipment procedures. A Procurement
Specification may cover a wide range of similar parts.
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Part Numbers
Parts which are common to more than one aircraft type, such as fasteners and their mating
parts (nuts, collars and washers etc.), are often referred to as Standard Parts. The Part Number
which describes a standard part usually contains the code of the Standard or Specification
system to which it conforms (e.g. AN, MS or NAS) and encoded information about the item
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style. It will also contain information about the component‟s size and thread form etc., either as
a number of increments or as a code which enables the information to be found from a table on
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the components Data Sheet.
Identification
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Many larger fasteners have all or part of the Part Number marked on them and some smaller
ones have markings which can be used to identify them (refer CAAIP's section 3-5 and the
relevant Standards documentation). Nuts, washers and small fasteners, however, can only be
positively identified by referring to their release documentation or measuring and comparing
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them to their specification tables and drawings.
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Manufacturers Codes
Fasteners are not normally made by the organisation or body which lays down the Standards
and Specifications and many will be marked with the manufacturers Part No or identification
code. For example a Hi-Lok fastener ordered to a Boeing Specification with the part number
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BACB30MY8K6 may have the marking HL10V stamped on the head. This indicates that it was
made by the Hi-Shear Corporation to it‟s own specification with the full part number HL10V8-6.
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These two specifications are interchangeable.
Part Number Breakdown

For identification purposes the „AN‟ number is used to indicate the type of bolt and its diameter.
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In addition a code is used to indicate the material, length and presence of a split pin or locking
wire hole as follows:
 Diameter: The last figure, or last two figures, of the „AN‟ number indicates thread
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diameter, 1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and 4 = ¼” with subsequent numbers

indicating the diameter in 1/16” increments.
Thus an AN4 is a hexagon headed bolt of ¼” diameter and an AN14 is a hexagon
headed bolt of 7/8” (14/16”) diameter.
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 Lengths: The length of a bolt, in the case of a hexagonal headed bolt, is measured
from under the head to the first full thread (see to figure 5.13) and is quoted in 1/8”
increments as a dash number.
The last figure of the dash number represents eighths and the first figure inches, so
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that an AN4 – 12 is a ¼” diameter hexagon headed bolt, 1½ ” long.
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 Position of Drilled Hole: Bolts are normally supplied with a hole drilled in the
threaded part of the shank, but different arrangements may be obtained:
Drilled shank = normal coding e.g. AN24 – 15
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Un-drilled shank = A added after dash No. e.g. AN24 – 15A
Drilled head only = H added before dash No.
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(replacing dash) A added e.g. AN25H15A
after dash No.
Drilled head and shank = H added before dash No. e.g. AN25H15

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Material: The standard coding applies to a non-corrosion-resistant, cadmium-plated
steel bolt. Where the bolt is supplied in other materials, letters are placed after the AN
number as follows:
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C = Corrosion Resistance Steel C.R.S. e.g. AN25C15

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DD = Aluminium Alloy e.g. AN25DD15

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 Thread: Where the bolt is supplied as either UNF or UNC threads, a UNC thread is
indicated by placing an A in place of the dash, e.g. AN24A15
There are several classes of „AN‟ bolts, and in some instances their part numbers reveal slightly
different types of information. However, most „AN‟ numbers contain the same type of
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information. Figure 5.15 shows a breakdown of a typical „AN‟ bolt part number. It starts with the
letters AN. Next, notice that a number follows the letters. This number usually consists of two
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digits. The first digit (or absence of it) shows the class of the bolt. For instance, if series number
has only one digit, the absence of one digit shows that this part number represents a general-
purpose hex-head bolt. However, the part numbers for some bolts of this class have two digits.
In fact, general-purpose hex-head bolts include all part numbers beginning with AN3, AN4, and
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so on, through AN20. Other series numbers and the classes of bolts that they represent are as
follows:
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 AN21 through AN36 - clevis bolts

 AN42 through AN49 - eyebolts
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The following pages give examples of fastener Part Numbers from the four most commonly
encountered Standards systems and the information carried in those numbers. More guidance

is contained in CAAIP 3-5. Full details can be found in the Standards Data Sheets for each part,
and the Boeing Corporate Standards manuals which are a collection of data sheets. The Boeing
Illustrated Fastener Reference Manual is a quick and easy to use book for identifying the most
common parts used on their aircraft.
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Air Force/Navy (AN)
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The AN system covers a wide range of standard aircraft parts Although it is described as
obsolescent and as being replaced by the Military Standards (MS) and National Aerospace
Standards (NAS) systems, fasteners and mating parts with AN part numbers are still in common
use and are still being fitted to new aircraft such as the B747-400 and B767 at manufacture.
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Fasteners
AN bolts and screws can be divided into Early and Late series Part Numbers.
Early series Part Numbers contain encoded information about the shape, size and material of
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the part as shown in the example below.
Late series numbers have a six digit number which cannot be decoded without reference to the
appropriate specification tables.
Nuts
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AN nuts are again split into Early and Late series Part Numbers. Early series numbers have a
three digit number to describe the style then a dash number to indicate the thread size. A letter
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replacing the dash indicates a material other than plain steel, e.g.
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AN315C4R - AN315 = Nut, PIain size range #6 - 11/4 UNF. C = Corrosion Resistant Steel. 4 =
4/16 inch or ¼-28 UNF. R = Right Hand Thread Late series nuts have a six digit number which
cannot be decoded without reference to the applicable standards table.

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Washers
AN washers are available in four main types, AN935 Spring Washers, AN936 Shake Proof
Washers, AN960 Plain Washers and AN970 Large Area (Penny) Washers. Information is
encoded as shown in the example below.
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Military Standards (MS)
The MS system is intended to replace the separate standards systems used by the American
armed services (AC, AN, NAF etc.). It covers a wide range of standard aircraft parts which are
also used in the construction of commercial aircraft.
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Fasteners
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MS fasteners are allocated a four or five digit Part Number followed by a dash number. In some
cases the diameter of the fastener is included in the basic Part Number while the dash number
represents the length. In others, however, the dash number includes both the diameter and the
length. In either case it is often not possible to determine the size of the fastener without
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reference to the standards tables as the dash numbers do not always represent any particular
increments.
Nuts
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MS nuts are coded with a four digit number for style and material followed
by a dash number for thread size. e.g.
-04 = #4-40 UNC,

-06 = #6-32 UNC,
-08
-09
= #8-32 UNC,
= #10-32 UNF,
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-10 = 1/4-28 UNF,
-11 = 5/16-24 UNF,
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- 12 = 3/8 - 24 UNF etc.

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Washers
MS washers are coded by a five digit number for style and material followed by a dash number
for size. The dash number must be obtained from the standards tables.
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National Aerospace Standards (NAS)
The NAS system provides a range of design and process standards, as well as material and
parts specifications. The design standards cover information such as fastener head markings,
plating and locking requirements. The parts specifications include a wide range of fasteners and
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a few washers and nuts. NAS fasteners are often used with mating parts from the
manufacturers standards.
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Fasteners
NAS fasteners are coded with either a three or four digit number. Some part numbers include
the diameter as the last two digits e.g.
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NAS6604, 04 = 1/4-28 UNF
00 = 4-40,
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01 = 6-32,
02 = 8-32,
03 = 10-32,
04 = 1/4-28,
05 = 5/16-24,
06 = 3/8-24,
etc.
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Other part numbers carry the diameter as a dash number. e.g.
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NASS17-03-10 = 3/16 inch diameter, 10/16 (5/8) inch long.

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The length is always carried as a dash number and is generally in increments of 1/16 inch for
standard fasteners.
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The Part Number may also include one or more letters giving additional information about it.
Common ones include
Plating: (No letter) = Cadmium plated alloy steel, U = Unplated, A = Aluminium Coating.
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Locking: D = Drilled Shank, H = Drilled Head, L = Nylon Strip Locking Element

Head: (Recessed) T = Torq-Set, H = Hi-Torque, P or R = Philips (Cruciform)
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Material (If more than one is specified in standard): CR = CRS 125000 Ibf\in2, C = CRS
140 000 Ibf/in2, E=CRS 160000
Ibf\in2, V = Titanium Alloy
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Nuts and Washers

These are less common in the NAS system but follow a similar pattern to the fasteners.
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Boeing Airplane Company (BAC)
The Boeing Standards system gives specifications for a wide range of standard parts used in
the manufacture of their aircraft. The Part Numbers are all produced in a common format which
Contains a code indicating the type of component and includes as many fields as are needed to
describe the component. The format for a fastener code is:
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BAC B30 ZZ 4 - 12 A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Boeing Airplane Company

2 Component Type e.g. B28 = Bearing, B30 = Bolt, N10 = Nut, W10 = Washer etc.
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3 Specification Code including physical shape, material, finish etc.
4 Shank Diameter/Thread size, in 1/32 inch increments for „permanent‟ fasteners and 1/16 inch
increments for removable fasteners. For nuts and washers it reflects the size of bolt they will fit.
5 Dash, may be replaced by a letter e.g. H = Drilled Head,
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D = Drilled Shank.
6 Length, in 1/16 inch increments for all fastener types. Indicates length of plain shank for
bolts and total length for fully threaded fasteners.
7 Letter used when applicable to carry extra information e.g.
P = Patch Type Locking,

X = 1/64 inch oversize Shank Diameter,
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Y = 1/32 inch oversize.
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Typical examples of this Part Numbering System are shown below.

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Special Bolts
The hexagon headed aircraft bolt AN3 – AN20 (refer to Fig.45), is an all purpose structural bolt
used for applications involving tension or shear loads where a light drive fit is permissible.
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Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16” diameter, and aluminium alloy bolts smaller than ¼” are not
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used on primary structure. Other bolts may be used as follows:

 Close Tolerance Bolts: These bolts are machined more accurately than the standard
bolt. They may be hexagon headed (AN173 – AN186) or have a 100º countersunk head
(NAS80 – NAS86). They are used in applications where a tight drive fit is required (the
bolt requires the use of a 340g - 400g (12oz – 14 oz) hammer to drive it into position.
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 Internal Wrenching Bolts: (MS 20024 or NAS 495) these are fabricated from high-
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strength steel and are suitable for tensile or shear applications. The head is recessed to
allow the insertion of a hexagonal key used for installing or removing the bolt. In Dural-
type material, a heat-treated washer must be used to provide an adequate bearing
surface for the head.
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 Clevis Bolts: The head of a clevis bolt is round and either slotted, for a standard
screwdriver, or recessed, for a cross-pointed screwdriver. This type of bolt is used only for
shear loads and never in tension. It is often inserted as a mechanical pin in a control
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system.
 Eyebolt: The eye is designed for the attachment of cable shackles or turnbuckles and the
bolt is used for tensile loads. The threaded end may be drilled for „safetying‟.
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Seven additional types of bolt heads are shown in figure 5.15. Notice that view A shows an
eyebolt, often used in flight control systems.

View B shows a countersunk-head, close-tolerance bolt.
View C shows an internal-wrenching bolt. Both the countersunk-head bolt and the internal-
wrenching bolt have hexagonal recesses (six-sided holes) in their heads. They are tightened
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and loosened by use of appropriate sized Allen wrenches.
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View D shows a clevis bolt with its characteristic round head. This head may be slotted, as
shown, to receive a common screwdriver or recessed to receive a Reed-and-Prince or a Phillips
screwdriver.
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View E shows a torque-set wrenching recess that has four driving wings, each one offset from
the one opposite it. There is no taper in the walls of the recess. This permits higher torque to be
applied with less tendency for the driver to slip or cam out of the slots.
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View F shows an external-wrenching head that has a washer face under the head to provide an
increased bearing surface. The 12-point head gives a greater wrench gripping surface.
View G shows a hi-torque style driving slot. This single slot is narrower at the centre than at the
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outer portions. This and the centre dimple provide the slot with a bow tie appearance. The
recess is also undercut in a taper from the centre to the outer ends, producing an inverted
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keystone shape. These bolts must be installed with a special hi-torque driver adapter. They
must also be driven with some type of torque-limiting or torque-measuring device.
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Each diameter of bolt requires the proper size of driver for that particular bolt. The bolts are
available in standard and reduced 100-degree flush heads. The reduced head requires a driver
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one size smaller than the standard head.

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Screws
Screws are probably the most commonly used threaded fastener in aircraft construction. They
differ from bolts in that they are generally made from lower-strength materials. They can be
fastened by a variety of tools, including screwdrivers, spanners and Allen keys. Most screws are
threaded along their complete length, whilst some have a plain portion for part of their length.
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There are a number of different types of screw, which, can be used for a wide range of tasks. It
is common sense that great care must be taken to replace screws with the correct items, by
using the markings on the screw, the IPC and any other systems in current use within the
supply department, to protect against incorrect screws being installed.
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Another point, requiring care, is the difference in terminology between the British and American
names for screw heads. What the British refer to as a „countersunk -headed‟ screw, the
Americans call a „flat-head‟ or „flush‟ screw. Similarly, „mushroom-headed‟ screws are known as
„truss-heads‟ in the USA.
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Machine Screws
Machine screws (refer to figure 5.21) are used extensively for attaching fairings, inspection
plates, fluid line clamps and other light structural parts. The main difference between aircraft
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bolts and machine screws, is that the threads of a machine screw usually run the length of the
shank, whereas bolts usually have an unthreaded grip length.
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The most common machine screw used in aviation is the fillister-head screw, which can be
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wire-locked using the drilled hole in the head. The flat-head (countersunk-head) screw is
available with single or cross-point slotted heads. The round-head screw and the truss-head
(mushroom-head) screw, provide good holding properties on thin metal sheets.
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The commonly used machine screws are the flush-head, round-head, fillister-head, socket-
head, pan-head and truss-head types.
 Flush-Head - Flush-head machine screws are used in countersunk holes where a flush
finish is desired. These screws are available in 82 and 100 degrees of head angle, and
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have various types of recesses and slots for driving.
 Round-Head - Round-head machine screws are frequently used in assembling highly
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stressed aircraft components.
 Fillister-Head - Fillister-head machine screws are used as general-purpose screws.
They may also be used as cap screws in light applications such as the attachment of
cast aluminium gearbox cover plates.
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 Socket-Head - Socket-head machine screws are designed to be screwed into tapped
holes by internal wrenching. They are used in applications that require high-strength
precision products, compactness of the assembled parts, or sinking of the head into
holes.
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 Pan- and Truss-Head - Pan-head and truss- head screws are general-purpose screws
used where head height is unimportant. These screws are available with cross-recessed
heads only.
Structural Screws
Structural screws are used for assembling
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structural parts. They are made of alloy steel
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and are heat treated. Structural screws have

a definite grip length and the same shear
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and tensile strengths as the equivalent size

bolt. They differ from structural bolts only in
the type of head. These screws are available
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in round-head, countersunk-head, and

brazier-head types, either slotted or
recessed for the various types of
screwdrivers.
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Self-Tapping Screws
Self-tapping screws have coarse threads and are used to hold thin sheets of metal, plastic and
plywood together. The type A screw has a gimlet (sharp) point, and the type B has a blunt point
with threads that are slightly finer than the type A.
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There are four types of head in normal use:
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 round head
 countersunk oval-head
 truss or mushroom-head
 flat countersunk-head.
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Intentionally Blank
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6.5.3 Locking Devices
The purpose of this section is to provide guidance and advice on the methods of locking screw-
threaded components and the retention or location of circular parts in various assemblies.
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Regulations require that an approved means of locking must be provided on all connecting
elements in the primary structure, fluid systems, controls and other mechanical systems
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essential to the safe operation of an aircraft.
Purpose
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The purpose of a locking device is to prevent loosening or disengagement of mating
components under varying conditions of stress, vibration and temperature as its effectiveness
may be of the utmost importance to the safety of an aircraft. Locking devices should be fitted in
such a way as to prevent the possibility of fretting, distortion, displacement or uneven stressing
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of the locked parts.
During inspection of the assembly, it is necessary to ascertain that all locking or retaining
devices are of the type and material specified in the relevant drawings or the appropriate
appropriate tools.
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publication and that the locking or fitting operation has been correctly performed with the
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Split Pins
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Split pins (some times referred to as Cotter Pins in teh UK) are manufactured from corrosion
resisting steel and are used in conjunction with drilled bolts and slotted or castellated nuts. The
pins should be a reasonably close fit in the nut and bolt/stud assembly. The table indicates the
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diameters and length of standard pins normally used in conjunction with bolts/studs up to 1 inch
diameter.
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Note: It will be seen that British and American practice differs with regard to split pin
diameters for different thread sizes and care must be taken to ensure that the
correct pin is selected for any particular drilled bolt. The size of the split pin hole in
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the bolt should be checked before fitting the nut.
The legs of split pins should be turned as indicated on the design drawings, but when the
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method is not specified it is recommended that one of the methods illustrated below should be
used.
If necessary, pins should be cut to a suitable length to prevent pick-up in clothing, cleaning
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cloths, etc., and the surplus ends accounted for to prevent their becoming a loose article
hazard.
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After turning and closing the legs to the nut faces, an inspection should be made to ensure that
cracking or cutting has not occurred at the bends. The most common methods of split pinning
are illustrated by (A) and (B). The method shown in (C) is used where clearances are critical.
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#For bolted joints, one pair of slots must be in alignment with the hole in the bolt when the
specified degree of tightness has been obtained. Undrilled bolts should be prepared for drilling
by tightening the nut to the specified torque loading and marking the hole position. The nut
should be removed and the split pin hole drilled with the aid of a drilling jig. Burrs should then be
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removed, the nut fitted and tightened to the required torque loading and the correct size of split
pin fitted.
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Rollpins
The Rollpin (or Spring pin) is a pressed-fit parallel pin with chamfered ends. It is tubular in
shape and is slotted the full length of the tube. The pin is inserted with hand tools and is
compressed as it is driven into place. Pressure exerted by the rollpin against the hole walls
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keeps it in place, until deliberately removed with a Pin Punch. It may be used with a drilled bolt
and slotted or castellated nut or with a nut drilled for the purpose.
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Rollpins must be used only once.
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Locking Washers
There are several types of locking washers in general use consisting of spring washers, cup
washers, shakeproof washers, crinkle washers and tab washers. They are described by various
specification systems.
Y
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Spring Washers
These washers are available in two forms, i.e. as a single coil or as a double coil.
In some instances, particularly with light alloy assemblies, spring washers are assembled with
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plain facing washers between the spring washer and the component, to prevent damage to the
surface of the component or the protective treatment when the spring washer is compressed.
Often, however, particularly in steel assemblies, plain washers are not specified.
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It is good practice to renew spring washers during overhaul or repair. This is essential in
engines and engine components, and units with reciprocating parts, such as compressors or
pumps.
Crinkle Washers
O N
These washers, made of copper alloy or corrosion resisting steel, are often used in lightly
loaded applications in instrument and electrical installations.
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Cup Washers
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These washers are manufactured in spring steel and are dished to form a spring of high rating;
assembly should be in accordance with the manufacturer‟s instructions.
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Shakeproof Washers
Flat washers of this type, made of steel or phosphor bronze, are sometimes used instead of
spring washers and in certain circumstances, conical shakeproof washers are used for locking
countersunk screws. Either the internal diameter or external diameter is serrated, the serrations
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being set to bite into the component and nut to prevent rotation. Shakeproof washers should
only be used once.
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Note: These washers will not normally be specified in assemblies where anti-corrosion
treatment of components has been carried out.
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AC
O N
Tab Washers
Tab washers are manufactured from thin metallic sheet materials, to standard or proprietary
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specifications, and have one or more tabs projecting from the external diameter; they may also
be ganged for locking two or more nuts. When the washer is fitted, one tab (usually pre-formed)
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is anchored against the component or fitted into a hole provided for that purpose, whilst another
tab (or tabs) is bent against a flat or flats of the nut, after the nut has been correctly torqued.
The component tab should not be bent against a curved surface or across the junction of two
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faces, since this would permit movement of the nut or bolt.
Before bending the second tab, an examination should be made of the tab already fixed to
ensure that it is not disturbed, sheared or distorted as a result of the washer turning with the nut.
When the second tab has been bent, this too should be examined for cracks.
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In some assemblies, washers having a tab projecting from the inside diameter are used. The
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tab fits into a key slot machined in the male thread, whilst an external tab is bent up against the
nut flat to lock it.
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Tabs must not be bent more than once. Multiple tab washers may be reused after removing the
used tab, dressing sharp edges, and carefully inspecting the remaining tabs for cracks or
scoring.
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Locknuts and Locking Plates
Locknuts
Y
Generally, locknuts (also called "jam nuts" in the UK and "check nuts" in the US) are thin plain
nuts which are tightened against ordinary plain nuts or against components into which male
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threaded items are fitted, although proprietary locknuts are available which are formed from
sheet material. Control rods, swaged-end cables and jack ram eye-end fittings are common
examples of the use of locknuts, but in some instances wire or tab locking is also specified. To
ensure efficient locking, the bearing surface of the nuts and the component must bed together
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evenly and the correct degree of tightness must be obtained by applying the stipulated torque
loading. It is emphasised that the locknut should not be overtightened, since this will result in
the stripping of the nut threads or overstressing of the male component. In cases where rotation
can occur, the plain nut must be held stationary whilst the locknut is tightened.
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Locking Plates
AV
Locking plates are usually manufactured from steel. They are placed over hexagonal or bi-hex
nuts or bolt heads after these items have been tightened down, and secured, usually by a
screw, to an adjacent part of the structure. A typical application is shown here.
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Locking plates may be used repeatedly provided they remain a good fit around the nut or bolt
head.
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In certain instances, particularly where vibration is likely, locking plate screws are fitted with
spring or shakeproof washers. Some plates may be located by countersunk screws, which may
be locked by peening (right). Plates may also be provided with a retaining screw slot which
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permits a limited amount of angular adjustment to suit the position of the nut.
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Wire Locking
General
Y
Wire Locking (also known as Lock Wiring and Safety Wiring) is one of the most commonly used
methods of preventing threaded elements from loosening.
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Corrosion resisting steel and heat resisting nickel alloy are the materials normally
recommended for locking wire. Care should be taken to ensure that the wire used is to the
correct specification.
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Attention should be paid to the following when using locking wire:
 Use wire of the correct specification and gauge.
AC
 The wires must be twisted together so that each wire is twisted around the other.
 The locking wire should be taut and there should be no untwisted lengths in excess of
3/8 in. and lengths of unsupported wire should not exceed 3 inches.
 The lay of the wire should always be such as to resist any tendency of the locked parts

to come loose.
O N
The angle of approach of the wire should not be less than 45° to the rotational axis of
the component to be locked. The line of approach should be tangential to the parts
being locked.
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 Finish each run of locking wire with approximately five complete twists of wire, cut and
double back to avoid fouling and injury to personnel.
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 When locking tabs are used, they should be fitted in such a way that the tabs and the
wire are in complete alignment.
 Locking wire is used only once.
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 Sometimes controls or switches are wire locked into their normal operating position
using thin copper wire. Selection of an emergency position necessitates physically
breaking the wire.
 The wire must be adequately tensioned; over-tensioning may lead to fracture of the
wire, or of the metal around the locking hole.
N
 Sharp edges of locking holes must be removed and there must be no obstruction by
the locking wire of any moving parts, controls, etc.
TA
 All off-cuts and used locking wire must be removed from the aircraft or component and
disposed of safely.
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In the normal twisting method of wire locking, a suitable length of wire should be cut from the
coil and passed through the hole provided for the purpose in the component. The wire should
be twisted over the length required to reach the locking point, through which one end of the wire
should be passed, and then twisted for not less than a further ½ inch (13 mm) whilst being
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pulled taut.
It is necessary to pull the wire taut to ensure that the final twists are close to the locking hole,
but neither this nor the twisting should be too severe. After surplus wire has been removed, the
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twisted ends should be bent in such a manner as to prevent their catching in clothing, cleaning

cloths, etc. There should be no untwisted lengths in excess of 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) and lengths of
unsupported wire should not normally exceed 3 inches (76 mm).
The angle of approach of the wire should not be less than 45° to the rotational axis of the
component to be locked (see below left) whilst the radial line of approach should be tangential
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(90°) to the parts being locked (see below right).
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The lay of the wire must always be such as to resist any tendency of the locked part or parts to
become loose, and for this reason it is essential to ascertain whether the parts have left or right
hand threads before fitting the wire.
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Wire Locking Procedure

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In the double twisting method, a suitable length of wire should be cut from the coil passed
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through the hole provided for the purpose of the component to be locked.
The wire should be twisted over the length required to reach the locking point through which
one end of the wire should be passed and then twisted for not less than half an inch whilst being
pulled taut, it is then cut and made safe by forming an open loop.
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Note: When using pliers to pull or twist the locking wire great care must be taken to avoid
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damage to the wire. Any wire damaged during installation will be weakened and must be
replaced.
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Some wire locking is done with a single strand of the specified wire, particularly in instances of a
complete ring or similar formations of lightly loaded nuts or bolts such as those which retain a
data plate. The wire is passed in sequence through the nut slots and bolt/stud holes around the
formation until the wire ends meet. The ends are cut to suit and twisted together to tension the
loop. The wire direction through all nuts must be such that any loosening of a nut will further
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tension the wire.
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Locking Tabs
In instances where the method of wire locking is not indicated on the drawing, great care is
necessary when deciding on a locking method to ensure that there is no possibility of the parts
becoming loose. For example, when adaptors are used in pipe joints, it is essential that the
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adaptor is secured to each union nut by separate locking wires to adjacent corners of the
adaptor nut, with the approach angle shown previously. It may be specified that the adaptor is
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locked additionally to some external point.
When locking tabs are used, they should be fitted in such a way that the tabs and the wire are in
complete alignment. Examples of correct and incorrect use of locking tabs are shown below.
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Whenever possible, the closed end of the wire should be in the tab and the open end at the
component to be locked.
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Examples of Wire Locking
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Wire Sealing (Tell-Tale Wire)
In some instances flight deck controls or switches are wire locked into their normal operating
position and selection of an emergency position necessitates a conscious decision and the
physical breaking of the wire. A thin, frangible copper wire is usually specified for this purpose.
Y
The method of installing this type of locking, usually known as „wire sealing‟, is normally detailed
in the appropriate Maintenance Manual.
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Items requiring wire sealing may include:
 CSD or IDG Disconnect switches
AD
 Passenger Oxygen switch
 Equipment Cooling / Ditching switch
It is also common practice for certain items of safety or emergency equipment to be wire sealed
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or 'tamper-proofed' with special frangible locking wire.
This is done to alert persons that the item has been used or interfered with and will require
inspection, replenishment or replacement.
Typical examples include:

O N
 Hand held Fire Extinguishers
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 First Aid kits
 Portable Oxygen bottle regulators
IA
Wire Sealing MUST be accomplished with the locking wire specified in the AMM. This is usually
a thin copper based wire such Lewcosol or Bicosol.
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WARNING USE OF NORMAL STAINLESS STEEL LOCKING WIRE WILL RENDER THE
SWITCH OR EQUIPMENT INOPERABLE AND MAY ENDANGER THE SAFETY
OF THE AIRCRAFTAND THE LIVES OF THE PASSENGERS AND CREW.
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Peening and Grub Screws
Peening
Y
The peening of bolts for locking purposes should only be carried out when specified in the
drawing, or the relevant manual, as the operation prevents re-use of the nut and bolt and may
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cause difficulty in dismantling. About 1½ threads of the bolt should be projecting and the
peening carried down to the nut to prevent it slackening.
Adequate support should be given to the bolt during the peening operation and care taken to
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prevent damage to the part by misdirected blows with the hammer. Countersunk screws may be
locked by the method illustrated below when the thread is inaccessible. Protective treatment
damaged by the peening operation must be restored.
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Grub Screws
These are used as a method of locking two threaded components together. In one method the
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outer component only is drilled and threaded and the grub screw may be machined at the inner
end to a tapered point or a parallel plain shank to fit either a conical recess or parallel hole in
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the inner component. Other grub screws may be fitted into a single hole drilled and threaded in
both inner and outer components. Grub screws may be locked by peening, by a wire type
locking ring or by means of a nylon insert or adhesive patch in either the male or female thread.
US
Grub screws are also used, with the variations already mentioned, in non-threaded assemblies
to retain the parts and ensure correct alignment. They may be fitted as additional or
precautionary locking devices in assemblies with interference fits or bonded joints, or, in some
cases, they may be the only means of retention. In these cases, however, several grub screws
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may be fitted around the component and these may be locked by lock nuts or clamping type
lock rings.
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Locking by Adhesives
Many small components, particularly those in instruments, valves, switches, etc., may be locked
by the application of Shellac, Araldite or similar materials to DTD 900 specifications. The
adhesive is applied to the outside of the nut face and protruding screw thread, or the component
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and screw head, after tightening, and prevents movement between the two parts.
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When using Araldite it is good practice to mix a separate sample under similar conditions, to
check that it hardens within the specified time period. Threaded metal fasteners may also be
locked using a liquid sealant such as Loctite. This is an approved proprietary material (DTD 900
Approval No.4588) which hardens in the screw threads after assembly and is supplied in
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various grades to give a predetermined locking torque in a variety of applications from stud
locking to retaining bearings in housings. In using Loctite it is advisable to have the parts free
from grease to achieve maximum strength. It is possible, however, to use Loctite on threaded
parts which have not been degreased but retain the original lubrication applied by the
AC
manufacturer. In these cases a 15% decrease in the strength of locking usually occurs. Loctite
should only be used when specified by the approved drawings or instructions, and applied in
accordance with the manufacturer‟s instructions
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Pins
General
Y
Taper pins with taper of 1 in 48 and parallel pins, are used on both tubular and solid sections, to
secure control levers to torque shafts and forked ends to control rods, etc. Most taper pins, and
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parallel pins, are locked by peening into a countersunk recess or by forming reaction rivet
heads. To avoid slackness, the pins are usually assembled in reamed holes, the head being
supported during the locking process. Careful inspection is required after fitment of pins through
hollow tubes, to ensure that undue force during the peening operation has not bent the pins,
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and thus impaired the security of the fittings.
To fit a taper pin, a hole less than the small diameter is drilled in the tube. It is then enlarged by
the correct size taper pin reamer so that the small end of the taper pin, when pushed through
AC
the hole, is flush with the surface. The taper pin is then driven into position, ensuring that the
component is adequately supported.
To avoid excessive work with the taper reamer when fitting pins to solid circular sections a
than the diameter of the taper pin.

O N
stepped hole may be drilled. Care being taken not to extend the second hole to a depth greater
Some taper pins are bifurcated so that the legs are spread for locking, the pin protrudes through
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the hole and the legs are spread forming an included angle of 60 degrees. Other pins are solid
and may be peened for locking, care being taken to support large end of pin during this
operation to prevent slackening.
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Clevis Pins
Clevis Pins are flat headed parallel pins which are drilled at the end of the shank to
accommodate a retention device. Made of high tensile or stainless steel, they are usually used
in conjunction with split pins, lock pins or safety retaining pins as illustrated.
Y
As their name suggests, they are often used in a 'clevis', a forked fitting which allows a degree
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of rotation. They may be used in cable end fittings, as hinges for nonstructural items such as
stay rods, and as temporary restraints.
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“Pip” Quick Release Pins
“Pip” pins are designed to take non-structural loads in shear only. In many cases they can take
the place of a nut and bolt in circumstances where constant and speedy disconnection is
required. The holes that these pins are fitted in need to be reamed to a close fit to prevent
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chafing due to vibration in service. The pin is held in place by two small steel balls at the end of
its shank. These balls are held out in the locked position by a spring loaded plunger running
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through the centre of the pin.
To allow the balls to collapse into the pin and so allow the pin to be withdrawn the plunger must
be kept depressed, or in the case of the type that has a ring fitted pulling on the ring will allow
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the pin to be withdrawn.
Pip pins are sometimes used as hinge pins on removable doors located inside the aircraft.
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Circlips and Locking Rings
Many of these locking devices are standard parts manufactured from spring steel wire, sheet or
plate, but they may also be specially designed for a particular application. All are hardened and
tempered to give inward or outward spring for locking screwed parts together, for locking grub
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screws, or for locating components within bores or housings.
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Wire circlips have both ends bent whilst other types have drilled ends which facilitate expansion
or contraction for fitting into position.
Generally, wire locking rings have one bent end which is inserted into a radial hole drilled
AD
through the outer or inner component, depending on whether it is an external or internal type.
Locking rings of sheet or plate are seldom provided with a bent end, and the fitting of these
entails the use of special expanding/contracting tools and protecting sleeves.
AC
Grooves for circlips and locking rings are semi-circular for wire types and of rectangular section
for others. Before fitting, precautions should be taken to ensure that these are free from
deformation, burring or dirt.
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The installation of circlips is usually accomplished with circlip pliers as shown below. These are
produced as both internal and external models and also reversible duel purpose tools. They are
available in different sizes and some have interchangeable nibs. It is important to select the
ND
correct size of tool and nib for your own safety and to prevent damage to the circlip.
Inspection should ensure that all of these devices are bedding correctly and that the locking end
of locking rings is correctly engaged.
HI

Identification of these devices is difficult and every care should be taken to ensure that the
correct items are fitted. Items should be obtained by part numbers and not identified by
comparing the old and new, since the diameters of the old are likely to differ considerably from
those of new items. Part numbers of the correct part to be fitted should be verified from the
appropriate drawings, Overhaul or Repair Manuals or Parts Catalogue.
Y
Some manufacturers stipulate that circlips and locking rings must not be used more than once.
EM
However, in some instances, it is specified that the gap between the ends of a circlip or locking
ring should, after fitting, be within prescribed limits and as such individual selection may be
necessary, the radial position of the gap may also be specified.
AD
AC
O N
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The designs of non-standard lockrings and pins are many and varied. The example shown here
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is a door stop assembly lock pin. To install it, the stop is screwed in or out of the door fitting to
achieve the correct position in relation to a striker plate on the door frame. The stop is then
rotated to align the slot with one of four slots in the door fitting and the rigging re-checked. The
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lockpin is then inserted into the aligned slots, pushed until fully engaged and then rotated so
that the ring portion clips in a groove on the door fitting.
N
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Keys and Keyways
These items can be found where chain-wheels or pulleys are located on shafts.
A key, with its associated keyways (the name given to the channel, which is cut into the
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respective components, to receive the key), is used to transmit the driving force from one part to
the other.
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Quick Release Fasteners
General
In addition to rivets, nuts and bolts there are many other forms of fastener used within the
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structure of an aircraft.
EM
Where access is required for minor servicing, a door or access panel is fitted either hinged or
detachable, fastened to the structure by various individual types of quick release fastener.
Panels provide access for oil and air servicing and cowlings give access to the engines.
AD
The location where these panels are provided determine which type of fastener is used. Some
of the factors that are taken into consideration are:
 Pressurisation
AC
 Temperature
 Contour
 Speed and ease of operation
only a screwdriver. Many others are operated manually.

O N
Some quick release fasteners need special tools to open and close them whilst others need
There are many types of quick release fastener to be found on a modern aircraft and total
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inclusion would be beyond these notes. The most common quick release fasteners are:
 Dzus
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 Universal
 Trigger action
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 Hook latch
 Pin latch
 Sealed latch
 Pip pin
 Oddie
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 Camloc
TA
Note: Many fasteners are known by the name of their original manufacturer. Similar
designs are available from different manufacturers, however, the original name is
still commonly used to refer to them. All fasteners should be identified by part
number from the IPC or other authoritative source
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Dzus Fasteners
There are several types of Dzus fastener in use on aircraft. Most have a ¼ turn fast acting
bayonet action whilst others have a multi-start screw thread. Some bayonet action fasteners
need a special tool to turn them whilst others can be turned by hand.
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The special tools are called Dzus keys. Two types of key are provided one marked „A‟ for all
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dome head fasteners and the other „F‟ for all flush head fasteners. It is important that the correct
key is used to prevent damage to fastener slots and the panel surface.
Dzus fasteners that can be turned by hand employ wings, wire rings or knurled heads.
AD
The 'Standard Line' types of Dzus fasteners consist of a fastener and a spring, the main
variations being in the type of head and size. The fastener has a pair of cam slots machined into
the body and is held in position in the panel or cowling by a light alloy, steel or stainless steel
AC
grommet. The spring is riveted to the underside of the aircraft structure. The cam slots engage
with the centre portion of the spring, drawing it up when the catch is turned in a clockwise
direction. An over-centre arrangement prevents the fastener loosening and spring tension holds
the panel shut. The fastener is released by a quarter turn anti-clockwise.
O N
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AV
Where a more positive locking and tighter clamping is required the 'Universal Line' type of
fastener is used. This is comprised of a stud which has a four-start thread and engages into a
self-locking receptacle, riveted to the structure, in little more than one turn. The stud is retained
in the panel by a swaged retaining grommet. The threaded portion of the receptacle is slotted
and deformed inward, and is encircled by a coil spring. As the stud is screwed into the
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receptacle, the spring is expanded producing pressure on the thread and so locking the stud to
the nut.
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Universal fasteners are sometimes used for securing de-mountable doors, panels and covers
requiring a strong, durable, quick acting fastener in areas where tensile and shear loads are
present.
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Camloc Fasteners
The Camloc fastener consists of a spring loaded stud assembly and a receptacle. The stud
assembly consists of the stud and it's cross pin located in a spring housing and is fitted to the
detachable panel and held in place by a retaining ring. The receptacle, which provides a socket
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for the stud and has cam faces which act as a bayonet for the cross pin, is riveted to the
airframe structure. The fastener is locked by pushing the stud against its spring with a
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screwdriver, and turning it clockwise. This causes the cross pin on the stud to ride up the cam in
the receptacle drawing the two components together. Finally, the stud spring pulls the cross pin
into a locking groove at the end of the cam.
AD
The fastener is unlocked by a quarter turn anti-clockwise, when the stud spring causes the stud
to move outwards.
Various styles, materials and finishers are available. These include flush, protruding, knurled
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and wing headed studs, open, sealed and special receptacles made of plain, corrosion resistant
and stainless steels.
O N
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Oddie Fasteners
This fastener has a central stud which is held in position in the panel by a rubber washer or a
coil spring. A two-legged spring clip is riveted to the underside of the structure at the point
where the fastening is to be made.
Y
The stud is bullet shaped and has two recesses diametrically opposite each other at the pointed
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end. The fastener is locked by positioning the recesses in line with the legs of the spring and
then pressing the stud home. There should be a definite click as the fastener engages.
AD
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The fastener is unlocked by giving the stud a quarter turn in either direction, turning the
recesses out of engagement with the spring legs.
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This type of fastener is usually used for internal panels and trims.
TA
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Latches
Trigger Action Latch
Trigger action (or Hartwell type) latches are found on many types of aircraft. They are used
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where hinged panels are employed. The panels are not load bearing and are usually sources of
access.
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Trigger action latches are operated by hand. To open, the release button is pushed allowing the
latch arm the pop out under spring force. To close, the latch arm is pushed in until it clicks under
the release button.
AD
In service the most common faults of this latch are; the spring to become stretched, the hinge
pins becoming worn and the striker plate wearing. In the first two cases the complete latch is
replaced, in the last only the striker plate needs to be renewed.
AC
On installation the hinge of this type of panel is placed upstream to the airflow.
O N
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Hook Latch
This type of latch is used mainly on contoured surfaces such as engine cowlings. On these
surfaces or panels a 'drawing' action is required to pull the panels together. This drawing action
is needed to ensure that panels or cowlings are held very firmly in the correct contour. Unlike
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the panels fitted with Trigger Action Fasteners cowling hinge pins are not normally upstream to
the airflow and consequently should a latch fail the airflow would rip the cowling off.
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To increase security this latch design incorporates a double action release mechanism. To
close the latch, the cowlings are pushed together, ensuring the U-bolt enters it's mating slot,
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dowel pins may be installed to assist alignment. The hook is then engaged with the U-bolt and
the latch lever pushed to the flush position, as the hook and lever have separate pivot points the
hook is drawn in until it over-centres. The release button is then pushed to the flush position
which engages the hook latch with a cross pin on the hook shaft preventing accidental
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disengagement of the hook.

TA
Unlatching is the reverse of this procedure, although a GS screwdriver or special tool may be
required to move the latch lever to the over-centre position, and it may be necessary to push the
cowlings back together to disengage the hook from the U-bolt.
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Specific values are given in the AMM for latch lever closure force and cowling gap. Adjustment
to bothe of these is achieved by altering the position of the U-bolt using the adjustment nuts.
Hook latches are usually made of stainless steel.
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Pin Latch
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Pin latches are used mainly in pressurised areas where the door or panels and the surrounds
have to take pressure differential loads. With this latch a metal pin protrudes and enters a
bushed hole or fitting in the surrounding structure when the latch is closed.
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The latch, latch pin and surrounding structure is designed to take shear loads. This type of latch
is found on the fuselage on some cargo doors. They are flush fitting to reduce drag.
To open this type of latch, the spring loaded release button is pressed which disengages the
lever latch from pins in the latch body. The lever can then be pulled out by sliding a finger into
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the gap the button and the lever, a linkage attached to this draws the pin into the latch body. To
latch, with the panel in the closed position the lever and release button are pushed to the flush
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condition, an audible click indicates that the lever latch has engaged.
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Sealed Latch
The sealed latch is similar in application to the trigger action latch but the difference here is that
because they are sealed they can be used in pressurised areas. The latch arm is spring loaded
to the open position, while the release arm is spring loaded closed.
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To open the release button is pressed allowing the latch arm to swing out of its sealed orifice.
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To close the latch button is pushed in until the release mechanism clicks into place. Some
versions incorporate an over-centre geometrical lock and require leverage from a screwdriver to
open and close them.
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There are may designs and below is a selection of some of them.
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O N
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6.5.4 Aircraft Rivets
Solid Rivets
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General
Rivets are a permanent form of fastening device used extensively on aircraft to hold together
structures built up from sheet metal and formed components. They are used to form liquid and
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airtight joints and are cheaper, lighter and are more rapidly fastened than nuts and bolts. Rivets
are classed as permanent because they must be destroyed to remove them.
Rivets are designed to be strong in shear and less so in tension, therefore should not be
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subjected to large tensile loads.
Solid-shank rivets are generally used in manufacture and structural repair work. They are
classified by the kind of material of which they are made, their head type, size of shank, and the
temper condition. The designation of the solid-shank rivet head type, such as universal head,
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roundhead, flathead, countersunk head, brazier, snap and mushroom head, depends on the
cross sectional shape of the head. Each type has its own properties and uses.
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Since the correct rivets may not always be available, it is sometimes necessary to carry out
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repairs using alternative rivets. Rivet substitution may only be made with reference to an
approved source of information.
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British and American rivets are not manufactured to identical specifications nor from identical
materials. Both are identified by head or shank end markings except where a material is easily
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identified by its natural colour or weight. Certain British rivets are also coloured all over to
enable them to be more readily distinguished.
Some aircraft manufacturers specify rivets made to the standards of their own and may also use
a different colour identification for standard rivets.
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As British material specifications have a different shear strength to their American counterparts,
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the total number or diameter of rivets used to make a joint of equal strength will also differ.
However, it should be borne in mind that an increase in the size of the rivets does not
necessarily increase the strength of a joint; indeed, if the rivet sizes are increased beyond a
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certain amount, a reduction in strength will result. The aircraft designers and originators of the
approved repair schemes will be responsible for these decisions.
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The chart gives a comparison between British and American material specifications. 1100 rivets
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and L36 rivets (not included in the chart) are made of 99.45% pure aluminium, are very soft.
They are used for riveting the softer aluminium alloys such as 1100, 3003 and 5052 materials
which are used for non-structural parts. The riveting of map cases is a good example of where a
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rivet of 1100 aluminium alloy may be used.
2117-T and L86 known as the field rivet, are used more than any other for riveting aluminium
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alloy structures. The field rivets are in wide demand because they are ready for use as received
and need no further heat treatment (solution). They also have a high resistance to corrosion.
2017-T and L37 rivets are used in aluminium alloy structures where more strength is needed
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than is obtainable with the same size 2117-T or L86 rivet. These rivets are solution treated and
must be kept refrigerated until they are to be driven. The 2017-T rivet should be driven within
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approximately 1 hour and the 2024-T rivet within 10 to 20 minutes after removal from
refrigeration.
The 5056 rivet is used for riveting magnesium alloy structures because of its corrosion-resistant
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qualities in combination with magnesium. Monel rivets are used for riveting nickel-steel alloys.
They can be substituted for those made of corrosion- resistant steel in some cases.
The cross substitution of British and American rivets must not be made without design authority.
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Heat Treatment of Rivets
O N
Metal temper is an important factor in the riveting process, especially with aluminium alloy
rivets. Aluminium alloy rivets have the same heat-treatment characteristics as aluminium alloy
sheet stock. They can be hardened and softened in the same manner as sheet aluminium. The
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rivet must be soft, or comparatively soft, before a good head can be formed.
The process of solution treating rivets is much the same as that for sheet stock. Either an
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electric air furnace, a salt bath, or a hot oil bath is needed. The heat treating temperature range,
depends on the alloy. For convenient handling, rivets are heated in a tray or wire basket. They
are quenched in cold water (70°F, 21°C) immediately after heat treating.
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Rivets which have been heated in a salt bath must be thoroughly washed after quenching to
remove all traces of salt.
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The 2017-T, 2024-T and L37 rivets, which are heat- treatable rivets, begin to age-harden within
a few minutes after being exposed to room temperature. Therefore, they must be used
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immediately after quenching or else be placed in cold storage. The most commonly used means
for holding heat-treatable rivets at low temperature (below 32°F, 0°C) is to keep them in a deep
freeze. Under this storage condition, they will remain soft enough for driving for periods 2 days
to 2 weeks depending on material. Any rivets not used within that time should be removed for
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re-heat treating.
Freezer (or "Ice Box") rivets attain about one-half their maximum strength in approximately 1
hour after driving and full strength in about 4 days. When 2017-T rivets are exposed to room
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temperature for 1 hour or longer, they must be subject to re-heat treatment. This also applies to
L37 rivets which must be used within 2 hours of removal from cold storage and 2024-T rivets
exposed to room temperature for a period exceeding 10 minutes.
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Once a freezer rivet has been taken from the refrigerator, it should not be mixed with the rivets
still in cold storage. If more rivets are removed from the freezer than can be used in 15 minutes,

they should be placed in a separate container and stored for re-heat treatment. Solution
treatment of rivets may be repeated up to three times as further heat treatments would increase
the grain size and result in low strength even after ageing. Examples of heating times and
temperatures are shown in the table at the bottom of this page.
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Compatibility of Rivets and Metals
Most metals and therefore aircraft rivet stock, are subject to corrosion. Corrosion may be the
result of local environmental conditions during fabrication or use. It is reduced to a minimum by
using metals which are highly resistant to corrosion and possess the correct strength-to-weight
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ratio.
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If a copper rivet is inserted into an aluminium alloy structure, two dissimilar metals are brought
in contact with each other. Remember, all metals possess a small electrical potential. Dissimilar
metals in contact with each other in the presence of moisture cause an electrical current to flow
between them and chemical by-products to be formed. Principally, this results in the
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deterioration of one of the metals.
Certain aluminium alloys react to each other and, therefore, must be thought of as dissimilar
metals. The commonly used aluminium alloys may be divided into the two groups shown below.
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Members within either Group A or Group B can be considered as similar to each other and will
not react to others within the same group. A corroding action will take place, however, if any
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metal of Group A comes in contact with a metal in Group B in the presence of moisture.
The use of dissimilar metals must be avoided whenever possible. Their incompatibility is a
factor which was considered when the rivet Standards were adopted. To comply with
Standards, the manufacturers must put a protective surface coating on the rivets. This may be a
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chemical coating, metal spray, or an anodised finish.

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The protective coating on a rivet is identified by its colour. A rivet coated with zinc chromate is
yellow, an anodised surface may be pearl grey, green or purple and the metal sprayed rivet is
identified by a silver-grey colour.
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Rivet Types
Rivets are classified as either protruding head or flush head types. Protruding head styles
include round head, flat head, mushroom and universal headed rivets, while flush heads are
provided by the various styles of countersunk rivet.
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Protruding Head
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Round or snap head rivets are used in the interior of the aircraft, except where clearance is
required for adjacent members. These rivets have a deep, rounded head which offers some
resistance to tension loads. The heads contact area strengthens the sheet around the hole.
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The flat or pan head rivet, like the roundhead rivet, is used on interior structures. It is used
where maximum strength is needed and where there isn‟t sufficient clearance to use a
roundhead rivet. It is seldom, if ever, used on external surfaces.
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The brazier or mushroom head rivets, have heads of large diameter, which makes them
particularly suitable for riveting thin sheet stock (skin) and composite materials. These rivets
offer reduced resistance to the airflow, and because of this factor, they are sometimes used for
riveting skin on exterior surfaces, especially on aft sections of the fuselage and empennage.
However, due to the shallow head, they have little tensile strength.
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The universal head rivet is a modified mushroom head with greater tensile strength due to its
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depth but still with reduced drag. Many manufacturers now use it as the standard protruding
head rivet. It is used in aircraft construction and repair in both interior and exterior locations.
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When replacement is necessary for round-head, flathead, or brazier head, they can usually be
replaced by universal head rivets.
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Flush Head
The flush or countersunk head rivet is flat topped and bevelled toward the shank so that it fits
into a countersunk or dimpled hole and is flush with the materials surface.
The angle at which the head slopes may vary from 78° to 120°. The 100° rivet is the most
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commonly used type. These rivets are used to fasten sheets over which other sheets must fit.
They are also used on exterior surfaces of the aircraft because they offer only slight resistance
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to the slipstream and help to minimise turbulent airflow.
120° heads are often used in soft materials such as fibre glass and composite structure in
aerodynamically sensitive areas. Examples are fairings and flight control skins.
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Countersunk rivets are also available with reduced head diameter (and thus reduced head
thickness) for use in shear load only applications. They can thus be used in thinner material
than would otherwise be the case.
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Several special forms of countersunk rivet are available. These include radiused lead-in and
double angle countersinks which are used in areas where a liquid tight seal is required, and the
"Briles" type rivet. O N
With the Briles type the hole is prepared with a small counterbored section at the top of the
countersink and when the rivet is formed a raised ring on the manufactured head is deformed
into the counterbore effectively swaging the rivet head into the skin for improved fatigue
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resistance in highly stressed areas.
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Rivet Identification
The markings on the heads of rivets, indicate the material from which they are made and,
therefore, their strength. The following chart shows some common American aluminium rivet
head markings and the materials indicated by them. The markings may be comprised of raised
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dots, dimples, raised dashes, a raised cross, a raised triangle, letters or numbers, and some
heads have no markings. There are three materials indicated by a plain head, it is possible to
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distinguish their difference by colour. The 1100 is aluminium colour; the mild steel is a typical
steel colour; and the copper rivet is a copper colour. Any head marking can appear on any head
style of the same material although sometime raised markings will be indented. On some rivets,
such as Briles type and slug rivets, the marking is on the shank end.
AD
As explained previously, the rivets may have different colours to identify the protective surface
coating used by the manufacturers.
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American Specifications
Each type of rivet is identified by a part number so that the user can select the correct rivet for
the job. The type of rivet head is identified by AN, MS or NAS standard numbers. The numbers
selected are in series and each series represents a particular type of head. The most common
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numbers and the types of heads they represent are:
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AN426, MS20426 or NAS 1241 - countersunk head rivets (100°)
AN430 or MS20430 - roundhead rivets.
AN441 - flathead rivets.
AN456 - brazier head rivets.
AD
AN470, MS20470 or NAS 1242 - universal head rivets.
There are also letters and numbers added to a part number. The letters designate alloy content:
the numbers, rivet diameter and length. The letters in common use for alloy designation are:
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A - Aluminium alloy, 1100 or 3003 composition.
AD - Aluminium alloy, 2117-T composition.
D - Aluminium alloy, 2017-T composition.
DD - Aluminium alloy, 2024-T composition.
B
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- Aluminium alloy, 5056 composition.
- Aluminium alloy, 7050/7075 composition.
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C - Copper.
M - Monel.
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T - Titanium
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The absence of a letter following the AN standard number indicates a rivet manufactured from
mild steel.
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The first number following the material composition letters expresses the diameter of the rivet
shank in 32nds of an inch.
Examples: 3, 3/32nds : 6, 3/16ths etc.,

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The last number(s), separated by a dash from the preceding number, expresses the length of
the rivet shank in l6ths of an inch.
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Examples: 3, 3/16ths, 7, 7/16ths, 10, 5/8ths etc

An example of identification marking of a rivet is:
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AN470AD3-5 - complete part number.

AN - Air Force-Navy standard number.
470 - universal head rivet.
AD - 2117-T aluminium alloy.
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3 -3/32 nd in diameter.
5 - 5/16 th in length.
Note: The AN Standard system is obsolete and is being replaced by the MS system.
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Airframe manufacturers may have their own specification systems such as Boeing's BAC
Standards, Lockheed's LS Specifications and Airbus' specification system.
British Rivet Identification

Standards for British rivets are issued by the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC
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'AS' series) and the British Standards Institute ('SP' series). These series overlap and the
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obsolete AS rivets are being replaced by the SP equivalents.
Rivets are identified by a standard number and a part number. The Standard number identifies
the head shape, material and finish, and the part number indicates the size in terms of shank
diameter (thirty seconds of an inch or millimetres X 10) and length (in sixteenths of an inch or
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millimetres).
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Material Spec. Material Type Identification Finish
Marks
L37 Dural „D‟ on shank end Natural
L58 Al. Alloy (5% Mg.) „X‟ on shank end Dyed or Anodised Green
L86 Hiduminium N
„S‟ on shank end
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Dyed Violet
DTD 204 Monel „M‟ on shank end Natural or Cadmium Plated
Material Identification of „AS‟ Rivets
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Material Snap Mush 90º Csk 100º Csk 120º Csk 90º Close
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Spec. Tol.
L37 AS156 AS158 AS161 - AS164 AS2918
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L58 AS157 AS159 AS162 AS4716 AS165 -

L86 AS2227 AS2228 AS229 - AS2230 AS3362
DTD204 - - AS5462 - AS465 -
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Typical Specification Numbers of „AS‟ Rivets

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For example:
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SP 80/408 - complete part number

SP 80 - L86 aluminium alloy, snap head
4 - 4/32 or 1/8" in diameter
08 - 8/16 or 1/2" in length
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SP160-40-16 - complete part number
SP160 - L58 aluminium alloy, universal head
-40 - 40/10 = 4mm in diameter
-16 - 16mm in length
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The rivets are identified by a letter or number on the end of the shank or a system of dimples,
dots and dashes on the head.
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AD
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AD
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Intentionally Blank
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Riveting
Introduction
In the construction of metal airframe structure, the majority of permanent joints are made with
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either rivets or bolts. These hold the structural components together, the contact areas being
referred to as “faying surfaces”. To securely attach faying surfaces together, rivets are cheaper,
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lighter and more rapidly fastened than nuts and bolts.
The use of bolts instead of rivets to secure permanent joints is mainly employed in bolting
together skin plating and other highly stressed structures, such as mainplane spar root ends
AD
and attachment points, undercarriage main retraction sections and built up sections in engine
bays and engine mounting pylons.
The extensive use of rivets has enabled the manufacturers to standardise rivet design to ensure
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that, for a given type of metal airframe structure, the required type and size of rivet is readily
available for assembly work. Rivets for repairs are usually supplied with one head formed and
ready to insert into the rivet hole, the opposite end being formed into a head manually or by
using special tools. Some manufacturing processes involve machine riveting where a headless
“slug” rivet has both ends formed simultaneously.
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In repair work the size and type of rivets to be used and the spacing to be employed for a
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particular repair is specified in an approved repair scheme for a particular aircraft type. Unless
otherwise stated, the repair should follow the system of riveting used elsewhere on the aircraft
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in similar locations. In carrying out any repair of major structural components, such as
pressurised cabins and integral fuel tanks, the same type of riveting and a comparable quality of
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riveted assembly are vital to the integrity of the structure.
Provided that the approved repair scheme is followed in every detail and that drilling and
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riveting techniques are of a high standard, the integrity of the structure will not be degraded.
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Types of Riveted Joints
Lap Joint
Used in places where stress is not particularly high and where flush surfaces are not required.
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Often used in longitudinal aircraft skin joints.
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AD
AC
O N
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Joggled Lap Joint

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The under plate is joggled to preserve the continuity of the upper surface. This provides a flush
surface and can be used in radial or longitudinal skin joints.
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Butt Joint

Single strap, used on flush surfaces where high stress is encountered, requiring the use of
heavy gauge plate. Can be used in radial skin joints.
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AD
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O N
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Double Strap Butt Joint

Double strap, used in places of very high stress, where strength is more important than
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streamlining such as internal structures.

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Flange Joints

Used on internal structural members, such as ribs, frames, etc. where loads are chiefly
compression.
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AD
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Rivet Clearance
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The clearance is the difference between the size of the hole and the rivet diameter; rivet holes
are normally drilled 0.003 in oversize. Clearance is necessary, particularly with light alloys to
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prevent puckering of the sheet owing to the metal spreading when the rivet head is formed.
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Rivet Allowances
When fitting a rivet, sufficient shank must be left protruding above the plate to take up the
clearance and form the head. Failure to observe this precaution leads to many riveting faults.
The allowance for rivet heads are expressed in terms of the diameter of the rivet shank and are
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dependent on the material specification of the rivet and gauge of sheet being riveted.
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AD
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Typical values of allowance are:
 Snap Head 1.5D

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 Countersunk 0.75D
 Reaction 1.5D
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Rivet Grip
This is the length of rivet shank taken up by the combined thickness of the sheets being joined.
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To determine the length of rivet to be used add the rivet allowance to the rivet grip length. Have
a trial on scrap metal of the same thickness and specification.

Strength of Joints
The factors that govern the strength of a joint are:
• Plate Specification;
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This will be of such a material and gauge as to successfully withstand tensile and
bearing loads.
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• Rivet Specification;
This will be selected to withstand shear loads. In cases where the specification of the
rivet is not given, use a rivet of the same material as the plate, with a diameter of 2½
T where T is the thickness of the plate.
AD
• Rivet Spacing;
This will be determined to give the joint optimum strength characteristics.
Rivet Sphere of Influence
AC
The sphere of influence of a rivet is the area in which the closed rivet maintains the plates in
close proximity and this is approximately five times the diameter of the fastener or 5D. When the
pitch of rivets is 4D, the sphere of influence of each rivet overlaps, providing a fluid-tight joint.
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Rivet Positions
The position of the rivets relative to one another and the edge of the sheet material is important.
They must not be too close together as the excessive number of holes will weaken the joint. If
they are too far apart there would be too few to take the load and in pressurised areas this
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would cause leakage.
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They must not be too near the edge of the sheet as they will tear through the material when the
joint is under load. These conditions, modified for practical reasons, determine the rivet spacing
and pattern. Typical MINIMUM distances are:
AD
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Pitch - The distance between rivets in a row measured from centre to centre. 3D min.
Land - The distance between the rivet centre and the edge of the material. 2D min.
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Spacing - The distance between adjacent rows of rivets 3-4D min.
where D = rivet shank diameter.

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Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD)
The diameter of a circle which is dictated by the pitch of a number of rivets of a given size. This
is used to determine the diameter of circular repairs.
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AD
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Rivet Layout
Single Chain
Used chiefly on attachment and lightly stressed joints.
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AD
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Multiple Chain
Used on watertight joints and in places of high stress where thick gauge plate is used.
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Staggered Riveting
Used as an alternative to Multiple Chain in watertight joints, circular patches etc.
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AD
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Rivet Selection
The rivets to be used for maintenance or repair will be specified by Part Number in Approved
Technical Publications (ATP) such as the Illustrated Parts Catalogue and Structural Repair
Manual or on the Repair scheme or Service Bulletin.
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As a general guide, the strength of the rivets must be similar to that of the material in which they
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are used. The size, number and spacing of rivets is calculated from the tensile strength and
bearing strength of the sheet material and the shear strength of the rivets. The rivet diameter
should be approximately three times the thickness of a single sheet of the material being joined,
for example 1/8 inch diameter rivets should normally be used with 20 SWG (0.036 inch) sheet
AD
and 5/32 inch diameter rivets with 16 SWG (0.048 inch) sheet, but this may be unsuitable when
the holes are cut countersunk.
Rivet Allowance
AC
While the rivet Part Number is normally specified it is often the responsibility of the installer to
select the correct length of rivet.
When fitting a rivet, the correct length of shank must be left protruding above the sheet to take
up the clearance and form the second head. The allowance for forming the rivet head is
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expressed as so many times D, where D equals the diameter of the rivet. The rivet allowance
depends on the material of the rivet, the type of head being formed and the thickness of the
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sheet being joined. Typical values are :
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The formed reaction head should be 0.5 D high.

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Hole Preparation
The size of the rivet holes has a positive bearing on the strength of a riveted joint. A clearance
must exist between the rivet and the hole in which it is fitted to accommodate expansion of the
shank during forming. If the clearance is too small the rivet's protective coating may be
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scratched when it is installed and the sheets will also tend to buckle. If the clearance is too
large, the rivet will not fill the hole completely, separation of the sheets may occur, the reaction
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head formed may be under-sized and the joint will not develop its full strength.
The recommended hole sizes vary according to the gauge of the materials being joined and the
size, form, length and material of the rivets being used. In general the harder and longer the
AD
rivet the smaller the clearance, but close tolerance holes and interference fits are sometimes a
requirement.
If countersinking is required, the thickness of the metal will dictate the method used. If dimpling
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is required, keep hammer blows or dimpling pressures to a minimum so that no undue work-
hardening occurs in the surrounding area.
Drilling
To make a rivet hole of the correct size, first drill a hole slightly undersize. This is known as pre-
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drilling, and the hole is called a pilot hole. Open the pilot hole with a twist drill of the correct size
to get the required clearance dimension. Typical pilot and final drill sizes are shown in chart
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below but you should always refer to the Approved Technical Publications (ATPs) for that
aircraft type for specific details. Final hole sizes are often specified as Letter and Number drills,
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but as these systems have largely disappeared metric sizes are used in their place. The
recommended clearance for rivet holes is usually from 0.002 to 0.004 ins. (0.05 to 0.1 mm).
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When drilling hard metals the twist drill should have an included angle of 118° and should be
operated at low speeds; but for soft metals, use a twist drill with an included angle of 90°
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operated at higher speeds. Thin sheets of aluminium alloy are drilled with greater accuracy by a
drill having an included angle of 118° because the large angle of the drill has less tendency to
tear or elongate the hole.
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Locations for rivet holes should be centre punched before beginning the actual drilling. The
centre punch mark acts as a guide and prevents the drill tip from wandering and damaging the
surface. It also lets the drill grip or bite into the metal with greater ease. Make the centre punch
mark large enough to prevent the drill from slipping out of position, but punch lightly enough not
to dent the surrounding material. Hold a hard, smooth, wooden backing block securely in
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position behind the hole locations when drilling.
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Drilling is usually done with a hand drill or with a light power drill. Hold the power drill firmly with
both hands. Extend the fingers of one hand against the metal to act as a guide in starting a
hole, and as a snubber or brake when the drill goes through the material. Before beginning to
drill, always test the inserted twist drill for trueness and vibration by spinning the hand drill or
AD
running the motor freely and watching the drill end. If the drill wobbles, it may be because of
burrs on its shank or because the drill is bent or incorrectly chucked. A drill that wobbles or is
slightly bent must not be used because it causes enlarged holes.
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Always hold the drill at right angles to the work, regardless of the position of the hole or the
curvature of the material. Use an angle drill or drill extensions and adapters when access is
difficult with a straight drill. Never tip the drill sideways when drilling or when withdrawing from
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the material because this causes elongation of the hole.

When holes are drilled through sheet metal, small burrs are formed around the edge of the hole,
particularly on the rear surface where the drill bursts through. This is especially true when using
a hand drill since the drill speed is slow and there is a tendency to apply more pressure per drill
revolution. All burrs must be removed with a de-burring tool before riveting. Particular attention
must be paid to the de-burring of hole edges between plates.
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The de-burring process will leave a small chamfer or radius at the edge of the hole which helps
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prevent cracking, but should not be deep enough to affect the strength of the material or the
shape of the formed rivet.
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Locating Holes
Where repairs are joined to the aircraft structure, existing hole positions must be transferred to
the new material. As far as possible this should be done by “back-drilling”, although care must
be taken to ensure the existing hole is not damaged. This may be achieved by using a drill
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guide or bush which fits securely in the existing hole and allows a pilot hole to be transferred to
the new material.
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ND
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Y
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Where access to the back of the repair area is restricted, it may be necessary to use a hole
finder for laying out fastener patterns from original structure. Many variations of hole finders
have been devised. The diagram, left, illustrates a suggested hole finder that is easy to make
and easy to use. This type of hole finder requires a separate finder for each rivet diameter.
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Another method is to use a clear acetate sheet onto which the hole positions are transferred.
Holes should be marked onto new material using a centre punch as the drill may “wander” if the
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acetate is used as a guide.
Cleco Clamps and Pliers

Cleco clamps are used to align parts prior to being re-riveted to an aircraft. The clamps are in-
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stalled with Cleco pliers (Error! Reference source not found.). The colour of the Cleco clamp
indicates the diameter of the rivet it is to be used with. Four commonly used sizes are 3/32 of an
inch (silver), 1/8 of an inch (copper), 5/32 of an inch (black), and 3/16 of an inch (brass,
gold).inch (copper), 5/32 of inch (copper), 5/32 of an inch (black), and 3/16 of an inch (brass,
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gold).
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Aerodynamic Smoothness
Aircraft require an aerodynamically clean shape and a smooth exterior surface for high
performance, however, some areas are more critical than others.
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The use of countersunk rivets in skin joins and repairs helps maintain the smooth surface and
reduce drag, but to ensure optimum performance the protrusion or flushness of the rivet heads
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is controlled. The diagram illustrates the critical areas of a large aircraft and shows typical
protrusion limits for a two particular types of solid rivet. The Structural Repair Manual details the
flushness requirements for all the types of fastener used during manufacture and repair.
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Countersinking
Installing countersunk rivets leaves the smooth surface which is essential to satisfy the
aerodynamic requirements of modern aircraft.
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Countersunk rivets normally have an included angle of 100°. Rivets with 82°, 90° and 120°
countersunk heads are available to repair existing aircraft which use these types of countersunk
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rivets.
Holes for countersunk-headed rivets must be either “cut” or "form" countersunk to receive the
rivet head, depending on the thickness of the metal and the diameter of the rivet. Form
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countersinking or dimpling can be used on thin material although thicker sheet will tend to crack,
while if a cut countersink is too deep in relation to the skin thickness, the resultant knife-edge
hole is prone to cracking and the strength of the joint is also reduced.
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The method to be used will be specified in the aircraft repair scheme, but as a general guide,
sheet metal 20 SWG (0.036 in.) and under is dimpled, while sheet metal 18 SWG. (0.048 in.)
and thicker is cut countersunk.
Before preparing a countersunk or dimpled hole always check the head size of the specified
due to tension resistance requirements.

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fastener as rivets of the same shank diameter and head angle can have different sized heads
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Cut Countersinking
For single fasteners a simple countersink cutter of the correct angle may be used in a hand drill,
however for large repairs special countersinking equipment like the Micro-stop tool should be
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used for speed and consistency.

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As mentioned, aircraft manufacturers usually specify a tolerance on head protrusion after

riveting, and this is usually of the order of 0.000-0.005 inch above the skin surface but will vary.
The rivet head should always be slightly proud of the work before rivet forming is started.
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Micro-Stop Countersink
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The micro-stop countersink tool, fitted with a removable cutter, has proved to be the most
efficient countersinking tool for repetitive use with portable equipment.
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The shaft of the tool rotates in a bearing inside an adjustable locking sleeve and foot piece
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assembly. The foot piece (or “stop” ) threads onto the bearing housing, enabling depth
adjustments to be made.
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Markings, indicating depth differentials in 0.001 inch increments, on the circumference of the
locking sleeve aid depth adjustment.
Adjustment is made by pulling the sleeve back and turning the stop, to deepen or shallow the
cut. The sleeve is then spring loaded back into position to effect a lock.
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Note: Make sure that the locking splines intermesh: only then is the adjustment securely
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locked.
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A pilot pin guides the spinning cutter as it cuts into the material. The pilot pin should be
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approximately 0.002 inch smaller in diameter than the hole. This allows cutter to spin without
binding. Cutter-pilots, which are smaller than this will allow the cutter to wobble, and result in
lopsided countersink.
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Pilot pins may be removable to ease cutter sharpening and allow "oversize" pins to be installed.
Cutters are available in a variety of cutting angles. l00° cutters are frequently used. 82°
countersinks are used for NACA type heads of fluid tight rivets. The cutting angle is marked on
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each cutter.
CAUTION: MAKE SURE THE CUTTER IS TIGHTENED IN THE COUNTERSUNK

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SHAFT BEFORE USING THE STOP COUNTERSINK.

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The micro-stop countersink should be set up and adjusted on a piece of scrap metal of the
same material and thickness as the part to be countersunk. The procedure is as follows;
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 Be sure the adjustable foot piece is extended far enough to ensure that the cut will
not be too deep.
 Gradually increase the depth adjustment until the depth and diameter of the hole
are the same as the size of the fastener head.
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In operation, always hold the locking sleeve and foot piece assembly firmly to prevent rotation
and damage to the metal surface.
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When the micro-stop countersinking tool is used, it should be held as shown. Keep the following
rules in mind when using it:
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 Before using, check countersink cutter for cutter angle, pilot size, sharpness, and
true running.
 Check set-up on scrap material.
 Hold countersink at a 90° angle to material.
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 Take full depth of cut each time.
 Apply pressure directly behind countersink.
 The face on the micro-stop countersink tool must be highly polished to prevent
marring the material.

countersink.
O N
Select the size and length of fastener to be installed and use it to judge depth of
 Do not allow the micro-stop countersink tool to spin on the material.

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Dimpling
This is a process for indenting thin sheet material (not normally thicker than 18 SWG, 0.048 in.)
around a drilled hole to accommodate a countersunk rivet. If correctly performed, dimpling has a
beneficial effect on the strength of a joint as the material is not thinned, but the method of
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dimpling must be related to the ductility of the material to prevent over-stressing and cracking.
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Dimpling Characteristics
The aluminium alloy skin panels commonly used for stressed skin structures are either solution
treated and naturally aged or solution treated and artificially aged. The naturally aged materials
and some of the artificially aged clad materials may be satisfactorily dimpled at room
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temperature, although if dimples of 90° or less are required, hot dimpling may be specified.
Carefully controlled skin dimpling processes are considered suitable for 2024-T4 type
aluminium material and stainless steel, but hot dimpling should be used for the stronger but less
ductile 2014-T6 and 7075-T6 type aluminium alloys, and for titanium.
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Control tests for dimpled sheet
Before dimpling any aircraft material of which the dimpling characteristics are uncertain, either
because of lack of familiarity with the material itself or because of the use of a new dimpling
technique or tool, tests should be made on sample material of the same gauge, specification
and heat treatment condition.
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Punch Dimpling
This is the simplest method of dimpling but is generally only suitable for minor repairs in sheet
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steel or soft aluminium alloys. The type of tool used is similar to a centrepunch but has a spigot
which engages in a female tool of the same form. The hole should first be drilled to the spigot
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size and then the male die should be driven, squeezed or drawn into the female die to form the
dimple. A refinement is the "spring back" type where the die faces are slightly curved, allowing
the dimple to spring back to an accurate shape. The hole may then be opened to rivet clearance
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diameter and inspected.

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Spin Dimpling
This is the most widely used method of cold-dimpling. The sheet is first pre-drilled and backed
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by a female die as for punch dimpling, then a rotating male die is pressed into the hole. The
metal around the rivet hole is stretched over the edge of the female die and, if the material is
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clad, the aluminium cladding is spread by the spinning action. The cladding may form a ridge
around the outside of the dimple but this will only be slight, and should not be removed.
Hot Dimpling
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There are basically two methods of hot dimpling. In the first method, sometimes known as „coin
dimpling‟, electrically heated dies are used; in the second, the sheet is heated by its resistance
to the passage of an electric current. Each material has a different rate of conducting heat, or a
different electrical resistance, and the applied current or time and temperature will be different
ND
for different materials and gauges. These details are normally found by experiment and the
instructions given by the aircraft manufacturer should be followed.
Note: In order to obtain consistent results during aircraft construction, large static
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machines with automatically controlled temperature, current and tool pressure are

often used but for repair work portable hot squeeze-dimpling tools are generally
satisfactory.
Dimpling Technique
To ensure that rows of dimples fit satisfactorily together, the pilot holes should be drilled with the
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structure fully assembled. The structure may then be disassembled and the individual
components deburred and dimpled separately. However, if sheets are to be bonded together, it
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may be recommended that dimpling is carried out after bonding.
 To produce dimples that are free from cracks around the holes it is essential that
the pilot holes are free from burrs or other defects and that the correct lubricant is
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used. The ideal procedure is to drill the holes under-size, ream to suit the size of
dimpling tool spigot, then deburr on both sides before dimpling. For maximum
shear strength the hole should be finally drilled or reamed to give a hole with
parallel sides and ideal rivet clearance. This second drilling should start from the
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dimpled side so that any burrs are on the raised edge and easily removed with a
deburring tool.
 When countersunk rivets are used to join several thin sheets of material there are
two ways in which dimples may be formed. If the same tools are used for
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successive sheets the dimples will be identical, but will not nest satisfactorily. This
may be acceptable when joining two sheets of ductile material but, for stiffer
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materials and when joining more than two sheets, the dimples may be
overstressed by the riveting action.
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Intentionally Blank
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Riveting Procedure
Solid rivets can be closed by hand using appropriate snaps, sets and dollies. This technique is
usually confined to bench work. On aircraft structures reaction riveting using pneumatic riveting
guns is normally performed.
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Solid Riveting Tools
• Set - this is a hollow punch used to draw the metal sheets together and bring the
pre-formed rivet head against the metal surface.
• Snap - a form of punch with a recess at one end, the same shape as the rivet pre-
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formed head.
• Dolly - this is a metal block with a recess the same shape as the preformed head
of the rivet. It is used to support the pre-formed rivet head while forming the rivet. The
pre-formed rivet head should fit squarely into the dolly.
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Riveting tools are available in different sizes and shapes to accommodate the various rivet sizes
and head forms.
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When the appropriate actions of drilling, countersinking, dimpling, deburring, cleaning and
adjustment have been completed, the work to be riveted should be assembled, sealant applied,
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and mating surfaces brought tightly into contact by use of skin grips or clips, care being taken
not to damage the skin surface. It is important that no gaps are present between layers, as this
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will prevent the correct forming of the rivet and reduce shear strength. Riveting may stretch thin
sheets slightly, particularly with minimum rivet clearances, and this should not be allowed to
accumulate by riveting, for example, straight along a line of rivets. The correct sequence of
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closing rivets can only be obtained by experience, and with each type of joint the order of
riveting may vary slightly.
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Hand Riveting
If the job is small or can be done away from the aircraft, hand riveting may be convenient.
When solid rivets are closed with a hand hammer, the pre-formed head should be supported in
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a dolly and a hollow set or draw tool used to ensure the sheets drawn together. The tail is then
driven using a flat snap to form a reaction head with a thickness of 0.5D. If a round or snap
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head is required on the shank end, the tail should first be partly formed with a flat snap, then
finished with a suitably shaped snap. The rivet should never be hit directly with the hammer.
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Pneumatic Rivet Guns
Aircraft solid rivets are often driven with pneumatic rivet hammers or guns. They use
compressed air to drive a piston back and forward applying a hammering action to the rivet
snap. The air pressure required to operate the hammers is around 80 lb/sq in.
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The rivet snaps are held in the gun with a spiral retaining spring made of heavy gauge steel
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wire. This type of spring allows the snap to have the full travel required, yet prevents the snap
being driven out of the gun. It is extremely important that anyone operating a rivet gun be aware
of the dangers associated with compressed air and pneumatic tools. Careless use of a rivet gun
can result in a snap being driven from the gun with such force that it can inflict serious injury to
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persons or damage equipment. Retaining springs have been known to fail to hold the snap, so
the rule is;
CAUTION : DO NOT PLAY WITH RIVET GUNS
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It is important that a rivet be driven with as few blows as possible, to minimise the work
hardening of the rivet but not over drive it which results in an unacceptable tail. For this reason
and because of the inaccessibility of many rivets, there are a number of types of rivet gun
available.
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For the larger rivets that are relatively accessible, a slow, hard-hitting, long stroke gun is
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required. Some of these guns hit only one blow each time the trigger is pulled. For work with
small rivets in thin skins, a light, fast-hitting rivet gun is often most suitable.
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When a suitable rivet gun has

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been chosen, the proper snap is

placed in the gun and the
retaining spring fitted. The speed
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or force of the rivet gun can be

adjusted with the regulator screw
in the handle of the gun. By
placing the snap against a scrap
piece of wood and pulling the
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trigger full on, the regulator can be

adjusted until the snap dents the
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wood but does not shatter it. The

correct setting of rivet guns comes
with experience. When closing a
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rivet, the trigger should be

squeezed gradually so that the
rivet head is progressively formed
without damaging the sheet metal
ND
and using the minimum number of

blows.
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Rivet Snaps
Sometimes referred to as “sets”, snaps are available in a variety of sizes and styles. Always
select the correct type for the rivet gun you are using and the rivet you are installing. Using the
wrong type will damage the rivet head, the aircraft skin or both.
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Before use, ensure that the portion of the snap which contacts the rivet head or aircraft skin is
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free from sealant, jointing compound and swarf as this will cause damage.
Cut-away, Off-set and Gooseneck snaps are available for use where access is restricted.
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Bucking Bars
To form the rivet tail a bucking bar or dolly must be used to react against the rivet gun blows.
They should also be used to block the skin when the rivet is inserted to ensure the sheets are
closed together.
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Bucking bars are available in a variety of shapes, sizes and weights, and are made of steel.
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When selecting one for use in areas of restricted access, choose one in which the centre of
gravity is as close as possible over the rivet being formed. Always ensure the face of the block
is presented square to the rivet.
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Using a bucking bar which is too light means that the gun must deliver more blows and may
result in premature hardening of the rivet or damage to the skin surface. A bar which is too
heavy will cause an over formed reaction head which may result in a loose rivet, a damaged
hole, or cracks to the rivet.
AC
As with the snap, ensure that the face which contacts the rivet is clean.
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Pneumatic or Air Drill Motors
While electric drills may be used for drilling aircraft sheet metal in workshops, the most
universally used drill in the hangar is the pneumatic type often referred to as a “windy drill”. The
main advantage of a pneumatic or air drill, over an electric drill is its safety. Most electric motors
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produce sparks and heat which are hazardous in areas where there may be fuel or other
flammable vapours. It is also much less hazardous to have air hoses in an aircraft structure than
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to have electric cables. The use of non-approved electrical equipment in aircraft maintenance
areas is prohibited.
Another advantage is the speed control offered by air drills. By varying the trigger pressure it is
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possible to make them run at slow, intermediate, or high speed, and adequate torque is always
available. Air drills do not
overheat regardless of the
amount they are used and are
AC
available in a number of
shapes that allow access to
difficult locations.
Many air drills are straight, with

a chuck at one and an air
connection at the other. The
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exhaust is usually arranged to
exit from the back of the drill
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and may be ducted away by a

tube to avoid blowing swarf
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around. Another popular type is

the pistol grip drill with various
sized drill chucks. For drilling
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holes where the structure

interferes, a right angled drill or
45° angle drill is available. The
drill bits are retained in the
angled drills by using collets
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which grip the drill shanks;

some types use drills with
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threaded shanks. Flexible

shafts are also available with a
right angled drill attachment at
US
one end and which can be

attached to the pneumatic drill
chuck. The flexible drive shaft can be passed through lightening holes and around corners etc.
ND
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Pneumatic drills are operated by compressed air at approximately 80-100 lbs/sq in. Each tool is
connected to the air supply hose by a quick release coupling. The air motor unit consists of a
vaned rotor turning in a housing. When the lever or button control on the tool is depressed, the
compressed air enters the motor and turns the rotor at high speed by acting on the vanes. The
vanes, which slide freely in radial slots, are maintained in contact with the bore of the housing
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by centrifugal force. As the rotor turns, the air is finally expelled to atmosphere through an
exhaust system which is designed to both deflect it away from the user and to reduce the noise
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to an acceptable level.
Reduction gearing is fitted between the motor and the chuck. The gearbox is packed with
grease and sealed from the air motor.
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Rivet Cutters
Rivet cutters are used to cut rivets to size prior to driving. The rivet cutter has a stack of
thickness gauges which are used to determine the correct rivet length by measuring the space
between the rivet head and the cutting. When rivet cutters are not available, the rivets can be
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cut to size using a pair of diagonal cutting pliers. The rivet is cut by squeezing together the two
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rotating plates connected to the cutter handles.
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Rivet Miller or Shaver
This tool is used for rapid and accurate removal of the protruding portion of the mandrels of
Avdel rivets, or the protruding formed heads in NACA type countersunk riveting, leaving them
perfectly flush with the surrounding surface. The motor of the rivet miller is similar to that used in
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the air drills. Instead of a drill, a cutter is held in a collect type chuck and surrounded by a
shroud which forms a depth stop. Some rivet millers are fitted with a micrometer adjustment,
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which enables the depth of the cut to be altered by increments of 0.00025 in.
To give stability and prevent movement when milling, the tool is fitted with spring loaded
telescopic legs fitted with rubber friction pads. The speed of rotation of the cutter is
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approximately 18000 rpm.
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Maintenance of Air Tools
All air tools must be kept clean and well lubricated. Lubrication is essential to prevent seizure of
the moving parts. A few drops of light machine oil introduced into the air hose quick release
adapter several times a day will help to keep the air tools serviceable. As the air stream through
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the tool quickly sweeps away the lubricant, it is better to lubricate several times a day by small
applications rather than to lubricate the tool thoroughly once a week. Alternatively oiling
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equipment can be installed in the compressed air supply lines. This will ensure sufficient
lubrication for the air tools using the air supply.
The speed and power produced by air tools is dependent on the pressure and flow rate (pounds
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per minute) of the supply. The more tools in use on a supply circuit, the less airflow is available
at each one. This should be remembered for operations which are speed or power critical such
as riveting.
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Another factor is the length of the airline or hose. A long and/or coiled hose will reduce the
airflow and should be avoided as far as possible.
General safety rules:

• Always disconnect when not in use
•
• Hold all power tools securely
O N
Use safety goggles during all drilling, cutting and sanding operations
• Ensure your own security e.g. footing, balance etc.

• Hold tool in such a way that if dropped or wrenched from grip, it will fall clear without
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injury.
• Keep fingers away from bits, blades and cutters (including reverse of job)
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• Replace dull or damaged bits, blades and cutters immediately

• Always disconnect when changing or adjusting bits or cutters
• Ensure bits, blades and cutters are secure and tight (and chuck keys removed) before
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use
• Never operate with inoperative safety features (guards, springs etc.)
• Avoid inhaling air tool exhaust
N
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Riveting Procedure
After the hole has been prepared, riveting on the job can commence.
The following is a guide to the procedure you should follow:
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4. Install proper rivet snap in gun and attach rivet snap retaining spring, if possible
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(certain flush snaps have no provision for a retaining spring).
5. Connect air hose to gun.
6. Adjust air regulator, which controls the pressure or hitting power of the rivet gun,
by holding the rivet set against a block of wood while pulling the trigger.
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7. Test the rivet gun on scrap material with specified rivets. The operator should time
the gun to form the head in one “burst” if possible (3-7 seconds).
8. Insert proper rivet in hole.
9. Hold or wait for bucker to hold bucking bar on shank of rivet. The gun operator
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should “feel” the pressure being applied by the bucker and try to equalise this
pressure.
10. Pull gun trigger to release a short burst of blows. The rivet should now be properly
driven, if the timing was correct, and provided the bucking bar and gun were held
firmly and perpendicular (square) with the work.
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Rivet gun operators should always be familiar with the type of structure beneath the skin being
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riveted and must realise the problems of the bucker.
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CAUTION: ALWAYS WEAR EAR DEFENDERS WHEN RIVETING OR BUCKING

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CAUTION: NEVER OPERATE A RIVET GUN ON A RIVET UNLESS IT IS BEING BUCKED.

THE BUCKER SHOULD ALWAYS WAIT FOR THE GUN OPERATOR TO STOP
BEFORE GETTING OFF A RIVET.
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NACA Method of Flush Riveting
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA - forerunner of NASA) devised the
following method for low drag countersunk fastener installation. The hole, is drilled and
countersunk in the normal way. The rivet is installed from the inside of the structure so that the
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shank protrudes from the countersunk hole. When the rivet is closed the shank fills the
countersunk hole. When all the rivets are driven, a milling machine is used to shave the formed
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shanks flush with the skin. This type of riveting produces the maximum smoothness and
uniformity of the surface.
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AC
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Rivet Squeezers
As an alternative to reaction riveting, rivet squeezing provides a practical option which offers a
high degree of control over the force applied. It also has the advantage that the force is applied
steadily and the rivet is formed in one action.
Y
Either manually operated or powered, they consist of a pair of jaws and handles or an actuator.
EM
One jaw contains an interchangeable snap or die, with a recess in the shape of the
manufactured head, the other is flat to deform the tail.
The degree of squeeze applied can be varied by adding or removing spacers under the snap or
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adjusting the pressure applied.
Large floor mounted pneumatic or hydraulic squeezers can be used in manufacturing facilities
and are frequently used with slug rivets where both heads are formed simultaneously. These
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systems may be automated and computer controlled for large assemblies.
Hand portable units are available in workshops and hangars. Their main limitation is the need
for the tool to have access to both sides of the work.
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Rivet Inspection
After the rivets have been closed they should be inspected to ensure that they are tight and fully
formed. Rivet heads must not be deformed or cracked, and the surrounding area should be free
from distortion and undamaged by the riveting tools. Rivets which are obviously not performing
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their function should be replaced, but replacement of rivets which are found to be only slightly
below standard might do more harm than leaving them in position, particularly in thin materials.
EM
Before rejecting such rivets, the strength requirements of the particular joint and the
effectiveness of the rivets in question, should be considered. When a flushness tolerance is
specified for countersunk rivets, this is normally checked before riveting is commenced;
however, the milling of solid rivet heads may sometimes be permitted after riveting to obtain a
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uniform protrusion. In this case protective treatments must be re-applied after milling.
The illustrations show some of the faults which may be found with solid rivets. Any cracks in the
rivet head are not normally acceptable. If snap heads are formed on the tail of the rivet a
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number of further faults may occur. These include a „flash‟ round the rivet head if the shank was
too long, and a small head, possible accompanied by snap marks on the skin, if the shank was
too short.
If the holes are not square to each other or are misaligned the rivet may be formed with a gap
N
under the head. This may cause stress in the joint and harbour corrosive agents.
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If one or more of the holes is oversize the rivet will swell into it when formed and an undersize
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driven head will result.

N
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If the rivet allowance is to large flash will form round a driven snap head.
US
ND
If the bucking bar is too light or is not held firmly against the rivet the driven head will become
Bell shaped and the structure may be damaged.
HI

Y
EM
Diagonal cracks on the driven head are usually the result of over-driving.
AD
Gaps between parts are often caused by foreign material such as swarf or burrs around holes.
AC
Always ensure that holes are de-burred and swarf removed prior to assembly.
O N
If the parts are not tightly clamped before riveting a shanked rivet may result. Care must be
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taken to avoid this condition.

IA
AV
If the parts are not held tightly together when drilled, or are not drilled squarely, the holes will
not align or the skin may buckle during riveting.
N
TA
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If the rivet becomes work hardened before it is fully formed, cracks may develop in either the
manufactured or driven head.
ND
HI

Y
EM
If the bucking bar is not held square to the rivet or not aligned, the driven head will be dragged
sideways or stepped.
AD
AC
N
If the rivet snap is too large or of the wrong shape, a flat will be formed on the manufactured
head and the edges of the snap may cut into the surface of the structure.
O
TI
IA
AV
If the rivet snap is too small or of the wrong shape, the edges of the snap will cut into the
manufactured head.
N
TA
US
ND
If the rivet snap is not held squarely on the manufactured head during riveting it will cut into the
head and may also damage the surrounding structure.
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Rivet Removal
Whether a rivet is damaged or distorted or has to be removed as part of a repair, great care
must be taken to avoid damage to the existing holes and surrounding structure.
The correct procedure is:
Y
1. Carefully centre punch the manufactured rivet head. Protruding heads may require
EM
a small flat area filed on them. It may be necessary to remove paint or other
protective coatings from countersunk rivets either by mechanical or chemical
means. Exercise caution using power tools or paint stripper.
2. Drill the depth of the head only, with a drill bit the same size or slightly smaller
AD
than the fastener shank.
3. Using a pin punch the same size as the drilled hole, carefully snap off the rivet
head. Note; Certain styles of rivet head such as “Briles” type rivets swage
themselves into the hole counterbore and must not be removed in this way, punch
AC
out the rivet as described below then carefully prise out the head.
4. Block or support the structure adjacent to the rivet tail with a bucking bar and drive
out the remainder of the rivet using a punch one size smaller than the rivet shank.
Rivets in dimpled holes may need to be drilled through with an undersize drill before punching
out.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
Never:
• attempt to chisel off a rivet head or tail.
• attempt to drill through a rivet without checking for clearance behind it.
US
• attempt to punch out a rivet without blocking the structure behind it.
• attempt to drill the rivet tail/reaction head, it may not be concentric with the rivet
shank.
ND
If the existing holes become damaged it may be possible to fit oversize repair fasteners.
However, if this exceeds pitch or edge margin limitations a repair which replaces the damaged
component will be required.
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Intentionally Blank
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Hollow Rivets
General
Y
There are many types of hollow rivets used on aircraft and aircraft equipment. Hollow rivets are
broadly classified into two main groups, some being closed by pulling a mandrel through the
EM
bore of the rivet and others having to be closed by hammering, using special punches. Hollow
rivets that have to be closed by hammering are known as tubular rivets and are not often used
in modern aircraft. It is therefore not considered necessary to include them in these notes.
AD
Hollow rivets that are closed by mandrels are also known as „blind‟ rivets. Blind rivets are used
in situations where only one side of the job is accessible sometimes during manufacture but
more usually for repair. These rivets may only be used as a substitute for solid rivets where
authorised by a repair scheme or special concession.
AC
These notes will cover the more common types that will be encountered in general terms only,
they are:
British:
• Tucker „Pop‟
• Chobert
O N
• Avdel
TI
American:
• Self Plugging (Friction Lock) similar to Avdel
IA
• Pull-through, similar to Chobert

• Cherrylock
• Cherrymax
AV
• Imex
• Huck
N
TA
US
ND
HI

„Pop‟ Rivets
Although 'Pop' is a registered trademark of Emhart Teknologies (formerly Tucker Fasteners)
'pop rivet' has become a generic term for similar blind fasteners from many manufacturers. 'Pop'
rivets are not used for load bearing joints on aircraft but may be used to attach decorative trim
Y
and non-structural components.
EM
Tucker „pop‟ rivets are supplied with either raised or countersunk heads and are manufactured
in Monel metal, steel or aluminium alloy. They are hollow rivets with a mandrel fitted in the bore.
They are closed by gripping the mandrel in a riveting tool and pulling it so that it forms a head
on the tail end of the rivet, clamping the sheets together and expanding the rivet in the hole, and
AD
then breaks off.
There are two types of rivet , break-head and break-stem. The break-head type leaves a light
weight hollow rivet. The break-stem leaves a plugged rivet, however the stem does not improve
AC
the shear strength of the rivet.
In structures from which the mandrel heads cannot be recovered the break-stem type should
always be used in preference.
N
Pop rivets are removed by drilling off the head in a similar manner to solid rivets. In cases
where part of the stem is left in the rivet, it may be necessary to drive this out with a punch prior
O
to drilling.
TI
Although pop rivets were originally intended for blind riveting, they are now used extensively for
general riveting in place of solid rivets. However, it must not be assumed that pop rivets may
IA
replace solid rivets unless specific instructions in the relevant airframe repair manual indicate
that the use of pop rivets is fully approved.
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Material
The mandrels on which pop rivets are assembled are of high tensile steel the rivets are
manufactured from aluminium alloy or monel metal.
Rivet Sizes
Y
Supplied in lengths suitable for riveting material up to 0.62 in. in thickness. Rivet diameter range
from 3/32" to 3/16".
EM
It is important to use rivets of the correct length. This is particularly important in the case of
break-stem rivets as correct retention of the mandrel head is dependent upon sufficient
projection of the rivet through the assembled material. The grip ranges for pop rivets may be
AD
found in the repair manual. Rivet lengths for pop rivets are measured from under the head both
domed and countersunk.
Fitting Tools
AC
Pop rivets are normally fitted using Lazy Tongs (shown below) or riveting pliers.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Chobert Rivets
Chobert rivets date back to the 1930s and are still being manufactured although they are not
commonly encountered on modern commercial aircraft. They are manufactured with either snap
or countersunk heads and are normally supplied in tubes for ease of assembly on to a mandrel.
Y
The action of closing a Chobert rivet is shown.
EM
It should be noticed that the rivet itself has a tapered bore and is threaded onto a re-usable
hardened steel mandrel. The mandrel, with the rivets mounted on to it, is fed into a Chobert
riveting gun. Each rivet is offered to the job and the gun is operated pulling the mandrel through.
It can be seen in the diagram that as the mandrel is pulled through it forces the tail of the rivet
AD
outwards and at the same time expanding the rivet shank to fill the hole.
Sealing pins may be fitted if required. When fitted they increase both the weight, and the shear
strength of the rivet and also prevent ingress of dirt and water. Sealing pins are hammered into
AC
the bore of the rivet after the mandrel has accurately sized the bore by a broaching action.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Identification.
The identification coding of a Chobert rivet consist of an AGS number followed by a Part
Number. The last two figures of the Part Number represent the length of the rivet in increments
of 1/32 in., the remaining figure or figures indicate the rivet shank diameter in increments of 1/32
in.
Y
 AGS 2040/410. Is a steel snap-head Chobert rivet, 1/8 in. dia, 5/16 in. long.
 AGS 2044/619. Is a duralumin 120° csk head Chobert rivet, 3/16 in. dia, 19/32 in. long.
EM
Chobert Sealing Pins
The identification coding of a Chobert sealing pin consists of an AGS number followed by a Part
Number. This Part Number does not relate directly to the sealing pin but to the rivet for which
AD
the pin is intended. For example, AGS 2042/4 10 is a steel sealing pin for use with rivet AGS
2040/4 10. A snap head Chobert rivet is longer overall than a csk head rivet with the same size
code. For this reason a pin for a csk head rivet is a 1/16 in. shorter than that indicated by the
rivet size code.
AC
i.e. AGS 2044/5O8 Csk head (120°) an AGS 2047/5O6 pin would be used.
Grip Range
order to select a suitable length rivet.

O N
Prior to fitting the Chobert rivet, the range of total material thickness must be determined in
Chobert Hand Riveting Pliers Type JB

TI
The type JB riveting pliers are used for placing Chobert rivets of 3/32 in. to 3/16 in. diameter
inclusive. Prior to threading a rivet on for broaching, the appropriate size jaw assembly and
mandrel must be used and the mandrel head lightly lubricated.
IA
AV
N
TA
The type 715 repetition riveter is pneumatically operated from a pressure supply of 5.5 bar (80
lbf in2) and is used for placing Chobert rivets of up to 3/16 in. diameter.
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
Chobert type 715 repetition riveter
AC
Jaws, Cursor Spring and Mandrel
The purpose and description of these items are as follows:
• Tail and Front Jaws. The tall jaw, when tightened fully in a clockwise direction,
N
holds the mandrel stationary. The front jaw assembly is available in three sizes
(1/8 in., 5/ 32 in., 3/16 in.) in order to accommodate a rivet of a different diameter.
O
When the tool is operated, the front jaw assembly is moved outwards by air
pressure, due to the mandrel held in a stationary position, the front jaw continues
TI
to extend and forces the first rivet over the belled end of the mandrel. When the
operating trigger is released, the sliding barrel retracts and another rivet is
IA
introduced outside of the front nose piece.
• Cursor. The cursor assembly applies pressure to the mandrel spring and the
AV
cursor to the barrel ensure that the spring-loaded portion of the cursor faces
forward.
N
TA
US
ND
Checking and setting the Chobert riveter

HI

• Mandrel Spring. The mandrel spring is mounted on the mandrel between the
front of the cursor assembly and the head of the rearmost rivet. It maintains a
pressure on the stock of rivets. The spring for the 1/8 in. dia rivet is tapered at one
end and this must butt against the last rivet head. The springs for 5/32 and 3/16
dia rivets are parallel.
Y
• Mandrel. The mandrel is available in three diameters to suit a rivet of a different
EM
diameter. Rivets to a total length of 12 inches can be accommodated on the long
mandrel in one loading. An essential requirement for producing properly set rivets
with any type of Chobert riveting tool is a serviceable mandrel. It must be checked
before use to ensure that the bulbed head is smooth and unscored and that a rivet
AD
can slide freely along the stem. The size of the head must also be checked with
the mandrel head gauge which is supplied with each riveting tool. This gauge is of
the go - no-go type. If the mandrel head is within size limits it will pass through the
appropriate diameter top limit hole but not through the bottom limit hole. The
AC
mandrels can be polished with metal polish as they are liable to become scarred
and worn while in use. The heads of the mandrels must not be reduced by more
than 0.002 in. below its size. The mandrel should be checked periodically with a
micrometer. Prior to loading the rivets the mandrel must be lubricated to ensure
N
the bores of the rivets are thoroughly lubricated.
O
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
Chobert Rivet Mandrel Gauge

HI

Preparation for Use
On selection of the correct size front jaw assembly, spring and mandrel, the loaded mandrel
should be inserted into the noses of the jaw until all but the first rivet of the stock have entered.
The jaws should close on the second rivet of the stack leaving 3mm (1/ 8 in.) of this rivet
exposed. Once connected to the compressed air supply the stroke of the riveter can be
Y
checked. Depress the operating button and the sliding barrel should extend for 25mm (1 in.).
Release the button and the exhaust of air from the riveter should be audible. At this stage the
EM
tail jaw assembly can be fully tightened in a clockwise direction which then holds the mandrel
stationary ready for use.
Faults on Fitted Chobert Rivet Assemblies
AD
The common faults in Chobert rivet assemblies are:
• Gap Between Head of Rivet and Surface of Material. Usually caused by allowing
AC
the riveter to recoil.
• Split Shank on the Rivet. Usually caused by not deburring the hole to a
satisfactory standard.
•
N
Using a sealing pin which is too long or too short.
O
• Rivet Loose in Hole. Usually caused by careless drilling or using an oversize drill.
TI
The radial expansion of a Chobert rivet is relatively small therefore a hole of the
correct size is important.
IA
Removal of Chobert Rivets

In order to remove a Chobert rivet the sealing pin is driven out using a pin punch of the
AV
appropriate size. The resulting hole acts as a drill guide and a twist drill, the same diameter as
the rivet shank, should be used.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Avdel Rivets
Avdel (Aviation Developments) rivets are a range of British blind fasteners which, when
specified, may be used for manufacture and repair of structural components. Similar fasteners
may be encountered on American built equipment.
Y
Avdel rivets are manufactured with either snap or countersunk heads. They are hollow rivets
EM
which are closed by a broaching process, each rivet being threaded on a mandrel of the break
stem type, the head of which applies a squeezing force, whilst the shank expands the rivets to
fill the rivet hole.
AD
On application of a force by the rivet gun the shank of the mandrel is pulled into the bore of the
rivet and the mandrel then breaks so that part of its shank remains in the rivet bore and thus
plugs the rivet and improves its shear strength. The protruding length of the mandrel is then cut
off and milled flush with the skin surface.
AC
The firmness of the mandrel should be tested with an Avdel Pin Tester, which has a spring
loaded retractable pin which is pre-set to 15 lbsf.
There should be no movement of the mandrel. Avdel rivets are lubricated by the manufacturer
N
to facilitate forming the rivet and so should never be cleaned in any type of solvent.
O
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Avdel part numbers consist of eight figures.
• First four figures - Product Code, defines the fastener type, head form, material and
surface treatment.
• Next two figures - Diameter Code, defines shank diameter in 32nd ins.
Y
• Last two figures - Length Code, defines rivet total length (P) in 32nd ins.
EM
Example:
4002-0510
4002 = Avdel self plugging rivet snaphead Al Alloy L86 anodised
AD
-05 = 5/32" diameter
10 = 5/16" long
The total length (P) determines the clearance required behind the fastener for installation. The
AC
grip length range is dictated by the shank length (L) and the length of the mandrel broach
section and can be found by reference to the manufacturers product data tables.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
Avdel Type Riveter

There are two types of Avdel riveting pliers in use: the type JA which is designed for one stroke
operation and the type H which has a ratchet operation so that it can be used in confined
spaces where only small, repeated handle movements are possible.
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
Avdel Type JA and H riveting pliers
AC
The type H also has long handles to permit riveting in locations which are remote from the
nearest available operating position. Both rivet pliers are capable, when fitted with the
appropriate size jaw and nosepiece assemblies, of setting aluminium alloy Avdel rivets of 3/16
in. diameter and smaller.
Avdel Hydro-Pneumatic Pull Tool Type 734 Series

O N
The Avdel Hydro-Pneumatic Tool Type 734 is a robust, high production tool developed for
the easy and rapid installation of up to and including 3/16” Avdel rivets. A compressed air
TI
supply of between 70 PSI and 100 PSI is required for placing rivets, however a minimum
of 85 PSI is required to place rivets of 5/32” and above.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
Avdel Hydro-Pneumatic Pull Tool Type 734 Series

HI

Specific points to be observed are:
 The air pressure applied to this tool shall not exceed 100 PSI.
 The tool shall not be operated without either a stem catcher assembly or an undamaged
pintail deflector fitted.
Y
 Always disconnect the airline from the tool inlet before attempting to adjust, add nose
EM
equipment or dismantle.
 Do not operate the tool without a nose casing fitted.
 Ensure that vent holes do not become blocked or covered.
Preparing for Operation
AD
Before using,
AC
 Check the tool for any damage
 Ensure the tool is equipped with the correct nose equipment to fit the rivet being placed.
 pour a small quantity of clean, light, lubricating oil into the air inlet of the tool.
Operation N
To place rivets with Pull Tool Type 734, ensure the correct nose piece is fitted for the size of
O
rivet to be placed, insert the rivet body into the prepared hole in the application, apply the pull
tool to the protruding rivet Stem and actuate the trigger. The tool cycle will ensure the rivet is
TI
placed.
IA
Alternatively, the rivet stem may be inserted onto the nose piece of the tool and the pull tool and
rivet then offered to the application. Again, actuation of the trigger will then operate the tool
setting
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Malfunction Cause
Several pulls required to set rivet 1. Check airline pressure at the tool.
(70-100psi required)
2. Tool requires lubrication at air inlet.
Y
3. Worn jaws or build up of dirt m
jaws.
EM
4. Broken jaws.
5. Tool requires Re-priming.
Jaws will not grip rivet stem 1. Worn jaws or build up of dirt in
jaws.
AD
2. Jaw housing loose. Tighten against
nylon locking ring.
3. Weak or broken jaw spreader
spring
AC
4. Incorrect nose equipment fitted -
replace as necessary.
5. Dirty, bent or broken mandrel
causing distortion of jaw spreader
O N
tube not permitting it to move
forward.
Jaws will not release spent rivet stem. 1. Dirty jaws/jaw housing. Clean and
re-lubricate.
TI
2. Jaw housing, nose tip or nose

casing not properly seated, Tighten
IA
nose equipment.
3. Weak or broken spring around jaw
spreader assembly.
AV
4. Tool over primed. re-prime as per

instructions.
Slow stroking tool 1. Lubricate tool through air inlet.
2. Check air pressure at the tool.
N
Spent rivet stem jamming in tool. 1. Incorrect jaw spreader fitted.

2. Bent or dirty jaw spreader tube.
TA
Avdel Hydro-Pneumatic Pull Tool Type 734 Series malfunctions

US
ND
HI

Mandrel Cropping Tool
The air operated cropping tool is used on Avdel rivets after they have been placed to cut off the
protruding mandrel stem.
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Avdel Mandrel cropping tools

IA
Operating the Cropping Tool. Before connecting an air supply to the tool check its jaws for
security and ensure that they are not damaged. Hold the tool with the handle uppermost and
AV
introduce about six drops of oil into the air inlet connection. Once the cropping tool is connected
to the air supply keep clear of the cutting jaws.
Rivet Miller
The rivet miller is air operated and used mainly for milling down the protruding portions of Avdel
N
rivet mandrels after most of the excess material has been removed with a pneumatic cropper or
with end-cutting pliers. It should be lubricated prior to use with 10-12 drops of OM13 oil.
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
To give the tool stability during milling, it has two spring-loaded, telescopic legs each fitted with
a rubber pad for providing a frictional grip on the work. The micrometer adjuster is used to move
N
the nosepiece mounting assembly in or out relative to the cutter to adjust the depth of act of the
miller. Adjustments can be made in increments of 0.00025 in., each increment being indicated
O
by one division on the scale inscribed around the adjuster.
TI
Operating the Rivet Miller. Any adjustments of its depth of cut should be made during trial
cuttings on a test piece. The test piece should be made from similar components to those of the
work. When using the miller it must be held very firmly and the cut applied gradually and
IA
smoothly, otherwise the tool will tend to be thrown away from the work. Particular care should
be taken when milling the mandrels of dome-headed Avdel rivets, not to mill into rivet head. The
AV
Miller can be used to mill flush countersunk solid rivets
Warning: The milling cutter revolves at 18,000 rpm and can cause severe injuries
Avdel Pin Tester

N
The pin tester is provided to enable proof loading of the mandrels of fitted rivets. Such tests are
important to prove that the mandrel will stand a pressure of not less than 15 lbf proof load
TA
without becoming loosened within the rivet. The device consists of a capped body, enclosing a
spring-loaded plunger, set to resist up to 15 lbf proof load. By application of hand pressure to
the cap (while the plunger is seated on the mandrel under test) until the plunger retract the test
may be satisfied. A visual examination of the security of the mandrel is then carried out. If a rivet
US
or rivet mandrel is loose or disturbed the rivet must be replaced.

ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
Avdel pin tester
AC
Removal of Avdel Rivets. To remove an Avdel rivet the mandrel is driven out using a pin
punch of the appropriate size. The resulting hole acts as a drill guide for the drill which should
be of the same diameter as the rivet shank. Drill off the head of the rivet then punch out the rivet
O N
shank. Bear in mind that all of the resultant FOD must be collected.
Disposal of Rivet Mandrels. Both Avdel and Tucker pop rivets once formed leave spend
mandrels which become a FOD hazard. These mandrels must be therefore collected and
TI
disposed of.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

American Blind Rivets
Self-Plugging (Friction Lock) Rivets

These are very similar to the Avdel rivet. They are manufactured in two parts. A rivet head with
Y
a hollow shank and a stem that extends through the shank.
EM
Several events, in their proper sequence, occur when a pulling force is applied to the stem of
the rivet.
 The stem is pulled into the rivet shank.
AD
 The mandrel portion of the stem forces the rivet shank to expand.
 When the pulling action pressure becomes too great it will cause the stem to snap
at a break-notch groove on the mandrel.
AC
The plug portion of the mandrel is retained in the shank of the rivet giving the rivet a much
greater shear strength than could be obtained from a hollow rivet.
The stem of the self-plugging (friction lock) rivet may have a knob on the upper portion, or it
may have a serrated portion.
N
For a smooth or aerodynamically clean surface the protruding portion of the stem may be milled
O
flush with the rivet head.
TI
Self-Plugging (Friction Lock) Rivet

Inspection
IA
The inspection of installed self-plugging

(friction lock) rivets is very limited. Often
the only inspection that can be made is
AV
on the manufactured head of the rivet. It

should fit tightly against the metal. The
stem of the rivet should be trimmed flush
with the head of the rivet whether it is a
protruding head or a countersunk head.
N
If you can see the shop formed head side

TA
of the installed rivet, inspect it for the

requirements illustrated. When the rivet
head is considered unsatisfactory,
US
remove the rivet and install another in its

place.
ND
HI

Pull Through Rivets
This type of mechanically expanded rivet is similar to the Chobert and is used as a tacking rivet
to attach assemblies to hollow tubes, and as a grommet. It differs from most other blind rivets in
that the stem pulls completely through the sleeve of the rivet during installation.
Y
Pull-through rivets are structurally weak because of the hollow centre after installation is
EM
completed. The Figure below illustrates a typical pull through rivet before and after installation.
In closing pull-through rivets the following sequence of events take place:

• The stem is pulled through the rivet shank.
AD
• The mandrel portion of the stem forces the shank to expand forming the blind head and
filling the pre-drilled hole in the job completely.
It is important that the hole drilled to take the rivet is of the correct size.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Self-Plugging (Mechanical Lock) Rivets
Self-plugging, mechanical lock rivets are similar to the old British Avdel and American self-
plugging, friction lock rivets, except for the manner in which they are retained in the material.
This type of rivet has a positive mechanical locking feature that resists vibration that would
Y
cause the mandrel of friction lock rivets to loosen and possibly fall out. Also the mechanical
locking type rivet stem breaks off flush with the head and usually does not require further stem
EM
trimming when properly installed. Self plugging, mechanical lock rivets display all the strength
characteristics of solid shank rivets and in almost all cases can be substituted rivet for rivet.
They are made by a variety of manufacturers including Huck, Olympic, Avdel and Cherry
AD
Fasteners but each type must be installed using tooling specified by that manufacturer.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Cherry Rivets
These are self-plugging mechanical lock rivets manufactured by Textron Fastening Systems.
During the final stages of forming, the locking collar, located in a recess in the rivet head or
mandrel, is forced into a groove in the stem and prevents the stem from further movement.
Y
Alternative types of blind head may be formed by 'wire-draw‟ and „bulbed‟ fasteners. The only
practical difference between these types is that the bulbed rivet stem has a stepped head, and
EM
the finished blind head is flatter and broader, while the wire-draw rivet has better hole filling
properties.
After forming, the stem may protrude slightly beyond the rivet head and this excess, plus part of
AD
the locking collar, may be milled off to provide a flush finish.
CherryLOCK rivets are installed using hand or power operated tools, and it is important that the
tools are fitted with the correct type of head for the particular size or type of rivet. Details are
AC
normally supplied by either the aircraft or tool manufacturer.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Intentionally Blank
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

CherryMAX Rivets
General
CherryMAX rivets are the same in principle as CherryLOCKs however they are manufactured
Y
with an anvil washer fitted to the stem adjacent to the head. This anvil is designed to form the
bearing surface between the tool and the fastener head, pushing the lock ring into place when
EM
the rivet is formed. The advantage of this is that the same tool head can be used for both
universal and countersunk rivets.
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Cherry Rivet Head Styles
Both CherryLOCK and CherryMAX, wire-draw and bulbed rivets are available in a range of
head styles for different applications as shown.
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Cherry Rivet Specifications
Cherry rivets are identified by a part number derived from either a National Aerospace
Standards (NAS) or Textron Cherry (CR) specification. These specifications are
interchangeable and a conversion table may be used to determine equivalent parts.
Y
In both cases the part number is the specification system code then a four figure number
EM
followed by dash numbers indicating the diameter in thirty seconds of an inch and the maximum
grip length in sixteenths of an inch. Additional letters may be replace the dashes to carry extra
information.
AD
Wire-draw CherryLOCK rivets are available in 1/32" nominal diameter increments of -3 ( 3/32 or
0.094), -4, -5, -6 and -8 (1/4 or 0.250), and also 1/64" oversizes for repairs.
Bulbed CherryLOCKs are manufactured 1/64" over nominal size and are available in three
AC
diameters, -4 (0.140); -5 (0.173) and -6(0.201). In most cases the increased bearing area and
high strength stem enables Bulbed CherryLOCKs to replace solid rivets. The oversize sleeve is
also ideal for repair or replacement of nominal blind or non-blind fasteners of all types.
Both wire-draw and bulbed CherryMAX fasteners are available in diameters of -4 (1/8 or 0.125),
-5, -6 and -8 plus 1/64" oversizes.
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Example; NAS1738B5-4 (bulbed CherryLOCK)
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is equivalent to CR2249-5-4
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while CR4173-5-04 (wire-draw CherryMAX)
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Hole Preparation for Cherry Rivets
As with solid rivets, hole preparation is of the utmost importance. Holes should be drilled with a
sharp, true running bit of the correct size, perpendicular to the surface. Sheets must be clamped
firmly together to prevent the accumulation of swarf between them.
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Countersinking must be accurate to ensure proper protrusion and head formation. When
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countersinking for oversize repair fasteners and bulbed CherryLOCKs the pilot pin must be no
more than 0.010" smaller than the hole to ensure concentricity. The countersunk sheet must be
at least 0.010" thicker than the head thickness to ensure adequate strength.
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Cherry Rivet Selection
Grip length refers to the maximum total sheet thickness to be riveted and is measured in 16ths
of an inch. This is identified by the second dash number. All Cherrylock Rivets have their grip
length (maximum grip) marked on the rivet head, and have a total grip range of 1/16 of an inch
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(example : -4 grip rivet has a grip range of 0.188" to 0.250").
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To determine the proper grip rivet to use, measure the material thickness with a Cherry Selector
gauge as shown below. Always read to the next higher number.
Alternatively, if the total thickness of the material is known the correct fastener grip length can
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be determined from manufacturer furnished tables.
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Cherry Installation
Cherry rivets may be installed using either hand or power operated tools. It is important to use
the correct tooling for the Cherry rivets being installed.
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CherryLOCK rivet power tools, as illustrated right, require a puller and sleeve of the right head
style and size for each type of rivet. The sleeve face must be clean and undamaged to ensure
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correct formation
CherryMAX rivets are manufactured with an anvil washer in place so the same tool, shown
below, can be used for all head styles and sizes.
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The holes in the sheets to be fastened must be of correct size and aligned properly. Do not
force the rivet into the hole.
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In limited blind clearance applications, the manufactured head of the standard Cherrylock can
protrude above the top sheet and will pull down to the sheet as the stem is pulled in. The
minimum blind clearance is the “BK” dimension, and is listed on Cherry standards pages.
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Cherry Rivet Inspection
As with all blind rivets, inspection of the installed fastener is usually limited to the manufactured
head. Providing the rivet is tight and meets the flushness, protrusion and seating requirements it
may be considered serviceable. These limits are listed in the Structural Repair Manual.
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CherryLOCK and CherryMAX Removal
Care must be taken when removing Cherry rivets. If an attempt is made to drill the head off
without removing the lock ring, it will spin in the head and prevent the drill from cutting.
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It is usually necessary to drill out part of the pin to relieve the locking feature before punching it
back. The lock ring may then be prized out and the head drilled nearly through and carefully
prized off. The remainder of the rivet can then be punched out.
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Imex Rivets
Introduction
The Imex blind rivet is similar to the conventional pop rivet but has a permanently sealed end
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which completely encloses the mandrel head. When the rivet is set, the rapid radial expansion
of the formed head ensures a joint which is pressure tight up to 34 bar (500 lbf/in2).
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Description
Imex rivets are supplied with domed or countersunk heads. The countersunk heads are
normally 120o, but 100o heads are manufactured for a limited range of rivet sizes. Mandrels are
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supplied as short break or long break types and mandrel heads remain permanently captured
when formed. When the long break mandrel fractures, it does so outside the rivet and the
protruding portion must be cropped off and sanded to achieve a flush finish.
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Not all materials are suitable for use with Imex rivets as the rapid expansion of the formed head
is unsatisfactory in very soft or very brittle materials. For this reason the appropriate air
publication must be consulted.
Imex rivets are manufactured from 5 per cent magnesium aluminium alloy to BS L58.
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Identification
The code sequence used for Imex rivets is as follows:
 Material (A for aluminium alloy).

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 Type of Head (D for domed-head, K for countersunk-head).

 Rivet Diameter (in 1/32 in increments).
 Rivet grip length (in 1/32 in increments).
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Type of mandrel (no additional code for short-break, letter R added for reinforced long-break
mandrel).

A typical code reference is Imex rivet AD46R.
AD - Aluminium alloy rivet, domed head.

4 - Rivet diameter 1/8 in.
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6 - Rivet grip length 3/16 in.
R - Long break mandrel (reinforced).
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Fitting Imex Rivets
The broaching of Imex rivets can be performed using standard pop riveting tools with the
addition of a special nose piece. With the TTIB the letter identification of the Imex nose pieces
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are E, F and 0, 1/8 in, 5/32 in and 3/16 in respectively.
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Removing Imex Rivets

To remove an Imex rivet, the mandrel is driven out using a pin punch of the appropriate size.
The resulting hole acts as a drill guide for the drill which should be of the same diameter as the
rivet shank. Drill off the head of the rivet and punch out the rivet shank.
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Huck Blind Rivets
Introduction
Huck rivets are very similar to Cherrylock rivets in that they have mandrels which are also
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mechanically locked in position with collars when the rivets are broached.
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Description
The Huck rivet comprises three separate items, a sleeve having a pre-formed head, a
mechanical lock collar and a spindle on which the sleeve and lock collar are mounted.
The sleeves are normally supplied in either 1000 countersunk or protruding (snap) head types.
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Annular grooves on the spindle shank provide a secure grip for the puller tool during setting.
As the rivet is set the spindle is drawn into the sleeve forming the blind head of the rivet. During
the final stages of setting, the mechanical lock collar is pressed into the lock groove in the
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spindle, thereby securing the spindle in position. Continued tension on the spindle causes it to
fracture flush with the rivet head
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Identification of Huck Rivets

The maximum grip length number is stamped on the head of each Huck rivet and its grip range
extends to 1/16 in from the length represented by that number. A typical part number is as
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follows:
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Identification number: MLS - P - M5 - 6C

ML - Mechanically locked mandrel
S - Self plugging
P - Protruding (domed) head
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M - Monel metal
5 - Rivet diameter in increments of 1/32 in. = 5/32 in.
6 - Maximum grip length in increments of 1/16 in. = 3/8 in.
C - Cadmium plated finish
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Pin Rivets and Lockbolts
General
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Pin rivets and lockbolts are structural fasteners which are similar in principle and are commonly
used in aircraft construction.
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They are manufactured by several companies such as Huck and Hi- Shear to a variety of
specifications and are often referred to by the manufacturers name (e.g. "Huck Bolts")
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The basic fastener is a pin with a head at one end and one or more grooves at the other. It is
used in conjunction with a mating collar. When the fastener is installed, the collar is swaged into
the grooves, locking it in place.
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Pin rivets require the head to be held with a bucking bar while a rivet gun fitted with the collar
forming die is used to swage the collar into place.
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Lockbolts have a frangible shank at the grooved end of the pin. Once the pin has been inserted
into the prepared hole and the collar is threaded on to it, the installation gun is applied to the
shank. The action of the gun is to pull on the shank and force the collar into the die on the front
of the gun. At a predetermined tension the shank brakes leaving a fully formed fastener. In
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some designs the puller cuts excess collar material off.
Their main disadvantage is that they do not have the hole filling properties of solid and blind
rivets.
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Hi-Shear Fasteners
Introduction
Hi-Shear pins are used to effect a saving in weight while retaining the full shear strength of an
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equivalent size bolt. When setting Hi-Shear pins there is also a considerable reduction in time
as opposed to fitting split pinned bolts. Access is required for both sides of the structure.
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Hi-Shear pins and collars

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Collars
In production, the collars are impregnated with a special lubricant to ensure satisfactory closing.
Collars are available in only one length for each diameter of pin, any excess length being
trimmed automatically during riveting by the Hi-Shear Set.
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Pins
The pins are available with flat or countersunk heads and in a range of diameters and lengths.
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Pin lengths for rivets of 3/16 in. diameter and above are supplied in 1/16in. increments and for
diameters below 3/16in. in 1/32in. increments.
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Hi-Shear pin length increments

As the pin lengths are graduated in 1/16 in. or 1/32 in. increments, depending on diameter, the
material thickness can vary 1/16 in. or 1/32 in. respectively without changing pin lengths.
Adjustment for variations of material thickness in between the pin lengths is made automatically
by trimming the collar to the required length while the rivet is driven as shown.
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In this Minimum Grip
example, the collar edge In this Maximum Grip
example, the collar edge is
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extends slightly beyond
the trimming edge of the well beyond the trimming
pin edge of the pin
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Hi-Shear pin grip variations

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Variations in Material Thickness

In addition to flat or countersunk-headed pins Hi-Shear dowel pins are manufactured for
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application to sloping surfaces. Where the face of the metal on both sides of the joint is out
normal to the centre line of the pin, the collars adapt themselves to the surfaces as the pins are
set.
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Hi-Shear collars on sloping surfaces

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Hi-Shear Pins Fitting
The collars are driven with standard riveting guns or squeezers fitted with a Hi-Shear set. The
set is designed with a hollow centre with a discharge port through which severed portions of the
trimmed collar are ejected. As the collar is swaged into the pin groove, the pin trimming edge
severs that portion of collar which remains above the trimming edge.
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Hi-Shear Collar Forming Sequence

When the pin is inserted it should be checked for correct length before driving. After ensuring
that the mating faces of the materials to be pinned are in close contact with each other check
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the pin length in the hole for minimum grip, apply the collar over the end of the pin and ensure
that the pin trimming edge does not show above the collar.
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Hi-Shear Grip Checks
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Hi-Shear Pin Removal
There are four methods suitable for the removal of Hi-Shear pins. Whichever removal method
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is adopted the aim should be to retain the original hole size without damaging the structure.
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Hi-Shear fastener removal

Hi-Shear Pin Setting Faults
Faults and methods of correction, when setting Hi-Shear pins are shown.
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Pins and collars are produced from a variety of materials depending on the application in which
they will be used.

Collar Removal
When removing either type of fastener the collar must be destroyed. This may be done with a
chisel, which is used to split the collar, or the correct size of collar cutter which is fitted into a
pneumatic drill. In both cases, great care must be taken not to damage surrounding skin and
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structure.
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When these fasteners have been removed for maintenance or repair purposes they are
normally replaced with Hi-Loks or other threaded fasteners.
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Huckbolts
Introduction
Huckbolt fasteners are designed for use in high strength structural joints where access is
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available from both sides of the structure. A Huckbolt is not a bolt in the accepted sense as it is
not threaded; it is really a form of shear pin which is secured by the cold swaging of a metal
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collar into annular locking grooves on the stud.
Description
Two types of Huckbolt fasteners are used, a pin type using a long serrated pin for use where a
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puller tool can be used, and a stump type having a short serrated pin for use with a swaging set
where operating space is limited. Both types are basically the same except for the length of the
pins and each use the same metal collar. The pin is manufactured of cadmium plated steel or
anodised aluminium alloy with a variety of head styles including pan, countersunk and crown
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head.
Collars are produced in anodised aluminium alloy or cadmium-plated mild steel. The recessed
end of the collar is applied to the face of the work. All collars are supplied lubricated to assist
the swaging process.
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A Huckbolt can, when required, be applied to work with an interference fit; this makes it
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unnecessary for holes to be reamed subsequent to drilling, and ensures fuel and watertight
joints.
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Identification
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Huckbolt fasteners, both pin and stump type are manufactured in a range of shank diameters
and grip lengths and can be identified as follows. The basic part number denotes the type i.e.
1446 for pin type and 1426 for sump type, the dash number indicates the grip length is 1/16 in
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(0.0625 in) increments. N after the basic number denotes Nickel-cadmium plating. M after the
basic number denotes a sealant escape groove. For the diameters and grip ranges, the relevant
tables should be consulted.
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Huckbolt Setting (Pin Type)
These Huckbolts are set by pneumatically or manually-operated pull guns. The pin is inserted
as far as possible and the collar applied. If the pin is an interference fit it may be necessary to
tap the pin into the hole until the shank is gripped by the gun jaws. As the gun is operated the
pin is drawn towards the gun and reaction is applied to the collar by a swaging anvil in the nose
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of the gun. The strong clenching action of the operation makes sheet grippers unnecessary
other than for local registration. After the swaging anvil forces the collar into the pin locking
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grooves it begins to retract as pressure on the collar is transferred to a second head within the
gun, which eventually fractures the pin at the break neck, flush with the outer face of the collar.
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Huckbolt Setting-Pin Type

Huckbolt Setting (Stump Type)
The stump type of Huckbolt is set with a swaging set. The stump (short pin) is inserted into an
interference hole and driven in with a hammer or air hammer. The collar is placed over the
stump and a bucking bar placed against the head of the stump. The swaging set is placed over
the collar and is driven using an air hammer, swaging the collar into the fastener locking
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grooves. When the swaging set meets the material being fastened, the stump and collar are
fully locked in a permanent, integral unit.
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Huckbolt removal
The simplest test form or removal is to split the collar axially with a narrow-bladed chisel and
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drive out the pin with a parallel punch.

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Blind Bolts
General
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In areas where access is restricted but a high strength joint is required various special close
tolerance fasteners can be used. Examples of these fasteners, collectively known as a blind
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bolts, are trade name identifiable by names such as:
• Jo-bolt
• Accu-lok
AD
• Visu-Lok
The basic requirements of all blind bolts are that they are high strength, close tolerance, torque
loading controlled blind fasteners which may have the added feature of being magnetically
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influenced to assist in FOD pickup in blind area situations.
Generally speaking they are one man, one tool operated. The tool holds the expander nut head
while turning a frangible stem of the core bolt. This drives the sleeve over the expander nut until
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it contacts the rear face of the skin. At a pre-determined torque the stem shears flush with the
expander nut head. The tool is calibrated to shear the fastener at the same torque value every
time.
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Blind bolts are available as countersunk and protruding head styles, produced in stainless steel
or titanium to give strength without weight. Lightweight aluminium alloy bolts are also used in
honeycomb panel and secondary structural areas. Some are equipped with lock rings similar to
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those on Cherry fasteners.
For repair purposes, unless otherwise stated, use of blind bolts is usually restricted to time
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limited repairs.
In blind applications, inspection is limited to head seating, stem flushness and lock ring
engagement where applicable.
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Jo-Bolts
Introduction
Jo-Bolts is the trade name for a fastener which is used where a nut and bolt would normally be
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fitted but where access is available from one side only with the additional advantages of being
self-locking at a pre-determined torque and is less weight than a nut and bolt. The Jo-Bolts are
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available with a hexagonal or countersunk headed nut.
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Driving Tool
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Hand ratchet tools are supplied for fitment of Jo-Bolts. One for the 3/16 in. and 1/4 in. both and
one for the 5/16 in. bolts.
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Installation of Jo-Bolts
As with most blind rivets, the total thickness of the material (Grip Range) must be ascertain
before fitting a Jo-Bolt. Jo-Bolts are supplied pre-lubricated and must not be degreased before
fitment. When a Jo-Bolt is fitted with the driving tool, the ratchet tool nosepiece holds the head
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of the nut stationary as the tail end of the Jo-Bolt is rotated. Further rotation of the tail end
causes the sleeve to expand over the taper to clench the sheet metal and form a head on the
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blind side of the work. For production work the Jo-Bolt is normally set by a power operated tool.
At a pre-determined torque the tail end fractures.
Jo-Bolt Selection Gauge

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The correct length of Jo-bolt fastener can be determined by the use of a Jo-bolt selection
gauge. This tool fits through the drilled hole and indicates the thickness of the material to be
joined, the scale corresponding to the last two digits of the part number (Grip Range) of the
fastener. This tool must not be confused with the Cherry-Max grip selection tool.
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Jo-Bolt grip measuring tool and Jo-Bolt fitting operation

Check for Looseness of Jo-Bolts

After fitting Jo-Bolts, each may be individually checked for looseness. The nosepiece of the
driving tool may be adapted to a torque wrench in order to determine the looseness of the Jo-
Bolt. This torque must be applied in a counter-clockwise direction. A maximum torque value is
applied dependent upon the size of the fastener:
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 3/16 in. units-6 lbf in.
 1/4 in. units - l0lbfi n.
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 5/16 in. units - 20 lbf in.
Removing Jo-Bolts
In order to remove a Jo-Bolt a certain degree of accuracy and support is needed throughout the
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drilling stage due to the hardness of the fastener. In order to enable this requirement to be met
a Jo-Bolt removal tool is used. These are available for all three sizes of countersunk and
hexagon headed Jo-Bolts. Each tool consists of two drill guides that are designed to engage
with the head of the Jo-Bolt. One end of the tool is for use with a pilot drill and the other for the
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final drill size.
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Jo-Bolt Removal Tool

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Rivnuts
These fasteners were produced to attach rubber de-icing boots to aircraft wing and tail leading
edges. Rivnuts can be either of the countersunk or flat head types and can have open or sealed
ends .
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Installation is achieved by drilling a hole into the skin with a small notch made on the edge of
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the hole to prevent the Rivnut rotating during installation. The Rivnut is screwed onto the thread
of the pulling tool, and is inserted into the hole, with the key aligned with the notch.
The pulling tool handle is squeezed, closing the nut and gripping the skin. The tool is then
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unscrewed from the Rivnut, leaving a threaded hole to accept a screw or bolt of the appropriate
size.
These Rivnuts are available in six grip ranges, the minimum grip Rivnut having a plain head
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while the next size has a radial dash mark on the head. Each succeeding grip range is indicated
by an additional radial mark on the head with the largest size having five radial dash marks.
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Threaded Pin Fasteners
General
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Another class of permanent structural fastener is the threaded pin type. This is a close tolerance
threaded fastener which is secured by a threaded collar or nut. It combines the best features of
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a rivet and a bolt and is classed as permanent because one or both elements must be
destroyed on removal and the surviving parts are not reusable. It provides a light weight, high
quality joint and can be quickly installed by a single operator.
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The Hi-Lok fastening system is a threaded pin system originally marketed by the Hi-Shear
Corporation. It is used as a transition or interference fit fastener in a drilled and reamed hole to
obtain the maximum fatigue life of the structure.
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The Hi-Lok fastener has either a flush or protruding head with no driving facilities (flats, slots
etc). The threaded end, however, has a hexagonal recess into which an Allen key can be fitted.
The mating part is a threaded collar with an unthreaded recess at one end to accommodate the
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fastener shank, and a frangible hexagonal driving section at the other end.
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Hi-Lok / Hi Tigue Fasteners
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Hi-Lok fasteners are available in a range of sizes and styles, manufactured from a variety of
materials including aluminium alloy, corrosion resistant steel and titanium. Depending on the
material, they may be anodised, cadmium plated, aluminium coated or passivated for corrosion
protection. The threads are usually treated with cetyl alcohol lubricant (CAL) during manufacture
and must not be cleaned before use.
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The Hi-lok / Hi-tique fastener combines the best features of a rivet and a bolt. The three main
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advantages include:
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• A controlled pre-load or clamp up which is consistent to within a 10% error.

• Minimum size and weight.
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• Simple, quiet and rapid installation, carried out by one man from one side of
the work.
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Both protruding and flush headed fasteners are made with 'tension' and reduced diameter
'shear' heads. Both fastener and hole can be measured using a Hi-Lok gauge.
It is sometimes permissible to use grip length adjustment washers under the collar or, when
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chamfered, under a protruding head. You should consult the Structural Repair Manual (SRM)
for details of material compatibility and limitations.
Whenever a Hi-Lok is removed, it must be replaced by a fastener with an oversize shank. After
inspection for damage, the hole is reamed to accommodate the new fastener. Oversize
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fasteners are available in 1st (1/64"), 2nd (1/32") and 3rd (3/64") oversize above nominal.

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Hi-Lok Collars
The mating part is usually a collar, made in matching sizes and materials. The standard collar
with a frangible hexagonal drive is available in both tension and shear forms, the difference
being the diameter and bearing area of the base. The threaded section includes a locking
feature, in the form of thread distortion, to prevent loosening when installed.
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Self-sealing collars with a Teflon insert are used in wet areas such as fuel tanks while self-
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aligning collars with a radiused under surface and a dished washer are used on tapering
surfaces.
In areas with restricted access it is permissible to use stiff nuts on Hi- Lok pins but this should
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be kept to a minimum because of the increased weight and reduced strength of the assembly.
It is important that the correct combination of fastener and collar is used to ensure optimum
strength, weight and corrosion resistance. Particular care must be taken when fitting oversize
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fasteners as standard collars will not accommodate the larger shank diameter.
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Hi-Lok Installation
The fastener hole must always be reamed to ensure the correct fit of the Hi-Lok pin. The fit is
determined by the type of material and the hole size is stated in the SRM. It is normally an
interference or transition fit in metals and a slight clearance in composite materials. New holes
will be drilled undersize and then reamed, existing holes will be reamed oversize. Holes for flush
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headed fasteners must be countersunk , while those for protruding head fasteners must be
radiused or chamfered to accommodate the small fillet radius where the shank joins the head.
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The fastener is usually installed 'wet' with sealant and is inserted into the prepared hole and
seated. This may require a tap with a hammer and a soft drift, the collar must not be used to
draw or pull the fastener through the hole. Fastener protrusion may be checked with protrusion
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gauges, as shown below, before the collar is installed.
The collar is then fitted onto the thread and hand tightened until the locking feature begins to
engage. Further tightening is accomplished with tooling. While the collar is torqued, the fastener
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is prevented from spinning by a key in the hex slot. When the pre-determined torque loading is
reached the hexagonal portion shears off of the collar. The hex portion must always be removed
from the aircraft structure.
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During manufacture powered tooling is usually used, but for repair, hand tools are often more
appropriate. The collar can be tightened using a socket and special ratchet with a hole to
accommodate the Allen key. In areas of restricted access, a spanner and Allen key can be
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used.
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Hi-Lok Removal
To disassemble a Hi-Lok fastener the collar must be removed. This may be done in several
ways.
If there is adequate clearance the collar can sometimes be unscrewed with pliers or an
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eccentric cam type toothed Hi-Lok Removal tool. If there is end-on access, a collar cutter fitted
in a drill can be used to remove the threaded portion. Another method is to use a chisel to split
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the collar taking care not to damage the structure. Once the collar is removed the bolt can be
driven out with a punch and both parts discarded.
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Other Threaded Pin Fasteners
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Hi-Lite, Radius Lead-In and Eddie Bolt.
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The Hi-Lite is essentially a Hi-Lok pin with the transition area between the threaded portion and
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the shank reduced in depth to save weight. They must be used with Hi-Lite collars which are
similar to Hi-Loc ones but are designed to accommodate the shorter screw thread.
The Radius Lead-In fastener is similar to the Hi-Lok but has a radiused shank transition portion
and an oversized shank. It is manufactured under trade names such as Hi-Tigue. It is fitted into
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a reamed interference hole and, as it is driven in, the radiused section broaches the hole, cold
working the surrounding material. This improves the fatigue characteristics of the joint. Collars
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are similar to, but not interchangeable with, Hi-Lok collars.

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Another fastener similar to the Hi-Lok is the Swage Locking/Fluted Shank collar and pin
sometimes known as the 'Eddie' bolt. The pin has a radiused transition similar to the Hi-Tigue,
and flutes at the end of the threaded portion, while the mating collar has three lobes on the
outside.
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installation socket. When a predetermined torque is reached, the socket deforms the lobes,
forcing collar material into the flutes. This acts as the locking device and has the advantage that
no debris is produced.
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Tapered Shank Fasteners
Tapered shank fasteners such as Taper-Loks are used because they provide a much greater
fatigue life than most other fasteners. This is particularly important in wing structures which
require high strength as well as flexibility. They also provide a fluid tight seal. They are an
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interference fit fastener, the fit being achieved by driving the tapered fastener shank into a
tapered hole. The close tolerance dimensions of the hole are controlled by the use of a special
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reaming tool. Forcing the fastener into the hole cold works the surrounding material.
Manufactured in flush and protruding head styles from various materials, they have no driving or
holding facilities, relying on the taper fit to prevent rotation during tightening.
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The taper ratio is 1:48 or 0.25 inches of diameter for each foot of shank length and the fasteners
are specified by grip length and nominal thread diameter because of the variation in shank
diameter. This also means that head size varies with grip length so countersink diameters must
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be carefully controlled.
The mating part is usually a hexagonal or bi-hexagonal nut with an integral washer which must
be torque loaded. Self-aligning nuts are also available.
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adjustable micro-stop type holder. It is set up by testing on scrap material to ensure correct
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taper and countersink diameter. Stepped protrusion gauges are used to check the head
protrusion when the fastener is installed with finger pressure. It may then be driven flush and
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the nut installed and torqued.

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When they are removed they are normally replaced with an oversized fastener of the same
type, however occasionally a Hi-Lok or Radius Lead-In fastener may be substituted in
accordance with the SRM.
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Fastener Inspection
All threaded pin fasteners must be subjected to inspection after installation. Heads must be
checked for seating, and in the case of flush heads, protrusion. Collars must be checked for
seating and thread protrusion. Details of the limits to be applied to these inspections are found
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in the Structural Repair Manual.
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Module 6
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Licence Category N
A, B1, B2 and B3
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6.6 Pipes and Unions

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Module 6.6 Pipes and Unions 6.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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LEVEL 2
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examples.
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subject.
subject.
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LEVEL 3
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manner.
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instructions.
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Table of Contents
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6.6 Pipes and Unions ________________________________________________________ 9
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General __________________________________________________________________ 9
Safety __________________________________________________________________ 10
Rigid Pipes ______________________________________________________________ 11
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Pipe Couplings __________________________________________________________ 12
Flaring ________________________________________________________________ 15
Flareless Coupling _______________________________________________________ 18
Brazed Nipple Coupling ___________________________________________________ 22
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Low Pressure Couplings __________________________________________________ 23
Fabrication, Repair and Installation of Fluid Lines _______________________________ 24
Bending _______________________________________________________________ 25
Testing of Rigid Pipes ____________________________________________________ 28
Installation and inspection of Rigid Pipes______________________________________ 29
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Pressure Testing of Pipes _________________________________________________ 30
Plumbing Installation _____________________________________________________ 31
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Flexible Hoses ___________________________________________________________ 33
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General _______________________________________________________________ 33
Low-Pressure Hoses _____________________________________________________ 33
Medium-Pressure Hoses __________________________________________________ 33
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High-Pressure Hoses _____________________________________________________ 34

End Couplings __________________________________________________________ 35
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Maintenance Practices for Aircraft Hose ______________________________________ 42

Inspection of Fluid Line Systems ____________________________________________ 44
British Standard Pipe and Hose Marking Scheme ______________________________ 45
Pipe and Hose Unions_____________________________________________________ 49
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General _______________________________________________________________ 49
Aircraft General Standards (AGS) ___________________________________________ 50
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Airforce and Navy (AN) ___________________________________________________ 50

Military Standard (MS) ____________________________________________________ 50
Other Standards ________________________________________________________ 50
Quick-Release Couplings _________________________________________________ 51
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Banjo Coupling _________________________________________________________ 52

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Objective
Pipes and Unions 6.6
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Identification of, and types of rigid and flexible (a) 2 2 2 2
pipes and their connectors used in aircraft
Standard unions for aircraft hydraulic, fuel, oil, (b) 2 2 1 2
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pneumatic and air system pipes
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6.6 Pipes and Unions
General
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Pipes and hoses can be called upon to carry a wide variety of different fluids within an aircraft,
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including fuel, hydraulic and engine oils, de-icing fluids, pitot and static air.
The pressure within these pipes can vary from ambient to 400 MPa (400 bar or 6000 PSI). All
pipes and hoses must be manufactured, installed and connected so that no leaks occur in
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service, because a leak in a very low-pressure pitot air tube can be just as dangerous as a leak
in an extremely high- pressure hydraulic line.
Rigid pipelines are, generally, made from stainless steel, Tungum (Trade name for a high-
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tensile, copper alloy) and aluminium alloy. Replacement pipelines are, usually, supplied by the
manufacturer, ready for installation, with the pipe bent to the correct curvature and the pipe
ends flared and provided with the appropriate end fittings.
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In certain circumstances, it may be permissible to manufacture new pipelines from lengths of
pipe. A new pipeline will be made, by cutting the basic pipe to the correct length, attaching the
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correct couplings and expanding the ends by the use of a flaring tool.
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Requests for the basic pipe material will require details of the:
 Metal specification (DTD, BS, AN etc.)

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 Outside diameter (OD)

 Gauge of the wall thickness (SWG)
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 Length of pipe required.
Flexible hoses are obtained from the aircraft manufacturer using the aircraft’s Illustrated Parts
Catalogue (IPC). It is possible that, in certain circumstances, a replacement hose can be
manufactured in a workshop or hose bay. Approval to manufacture the replacement hose must
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be sought from the aircraft’s manufacturer.

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Safety
Before commencing any work on installed pipes and hoses it is essential that adequate safety
measures are taken.
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Most large aircraft hydraulic systems operate at a pressure of around 2000 PSI while the Airbus
A380 operates at 5000 PSI These pressures can cause serious or fatal injury if the correct
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precautions are not taken. Even pressurised air and water can be harmful.
Hydraulic fluids and fuels are irritants which can cause moderate to severe damage to sensitive
skin and particularly the eyes.
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Spilt oil and fuel which is not cleaned up produces a slip hazard on the ramp or hangar floor,
while there is also a fire hazard associated with both under certain circumstances.
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Any contamination which enters a system's pipework can cause damage and premature failure,
possibly with catastrophic consequences.
Therefore:

placarded before disassembly.
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Always ensure sources of pressure are isolated and control switches or levers are clearly
 Allow residual pressure to dissipate and exercise extreme caution when loosening
couplings.
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 Always wear eye protection when disassembling connections, working near pressurised
systems and leak checking after reconnections.
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 Wear suitable protective gloves and barrier creams when working with fluids.
 Spillages should always be cleaned up. Large spillages may require specialist assistance
from the fire brigade.
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 Blank all connections when pipes are removed. If it is possible that the system will be
operated before a replacement pipe is installed, fit pressure blanks and torque tighten
them.
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Rigid Pipes
Rigid pipes are manufactured from aluminium alloys, carbon steel, corrosion resistant or
stainless steel and titanium. Stainless steel tubing is used extensively on gas turbine engine fuel
systems and high pressure hydraulic systems, particularly undercarriage systems which are
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exposed to debris thrown up by the wheels. Aluminium alloys are often used for lower
temperature air and hydraulic return lines in protected areas. Titanium is used for high pressure,
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high temperature applications.
The tubing used is generally of the seamless type and is specified by material, outside diameter
and wall thickness.
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Pipes are manufactured as complete assemblies and are formed in jigs to ensure that the pipe
will fit accurately in accordance with a particular drawing.
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Because of the wide range of materials used and the problems of heat treatments that may be
applicable before/after bending and flaring, it is not generally permissible to manufacture or
repair a rigid pipe outside a specialist workshop.
However, some field repairs can be carried out when the necessary approvals have been
issued. Always consult the relevant manual.
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Pipe Couplings
Where pipes are required to join together, or to system components couplings or unions are
used. The various types of coupling include;
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High pressure types:
 Flared coupling
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 Flareless coupling
 Brazed nipple coupling
Low pressure types:
 Rubber hose coupling
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 Low pressure coupling
Flared Couplings
This was the most common type of coupling but is less popular on newer aircraft. The pipe is
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flared during manufacture and is used with a nipple and collar to enable connection with a plain
union . It is sometimes used without a nipple when connected to a cone union. A nipple with two
cones is used on pipe to pipe connections.
The angle of flare on a rigid pipe will depend on the origin of the pipe, as follows:
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Pipes manufactured to the British AGS specifications have an included flare angle of 32
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degrees.
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Pipes manufactured to American AN specifications have an included flare angle of 74 degrees.
Pipes manufactured to Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) specifications have an included

angle of 90 degrees. This flare angle must not be used on aircraft pipes.
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Note: Flaring leaves the pipe in a stressed condition and since the flare carries the load in a
fitting, it is the flare that is most likely to fail.
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Flaring
The purpose of a flare on the end of a tube is twofold. First, it provides a flange that is gripped
between the sleeve or flare nut and the body of a fitting. This prevents the end of the tube from
slipping out of the fitting. Second, the flare provides a large contact area between the pipe and
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the cone of the fitting, thus providing a fluid tight seal. The flare must be nearly perfect because
minute cracks or irregularities would permit leakage.
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The flare must be neither too long nor too short. A flare that is too long will bear against the
threads of the fitting and may cause damage to both the flare and the threads. A flare that is too
short will not have enough material for a good metal to metal contact. A fluid tight seal is
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marginal under either condition. A definition of maximum and minimum flare lengths is
presented below.
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Before beginning the flare, the sleeve and the nut should be slipped on the tubing, since it may
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be impossible to install them after the flare is formed.
It is not possible to make a satisfactory flare without the aid of a good tool. Several types of
flaring tools are available at reasonable cost, but the technician must make sure that the tool
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selected will produce a suitable flare without damaging the tubing.
A practical hand flaring tool, shown below, consists of parallel bars between which are split
blocks with holes of various sizes. The blocks are split so that they can be separated for the
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insertion and removal of tubing. The holes are slightly less than the outside diameter of the
tubing so that they will grip the tubing firmly when the clamping screw is tightened. A yoke,
which carries the flaring cone, slides over the entire assembly.
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To produce a flare with this tool the clamping screw at the end of the tool is loosened so that
tubing can be inserted through the correct sized hole. About 1/4 in [0635 cm] of the tubing is
extended above the clamping blocks. The clamping screw is then tightened to hold the tubing in
place. Next, the yoke with the correct angle flaring cone is slid over the tool and positioned so
the cone is directly over the end of the tubing. When the flaring cone screw is turned, the cone
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is forced into the end of the tubing until the desired amount of flare is formed.
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Projection tolerances
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Aluminium tubing with outside diameters less than 3/8in [0.952 cm] must have a double flare.
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Double flares can usually be made with a slight addition to or alteration of the flaring tools. The
use of an adapter, shown below, will make most of the flaring tools capable of forming double
flares.
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Flareless Coupling
This is the most common type of coupling used on modern aircraft and equipment, it employs a
sleeve which is pressed into the material of the tube and therefore does not require a flared end
on the pipe. The sleeve is set in position and deformed using a presetting fitting. It should be
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examined carefully for correct assembly before the final connection is made.
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A flareless fitting consists of a fitting, a sleeve, and a nut, as illustrated below. When installed,
the pilot edge of the sleeve is embedded in the tubing to which it is attached and the sleeve is
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bulged. These form fluid tight seals between the tube and the sleeve and the sleeve and union
body.
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The recommended method for installing a flareless fitting is to use a presetting tool to make the
installation of the sleeve on the tube. These may be powered or manual. In the manual version
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the union nut and sleeve are installed on the tube and the tube end inserted into the presetting
tool. The bottom of the counterbore in the tool positions the tubing so the sleeve will be in the
correct place, the taper in the counterbore engages the pilot lip on the end of the sleeve. The
union nut is engaged with the tool and tightened to a pre-determined torque. This bulges the
sleeve and forces its pilot into the tube.
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Some types can be installed with a steel pipe blank instead of the presetting tool, which enables
field repairs to be made in situ. Damaged sections of pipe can be replaced by splicing in a new
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piece.
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The following is a typical procedure for installing or pre setting a flareless fitting on a tube:
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1. See that the end of the tube is properly cut. De-burred, and dressed.
2. Select a presetting tool of the correct size for the tube being used. Mount the presetting
tool in a vice.
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3. Select the correct size of sleeve and nut. Slide them onto the end of the tube, the nut
first with the threads out toward the end of the tube, then the sleeve with the pilot and
the cutting edge toward the end of the tube.
4. Select the correct lubricant for the type of system in which the tubing will be installed.
For example, if the tube is being put in a hydraulic system, the lubricant should be the
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hydraulic fluid used for the system. A petroleum based oil should be used for fuel
systems. Lubricate the fitting threads, tool seat and shoulder sleeve.
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5. Insert the tube end into the presetting tool until it is firmly against the bottom of the
counterbore. Slowly screw the nut on the tool threads until the tube cannot be turned
with the thumb and fingers. At this point the cutting edge of the sleeve is gripping the
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tube sufficiently to prevent tube rotation and the fitting is ready for the final tightening
necessary to set the sleeve on the tube.
6. Tighten the nut to the number of turns or torque value specified for the size and material
of tubing involved. The sleeve is now permanently set with the cutting edge seated into
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the outer surface of the tube. Sleeves should not be removed from tubing and reused
under any circumstances.
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Note: Powered presetting tools are always preferred and hand presetting should only be
attempted for field repairs where access is limited.
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After the sleeve for a flareless fitting has been seated on the tubing the nut is loosened and the
tube removed from the presetting tool. The sleeve should be inspected to ensure that it is
properly formed. The interior of the tubing should be checked for metal chips, dirt. or other
foreign materials.
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The inspection procedures for flareless fittings after they have been preset is generally as
follows:
 Step 1: Cut the tube to the correct length, with the ends perfectly square. Debur the
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inside and outside of the tube. Slip the nut, then the sleeve, over the tube.
 Step 2: Lubricate the threads of the fitting and nut with hydraulic fluid. Place the fitting in
a vice, and hold the tubing firmly and squarely on the seat in the fitting. (Tube must
bottom firmly in the fitting). Tighten the nut until the cutting edge of the sleeve grips the
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tube. This point is determined by slowly turning the tube back and forth while tightening
the nut. When the tube no longer turns, the nut is ready for final tightening. Final

tightening depends upon the tubing. For aluminium alloy tubing up to and including 1/2
inch outside diameter, tighten the nut from 1 to 1 1/16 turns. For steel tubing and
aluminium alloy tubing over 1/2 inch outside diameter, tighten from 1 1/16 to 1 1/2 turns.
 Step 3: After presetting the sleeve, disconnect the tubing from the fitting and check the
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following points. The tube should extend 3/32" to 1/8" beyond the sleeve pilot; otherwise
blow off may occur, The sleeve pilot should contact the tube or have a maximum
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clearance of 0.005 inch for aluminium alloy tubing or 0.015 inch for steel tubing. A slight
collapse of the tube at the sleeve cut is permissible. No movement of the sleeve pilot,
except rotation, is permissible.
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Notes:
 The cutting edge of the sleeve should be
embedded into the tube’s outside surface
approximately 0.002 to 0.008in depending upon
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the size and the material of the tubing. A lip of
material will be raised under the pilot. The pilot of
the sleeve should be in contact with or very close
to the outside surface of the tube. The tube
projection from the pilot of the sleeve to the end
of the tube should conform to the appropriate
specifications.
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 The sleeve should be bowed evenly.
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 The sleeve may rotate on the tube but with

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longitudinal movement of not more 0.005 in.

 The sealing surface of the sleeve which contacts
the 24° angle of the fitting seat should be smooth,
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free from scores, and showing no longitudinal or

circumference cracks.
 The minimum internal diameter of the tube at the
point where the sleeve cut is made should be
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checked against the specification for the size of

tubing used. The tube assembly should be tested
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at a pressure equal to twice the intended working

pressure.
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Brazed Nipple Coupling
A conical nipple is brazed or silver soldered to the end of the pipe and is held in position by a
union nut which butts against a shoulder on the nipple. The conical face of the nipple mates with
a cone shaped adapter which may also be brazed or silver soldered in position.
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Low Pressure Couplings
Rubber Hose Coupling

Seldom used on commercial aircraft, this type of coupling employs a length of rubber hose to
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connect two rigid pipes. The pipe ends are beaded (expanded radially to form a raised ring), the
hose is secured to the pipes with hose clips.
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Low Pressure Coupling
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This is a coupling used on certain low pressure lines and vents. It consists of a rubber ring
which is compressed around the pipe when the union nut is tightened. The end of the pipe,
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which is not flared, butts against a shoulder in the body of the union.
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Fabrication, Repair and Installation of Fluid Lines
Most of the plumbing jobs an aircraft technician will called upon to do will be field and
emergency repair or replacement where specialized fabrication equipment may not be available
It is important that the technician knows basic techniques that can be used without specialized
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tools or equipment The techniques covered in the text are basic operations that can be done
with tools found at most aviation maintenance facilities
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Preparation of Tubing
When a section of tubing is to be replaced it must be replaced with a tube of the identical
material, diameter, and wall thickness. The replacement section should be straight and round.
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The ends of the tube are cut to the correct dimension. It is important to make clean, square cuts
at 90° to the centre line of the tubing. When the technician wants to cut aluminium tubing or
tubing of any comparatively soft metal, a tube cutter similar to that shown should be used.
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The tube cutter will make a clean, right angle cut without leaving burrs or crushing the tube. A
hardened reamer is often included as part of a cutter. The reamer is used to smooth the inner
edge of the cut where the metal has been pressed inward a small amount. If the tube ends are
not properly cleaned and smoothed, the seal will not be satisfactory because any nick, cut, or
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scratch will be enlarged in the flaring operation or interfere with the flareless coupling.
When a section of tubing is to be replaced in an aircraft system, the section being replaced can
be used as a pattern. If this is not possible, a piece of welding rod or stiff wire can be used.
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Short, straight sections of tubing between fixed parts of an aircraft should be avoided because
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of the danger of excessive stress when the tube expands or contracts with temperature
changes. It is general practice to make installations with bends in the tubing to absorb any
changes in length.
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Bending
Tubing correctly bent will maintain a circular shape and present a smooth. uniform appearance
without kinks or distortion. The figure below, shows a bend which is acceptable. The other
bends exhibit excessive flattening and kinking. A small amount of flattening in bends is
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acceptable, but should not exceed an amount such that the small diameter of the flattened
portion is less than 75% of the original outside diameter.
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Hand Bending
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The wall thickness and the outside diameter govern the minimum permissible bend radius for
tubing, but it is advisable to make the bends as large as the installation will permit. It is also
desirable to make all bends of the same radius in any one line. Minimum bend radii for
aluminium-alloy and stainless steel tubing installations for use on aircraft are provided in the
table below.
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The radius of the bend is usually measured at the tube centreline, however, sometimes it is
stated at the inner surface of the tubing. Soft tubing of less than a 1/4 in diameter can be
carefully bent by hand without a bender.
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Use of Bending Tools
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For larger sizes, specialised tools and equipment are needed. Bending tools are divided into
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two types: hand benders, which require a different tool for each tube OD and production
benders, which can be used for different tube sizes by changing the attachments. Production
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benders may be either manually or power operated. Production benders are normally only
found in pipe manufacture facilities, hand benders being more common in hangar environments.
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The choice of the particular bender to be used depends upon the size and the material of the
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tubing to be bent, the kind of benders available and the number of bends to be made. If only
one or two bends are to be made, it is often more economical to use a hand bender rather than
take the time to set up a production bender. The use of a typical hand bender is shown below
and opposite.
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There are various aids to prevent the collapse of thin walled pipes during the bending process.
These include filling the tube with sand and using special spring assemblies which are inserted
into the tube prior to the bend being made, and extracted when the operation is complete.
Another method is the use of a low melting point bismuth based alloy (70°-124°C depending on
type) poured into the tube when pre-treated with release agent. After the bend is made the tube
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is heated and the alloy poured out. The tube must then be thoroughly flushed to remove all
traces of release agent.
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Testing of Rigid Pipes
Testing should be carried out if the pipe is suspect, or testing is detailed in the maintenance
schedule.
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Test equipment should be clean and serviceable, and all relevant safety precautions should be
observed. This is most important when using high pressure air as the test medium.
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Pressure Test
For pressure testing use the system fluid or paraffin. Test the pipe at 1.5 times maximum
working pressure.
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Bore Test
Pass a ball through the pipe from each end in turn. The ball diameter should be at least 80% of
the diameter of the pipe. Flow test may be specified.
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Bonding Test
After installation of the pipe, the bonding should be checked between the end couplings, the
maximum resistance should not be greater than 0.05 ohms.
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Installation and inspection of Rigid Pipes
Inverted ‘U’ bends must not be used in engine bay installations because of the risk of vapour
locks causing malfunction in the system.
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It is also a requirement that it must be mechanically impossible to cross connect pipes of
different systems by using different sizes of couplings, or varying the lengths of individual pipes.
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Pipes are supported in groups using multiple pipe clamps. These clamps are made of red fibre,
aluminium alloy, moulded rubber, nylon and other materials. Individual pipes are usually
supported in ‘P’ clips, both types are adjustable by inserting packing to give the required
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clearance with the surrounding structure.
Before installation, always check that the pipe is correct for the job. Flush pipe with system fluid
to ensure all traces of contamination or inhibitor are removed. If the pipe is not to be fitted
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immediately, BLANK OFF.
It is normally advisable to connect the pipe couplings finger tight, then check the routing of the
pipe. If this is correct, the couplings should be tightened to the specified torque loading, and the
supporting clamps fitted.
N
A functional test should be carried out and the couplings checked for leaks, followed by a
O
bonding test.
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Pre-Installation Check
Before fitting the pipe, ensure that the pipe is Correct in all respects. Examine the pipe for the
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following:
 Corrosion, internally as far as possible and externally

AV
 Scores
 Dents (carry out bore test)
 Flattening
 Kinks
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 Condition
 Chafing - particularly where the pipe is clipped or passes through bulkheads
TA
 Position of olive/nipple
Inspection of Installed Pipes

Pipes which are installed should be checked for the above defects as far as possible. However,
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additional checks should include the following:
 Check that the pipe is clear of the surrounding structure. The minimum clearances are as
follows:
ND
o From control rods and rigid moving parts - 18 mm (0.75 in)

o From fixed structure - 6 mm (0.25 in)
o From control cables - 25 mm (1.00 in)
HI
 Leak test - using aircraft power or special test rig, operate system and check for leaks
 Flow test if specified

 Carry out bonding test
 Check couplings for correct locking
Bore Testing of Pipes

Pipes should be tested to ensure that the bore is clear and dimensionally correct after forming.
Y
One method of satisfying this requirement is to pass a steel ball, or bullet, with a diameter of
80% of the internal diameter of the pipe, through the pipe in both directions. When the design or
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size of the pipe and end fittings, makes this test impractical or when a more searching test is
required, the drawing will normally require a flow test to be performed.
AD
AC
Pressure Testing of Pipes
O N
Hydraulic Pipes
TI
Hydraulic pressure testing consists of firstly carrying out a flow test. This means a full bore flow
by pumping fluid through the pipe and checking the flow at the open end. If this check is
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satisfactory, the open end should be suitably blanked.
Once the flow test has been carried out, the oil pressure should then be built up to that
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prescribed on the drawing, usually 1½ times the maximum working pressure. The duration of
the test must give the pipe a chance to show any leaks or other problems.
Pneumatic and Oxygen

N
These pipes are usually given an initial hydraulic pressure test, using water as the test medium,
followed by a compressed air test that is limited to maximum system pressure. Using high-
TA
pressure air during the test is very dangerous and the pipe(s) under test should be placed
behind a protective screen and/or submerged in water.
Cleaning after Test

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After a pipe has been tested, it should normally be flushed out using a suitable solvent, dried
out using a jet of clean, dry air and blanked off, using the approved blanks.
Pipes that will be used in high-pressure air and gaseous or liquid oxygen systems must be
ND
scrupulously clean and free from any possible contamination by oil or grease. It is normal to
recommend that pipes for use in these systems are flushed with Trichloroethane or some other
suitable solvent, blown through with double filtered air and blanked-off, with the approved
blanks immediately afterwards.
HI

Plumbing Installation
The proper functioning of the many fluid systems in aircraft is assured by the original design and
manufacture of the systems, continued satisfactory operation depends on the proper
maintenance, service, and installation of replacement parts.
Y
Installation of Tubing
EM
An important step in the installation of tubing is the proper lubrication of the fittings. While not
essential to all fittings, lubrication must be applied to some and is a good practice for others. In
the application of a lubricant, it is important that none of the lubricant enter the tubing unless the
lubricant is the same material that will be used in the system. The figure below shows the points
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of lubrication for typical fittings.
AC
O N
TI
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AV
N
The following general rules apply:

TA
 Lubricate nuts and fittings on the outside of the sleeve and on the male threads of the
fittings, except for the starting threads.
 Lubricate coupling nuts and fittings on the outside of the flare, and lubricate the female
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threads, except for the starting threads.
Petroleum based lubricant must not be used for the fittings of oxygen systems. A special
lubricant conforming to ANC86 or MILT5542B may be used.
ND
Several lubricants may be used on hydraulic fittings, including the fluid to be used in the system.
Straight threads of brass or steel may be left dry or may be lubricated with the system fluid. If
the threads are aluminium alloy, petrolatum (petroleum jelly) maybe used.
HI

For pipe threads, the lubricant must be of a type that is not soluble in the fluid being carried in
the system. The lubricant used with a pipe fitting also serves as a seal and fills the space at the
roots of the threads. If a petroleum based lubricant is used on a fuel system carrying gasoline or
jet fuel, the lubricant will be dissolved and a leak will develop.
Y
High temperature air pipe fittings are often coated with an anti-sieze compound which lubricate
the threads and facilitate removal. These are usually metal based pastes with copper,
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molybdenum or other materials in a carrier.
Before tubing assemblies are installed, a final inspection should be made. Flares and sleeves
must be concentric and free of cracks. The tubing must not be appreciably dented or scratched.
AD
Each assembly must be in initial alignment with the fitting to which it is to be attached. A fitting
or an assembly must never be forced into position. A section that must be forced to line up is
under initial stress and may fail in operation.
AC
The tubing should be pushed against the fitting snugly and squarely before starting to turn the
coupling nut. The tubing should not be drawn up to the fitting by tightening the nut because a
flare may be easily sheared off, or a flareless sleeve distorted. To make sure that a snug fit is
effected, all nuts should be started by hand.
other weights should not be suspended from it.

O N
Tubing installed in aircraft must not be used as a footrest or as a ladder and lamp cords and
TI
The most important of all operations for tubing installation is that of tightening or torquing the
nuts. The most common mistake is to over tighten the nuts in order to ensure a leak free union
in a pressure system. Over tightening causes damage to the tubing and fittings and may cause
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a failure in flight. Correct torque values are given in the table the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
AV
To obtain correct torque values when tubing sections are installed, it is essential to use a torque
wrench. Special crowsfoot and obstruction wrenches are available.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Flexible Hoses
General
Modern hoses are manufactured from either synthetic rubber or Teflon. Synthetic rubber hoses
Y
are reinforced with cotton or metal braid depending on the pressure that the hose has to
withstand, with a rubber sheath on the outside to protect the braiding. Teflon hoses are made of
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Tetrafluoroethylene resin which is strengthened and protected by a stainless steel braiding.
Teflon will generally withstand higher temperatures and pressure than synthetic rubber. Kevlar
is also used on aircraft hoses, these can be found in certain areas of the Boeing 777 aircraft.
AD
Low-Pressure Hoses
An example of the type of construction used in these hoses is where the inner and outer tubes
are made from synthetic rubber, with the inner having a braided cotton reinforcement. These
AC
hoses are used on instrument systems, vacuum systems, autopilots and other low-pressure
systems, usually operating at pressures below 300 PSI (2.07 x 10³ kN/m²).
O N
TI
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A typical marking on this type of hose could be a yellow line with the letters ‘LP’ along it. The
line (lay line) is used to ensure that the hose is not assembled with a stress-inducing twist in it.
Other markings could include the hose manufacturer’s code and part number, its size and the
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date of manufacture
Medium-Pressure Hoses
N
Medium-pressure hoses are generally used with fluid pressures up to 1500 PSI (10.34 x10³
kN/m²). Their maximum pressure varies with diameter, so that whilst smaller diameter hoses will
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be able to withstand such pressures, larger sizes may be restricted to lower pressures.
Typical construction of this type of hose could be a seamless inner liner made from different
materials, a layer of cotton braid, a layer of stainless-steel reinforcement and an outer layer of
US
tough, oil-resistant, rubber-impregnated cotton.

ND
HI

High-Pressure Hoses
All high-pressure hoses have a maximum working pressure of at least 1500 to 3000 PSI (10.34
x 10³ kN/m² to 20.68 x 10³ kN/m²) and use a synthetic rubber liner to carry petroleum products.
The inner liner is usually wrapped with two or more steel braids as reinforcement. To distinguish
Y
high-pressure from medium-pressure hose, the entire hose usually has a smooth outer cover.
EM
AD
AC
O N
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IA
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N
TA
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ND
HI

End Couplings
The end couplings are made of steel or light alloy depending on the installation. The end fittings
grip the hose including the internal braiding to ensure a leak proof joint and provide an electrical
bond between the ends. Hoses which are located in a fire zone are required to be fireproof (i.e.
Y
engine bay). This requirement is usually met by a cover or sheath made from a silicon asbestos
compound.
EM
The following information is usually stamped on the end fittings or on the hose itself by the use
of tags:
AD
 Date of manufacture
 Date of last test
 Drawing number
 Part number
AC
 Serial number
 Inspector’s stamp
In addition to the above, hoses may have parallel lines running between the end fittings to show
when they are twisted. The number of lines may denote the number of layers of braiding.
N
End fittings must be installed on flexible hoses to allow their attachment to system components.
O
The end fitting must ensure a good pressure seal and provide mechanical retention. Basically
there are two kinds of flexible hose end fittings; detachable and permanent.
TI
Swaged End Fittings

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Swaged end fittings are permanently attached to the hose end by deformation accomplished
using a high pressure press machine in a workshop. This provides both retention and sealing
features. If the hose or end fitting become damaged the whole assembly must be replaced.
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Re-useable End Fittings

The purpose of a re-usable end fitting is to save in the cost of replacing the complete assembly
when only the hose itself is unserviceable. The fitting usually comprises of a socket with a
course left hand thread and a fine right hand thread, a nipple with a right hand thread and a
N
union nut. The nut and nipple are often pre-assembled at manufacture. In some versions the
sealing function is improved by incorporating a cutting spur or separate sleeve which splits the
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inner lining of the hose from the outer which provides the retention function.
US
ND
HI

Y
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AD
AC
O N
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N
TA
US
ND
Effective length of hose assemblies

HI

Installation Procedure
The hose must be exactly the same specification as the original.
1. Cut hose squarely to correct length with a fine hacksaw. Remove rubber debris.
2. Place socket in the vice and take care not to over tighten. Screw the hose into the
socket until it bottoms (left hand thread). Then back off 1/4 turn.
Y
3. Tighten nipple and union nut on to the assembly tool, if the tool is not available, use a
mating adapter. Two spanners are required.
EM
4. Lubricate the inside of the hose and the nipple threads with oil or petroleum jelly.
5. Screw nipple into the socket (right hand thread) until the union nut is less than 1/16 in.
away from the socket, but not touching. Using two spanners, remove the assembly tool
from the union nut and check that the nut is free to turn.
AD
6. Clean and flush the hose with system fluid and carry out a bore test and a pressure test.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Pre-Installation and installation Check
Before fitting a hose the following should be checked:
Y
 Damage
 Corrosion of end fittings
EM
 Cleanliness (internally as far as possible)
 Flush hose with system fluid
 Verify part number and batch no. (if a new hose)
 Pressure test if specified, or if in doubt
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
Installation
AC
Observe the following points when fitting flexible hoses:
 Ensure hose does not come into contact with other parts of the aircraft or engine and
allow for hose flexing. Check for correct routing.
N
 Do not exceed manufacturer’s minimum bend radius limits.
 Straight hoses must be 3% longer than between the ends of the component.
O
 If lubricant is used on the threads, ensure that it does not enter the hose.
 Use only approved lubricant for oxygen hose. DO NOT USE OIL OR GREASE WITH
TI
OXYGEN.
 Ensure the hose is not twisted, support hose while tightening.
IA
 Only use the approved hose support guide and clips at the correct intervals. Use packing
between hose and clips.
 Carry out system function and leak test. If it is part of the aircraft fuel system, then a flow
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test must be carried out.

 Carry out bonding test.
 Wire lock the hose assembly end fittings.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Inspection and Testing of Installed Hose
Inspection
Examine the pipe for obvious;
Y
 Leaks: from the end fittings and particularly where the hose joins the end fitting.
 Blisters: puncture the blister, if fluid emerges, reject the hose, if not, pressure test and if
EM
it leaks under test reject the hose.
 Ageing crack: they consist of very small short cracks. If the cracks join in a continuous
line or the braiding is showing, reject the hose.
 Security: ensure the hose end fittings are locked properly.
AD
 Corrosion: examine the end fittings for corrosion, light corrosion can be removed,
otherwise reject the hose.
 Twisting: any twist will be seen by the line running the length of the hose. If a hose has a
permanent twist, pressure test and if no leaks are visible, consider it serviceable.
AC
 Cut covers: examine closely for cuts. If any cuts penetrate to the braiding, reject the
hose.
 Chafing: if braiding is showing, reject the hose. If light chafing is present, the hose
should be moved but do not tape it up.
 Kinks: reject the hose.
Testing
O N
Hoses require testing when detailed in the maintenance schedule or if the hose is suspect.
TI
The tests that may be carried out on a hose are:

IA
 Pressure test
 Bore test
 Bonding test
AV
Pressure Test
Flexible hoses are pressure tested to 1½ times the maximum working pressure. Test with the
normal system fluid or paraffin. Air and oxygen hoses to be tested under water for safety and a
N
visual indication will be shown by the appearances of bubbles. They must also be tested by
using water as a test medium and dried out with a warm air blast. While the hose is under test
TA
flex it 15°. Those which flex while in service should be flexed 15° beyond their normal range of
movement.
Bore Test
US
Purpose of a bore test is to ensure that the hose will deliver the amount of fluid that it is
designed to deliver. The bore may be checked by one of the following methods; Visually, Ball
test or Flow test.
ND
Visually - View from each end in turn, this method is only suitable for short straight hoses.
Ball Test - Pass a steel ball through the hose from each end in turn. The diameter of the ball
must be at least 90% of the internal diameter of the end fitting. If the ball does not pass through
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the hose freely, the pipe is unserviceable. On small bore straight hoses a steel rod may be used
instead of a ball.

Flow Test - The flow test consists of passing a fluid through a hose from each end in turn and
timing the flow rate. The figure obtained is then compared with the flow rate figure given in the
manufacturer’s manual.
Y
Note: The bore testing of a hose may include one or more of the above tests.
EM
Bonding Test on Hose Assemblies
Hoses are tested for bonding before fitting, when the resistance should not exceed 0.05 ohms
or 0.025 per foot length whichever is the greater.
AD
Note: Bonding is only possible when hoses have a metal in their structure. However, all
installed hoses should be tested between the end couplings and the components to which they
are connected. The resistance should not exceed 0.050 ohms
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Maintenance Practices for Aircraft Hose
Hose for aircraft fluid systems requires reasonable care and an understanding of the conditions
that can cause damage, deterioration, or malfunction. The primary purpose of the hose is to
carry a fluid at a required pressure and flow rate to serve the functions of the system involved.
Y
The following practices are recommended for the care of hose:
EM
 Do not use hose assemblies as footholds or hand holds.
 Do not lay hose where it may be stepped upon or run over by a vehicle.
 Do not lay objects on top of hose assemblies.
AD
 When loosening or tightening hose fittings, turn the swivel nut only.
 Do not turn the hexes that form part of the socket or nipple assembly.
 Hold the socket with a wrench to prevent it from turning.
 Hold the fitting to which a hose assembly is to be connected to prevent it from turning.
AC
Use an end wrench of the correct size.
 Cover open ends of hose assemblies with caps or plugs until the assemblies are to be
installed.
 Check the hose and the fittings for cleanliness, inside and out, before installation.
O N
When inspecting hose in aircraft systems, the principal conditions to check for are leaks, wear
or damage to the outer surface, broken wire strands in the metal braid, corrosion of the metal
braid, evidence of overheating bulges, twists in the hose alignment, damage or wear of the
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chafe guards, damage or wear of the fire sleeves, damage to the end fittings, separation of the
plies, blisters in the outer cover and any other indication of damage or deterioration.
IA
Any appreciable defect in the condition of the hose or the fittings is usually reason for
replacement. A leak may be caused by a loose fitting. This may be corrected by loosening and
inspecting the fitting, if there is no sign of damage to the fitting, tighten it to the proper torque. A
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fitting must not be over torqued to stop a leak. Leaks or seepage from the hose surface requires
replacement of the hose assembly.
If there is more than one broken wire per plait in the covering braid or if there are more than six
N
broken wires per lineal foot, the hose should be replaced.

TA
Hose that is reinforced with carbon-steel wire braid is subject to corrosion. This is easily
detected by a rust colour on the surface. If the corrosion is appreciable, the hose should be
replaced. Stainless steel wire braid often turns a golden yellow to brown colour when subjected
to heat. This condition should not be confused with corrosion. If the colouring is extreme, it is
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possible that the hose has been overheated and may require replacement.
The hose mountings in the aircraft should be inspected for the condition of the clamps, any
bulging of the hose or other damage to the hose at the clamps, the condition of the cushioning
ND
in the clamps, the position of the hose and the cushion in the clamp, and the security of the
clamp screws. The positioning of the cushion material in the clamp must be such that the
material does not lodge between the end tabs of the clamp when the clamp is closed.
HI
Hose that is twisted, as indicated by the lay line along the hose, can be corrected by loosening
one of the fittings, straightening the hose, and retorquing the fitting.

Fire sleeves are mounted on hose to protect the hose from excessive heat and flame. If the fire
sleeve is worn through, torn, cut, or oil soaked, the hose assembly should be replaced. The
removed hose assembly may be inspected and tested and, if found to be serviceable, may have
a new fire sleeve installed and then be returned to service.
Y
End fittings are checked for corrosion, cleanliness, nicks, scratches, cracks, damage to
threaded areas, damage to cone-seat sealing surfaces, damage to flanges, and backed out
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retaining wires on swivel nuts. The hose assembly should be replaced if any condition found
could cause malfunction or deterioration.
In all inspections of hose installations, the technician should consult the applicable
AD
manufacturer’s manual to assure that specified conditions are met. There are many different
types and designs of fittings, and it is essential that the instructions and specifications for the
particular type of fitting being inspected are understood.
AC
Installation Practices for Aircraft Hose
Before installation of a section of aircraft hose, the hose should be thoroughly inspected as
previously explained. If the hose is straight, the inside can be examined by looking though it
toward a light source. If there is an elbow on one end, a torch or other light source can be used
N
to illuminate the inside of the elbow, and the interior of the tube can be examined by looking in
the opposite end. If it is not possible to look inside the hose, a steel ball slightly smaller than the
O
ID of the hose should be passed through the tube. The ball should roll freely through the tube
from one end to the other.
TI
Hose that is pre-formed to fit certain installations should not be straightened out. Straightening
causes undue stresses, wrinkling inside the hose, and other possible defects. To prevent the
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straightening of pre-formed hose, a wire or cord can be attached to each end and pulled taut.
AV
The installation of flexible hose assemblies requires that the hose be of a length that will not be
subjected to tension. The hose section should be of sufficient length to provide about 5 to 8%
slack. The hose should be installed without twisting by keeping the lay line on the hose straight.
Bends in the hose should not have a radius less than 12 times the ID of the hose for normal
installations. The coupling nuts for flexible hose assemblies should be torqued to the correct
N
value as specified by the manufacturer.

TA
When a plain hose is used to provide a flexible joint between two sections of tubing, the ends of
the tubing should be beaded. Clamps should not be over tightened because of the danger of
damaging the hose. A good practice is to tighten the clamp finger tight plus a one quarter turn. It
must be emphasized that plain hose and clamps should not be used where the fluid in the
US
system is under pressure.

ND
HI

Inspection of Fluid Line Systems
Lines and fittings should be inspected carefully at regular intervals for leaks, damage, loose
mountings, cracks, scratches, dents, and other damage. Flexible lines (hoses should be
checked for cracks, cuts, abrasions, soft spots and any other indication of deterioration. Parts
Y
with defects should be either replaced or repaired. A damaged metal line should be replaced in
its entirety if the damage is extensive. If the damage is localized, it is permissible to cut out the
EM
damaged section and insert a new section with approved fittings. Care must be taken that no
foreign material enters the line during the repair operation. When soft aluminium tubing using
flared fittings is replaced, a double flare should be used on all tubing with a 3/8in [0.952cm] OD
or smaller.
AD
The following defects are not acceptable for metal lines:
 Cracked flare.
AC
 Scratches or nicks greater in depth than 10% of the tube wall thickness or in the heel of a
bend.
 Severe die marks, seams, or splits.
 A dent of more than 20% of the tube diameter or in the heel of a bend.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

British Standard Pipe and Hose Marking Scheme
This International Standard specifies the requirements for a scheme to indicate by appropriate
marking, the functions of pipe systems in aircraft. It thus provides the minimum identification
necessary for normal maintenance purposes.
Y
Where the ambient temperatures allow, the scheme consists of adhesive tape markers fixed to
EM
the pipe systems. The markers indicate the pipe functions and give due warning where the
contents are dangerous. When required, the direction of flow of the pipe contents is also shown.
The contents of pipelines other than those listed here, e.g. pitot, are indicated by supplementary
AD
markers bearing the name of the pipe function.
Where necessary, additional words may be added to describe the specific function of the pipe
e.g. Methyl Bromide; Autopilot etc.
AC
Markers bearing the skull and crossbones are applied adjacent to the basic identification
markers where the contents of the lines are dangerous to maintenance personnel.
All lettering and symbols are printed in black on a white background. The background to the
lettering may be coloured as shown.
O N
The markers are located at both ends of a pipeline and at intervals along the pipe. A marker
should be installed adjacent to each servicing point and inspection door.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
n/s = not shown

N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
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IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
Note: The letters above the markers are the serial letters of the colours as given above. The
numbers below the markers are the symbol numbers for identification purposes. The symbol
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may be located on either margin of a marker. The supplementary identification marker may also
be located on either side of the basic identification marker.

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
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ND
HI

Pipe and Hose Unions
General
Y
Just as there is a wide range of pipe and hose end fittings, so there is a wide range of unions to
fit them to. These include straight connectors, elbows (right angle), angles, tees, reducers and
EM
pivoting couplings.
They are available in a variety of materials to suit the application, in flare or flareless
configurations with straight and tapered threads of various forms. The part may bear a full or
AD
partial Part Number.
It is, therefore, vital that parts are identified and ordered by Part Number by reference to the
aircraft or equipment Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC) or other authoritative documentation.
AC
O N
TI
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AV
N
TA
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ND
HI

Y
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AD
AC
O N
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Aircraft General Standards (AGS)

It has already been discussed, in earlier topics, how this British standard comprises a wide
IA
range of small parts, which includes items such as bolts, nuts, rivets and taper pins. The
standard also includes pipe end-fittings (union nuts and adapters), sleeves, collars, and nipples.
AV
The cones (flares) on AGS end-fittings (unions and adapters) have an included angle of 32º,
with the pipe flaring machines being shaped accordingly.
Airforce and Navy (AN)

N
This standard may also be found in a wide range of aircraft and components, but it should be
noted that the flares and other hardware for this standard have an included angle of 74º.
TA
Military Standard (MS)

This standard (as previously discussed) has replaced the standards from the AN system. Many
AN part numbers have been incorporated into the MS system and now appear with MS
US
designations
Other Standards
ND
Other specifications in current use with aircraft manufactured in the USA include National
Aerospace Standards (NAS) and Military Specifications (Mil Specs). These may have an
equivalent civilian or Military Standard.
HI
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the Aeronautical Materials Division of SAE

specifications (AMS) are yet another set of standards to which aerospace materials may be
produced. The Society of Automotive Engineers has a second standard - referred to as the
Aeronautical Standard (AS) – which is for components that do not qualify for an AMS standard.
All these specifications provide for a range of fasteners with Unified threads in the UNC, UNF
Y
and UNJF series and, whereas British aircraft fasteners are manufactured in a selected range of
Unified threads, American fasteners are in some instances supplied in both UNC and UNF
EM
threads.
From all this it can be seen that great care must be taken when matching up union assemblies
with these many different forms of thread.
AD
Quick-Release Couplings
Quick-release couplings are required at various points in aircraft systems. Typical uses are in
fuel, oil, hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Their purpose is to save time in the removal and
AC
replacement of components; to prevent the loss of fluid and to protect the fluid from
contamination. The use of these couplings also reduces the maintenance cost for the system
involved.
N
A coupling consists of a male and female assembly. Each assembly has a sealing piston
(poppet valve) that prevents the loss of fluid when the coupling is disconnected. Three checks
O
may be used to verify a positive connection. These involve an audible, visual and tactile
indication. A click may be heard at the time the coupling is locked and indicator pins will extend
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from the outer sleeve upon locking, which can be seen and felt.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
Banjo Coupling
N
A banjo coupling is used wherever a fluid tight seal is required, but relative (rotational)
movement between the fitting and hose is also required (such as on some brake units).
O
The fitting consists of a bolt, drilled longitudinally, and also partly radially. A ring (the ‘banjo’)
TI
with a hollowing on the inside accepts the fluid via the bolt’s drillings.
To ensure a leak free fitting but also relative rotational motion between bolt and ring, a washer
IA
is placed either side of the banjo.

AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
Module 6
Licence Category N
O
A, B1, B2 and B3
TI
IA

AV
6.7 Springs
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Intentionally Blank
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI
Module 6.7 Springs 7.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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examples.
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subject.
subject.
LEVEL 3
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manner.
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instructions.
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Table of Contents
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6.7 Springs_________________________________________________________________ 9
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General __________________________________________________________________ 9
Types of Spring __________________________________________________________ 10
Spring Materials _________________________________________________________ 15
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General _______________________________________________________________ 15
Steels used for Cold-Wound Springs _________________________________________ 15
Steels used for Hot-Wound Springs __________________________________________ 16
Steels used for Cold-Rolled, Flat Springs _____________________________________ 16
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Non-Ferrous Metals used for Springs ________________________________________ 17
Corrosion Protection _____________________________________________________ 17
Composite Materials used for Springs ________________________________________ 17
Spring Dimensions _______________________________________________________ 19
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Spring Characteristics ____________________________________________________ 21
Application of Springs in Aircraft Engineering _________________________________ 24
Spring Maintenance ______________________________________________________ 25
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General _______________________________________________________________ 25
Inspection and Testing of Springs ___________________________________________ 27
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Glossary ________________________________________________________________ 29
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Objective
Springs 6.7 - 2 1 1
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Types of springs, materials, characteristics and
applications
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6.7 Springs
General
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While springs are seemingly simple devices, they are an essential working part of most
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machines in one form or another.
They use the property of elasticity, inherent in many materials, which allows them to absorb
energy by distorting or deflecting when under load, store it in their loaded state, and then
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release it in a controlled manner as they return to their original shape after the load has
moderated (or has been removed). Early springs consisted of flat and curved sections of wood
(and later metal), used in the suspension of carts and carriages
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The dawning of The Industrial Revolution led to the mechanisation of practically every facet of
civilised life. Huge advances in transport, timekeeping, world-wide communication and
inevitably military capabilities have also taken place, in all of which can be found mechanisms
involving the principle of the spring. O N
The subject of spring technology is vast and well beyond the scope of these notes, so it is
sufficient for the student to appreciate the basic uses for springs in the aerospace environment
and the functions that they fulfil.
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Types of Spring
The three basic forces, which may be exerted on, and applied by springs are:
 Compression
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 Tension
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 Torsion
These forces may act singly, in combinations of any two or all three.
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Springs have evolved into various shapes and sizes (and degrees of stiffness), which have
been dictated by the uses to which they have been put, and the loads they absorb, store and
release. The more common forms are described here.
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Flat springs, while they were a development of flat, rectangular-sectioned strips of metal, they
can actually be found in forms other than simply flat as, for instance, in the shape of the springs
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which control the contact breaker points in the magneto of an aircraft piston-type engine.
Leaf springs are formed by layers of flat springs and while very early aircraft embodied leaf
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springs in their landing gear, this type of spring is more familiar in the automobile and railway
industries.
Spiral springs may be found in the form of spirally wound flat springs (known as motor or
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power springs) or as spirally wound wire, such as the hair springs of many types of instruments.
They are used to store or absorb torsional forces.
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Helical Compression and Tension Springs are the most commonly found springs. They are
made in a wide variety of materials and sizes and may be found in a seemingly endless number
of applications. Compression springs are open wound to accommodate the axial movement.
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Tension springs may be open or close wound but usually have hooks or loops formed at their
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ends as attachment points. Both Compression and Tension springs may be made of circular,
square or rectangular cross section wire.
Helical springs are usually cylindrical in basic form, however Conical Compression springs
may replace cylindrical compression springs when the space in the axial direction is limited. The
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spring coils fold into each other when the spring is completely compressed. A Conical
Compression spring of rectangular cross section is referred to as a Volute spring.
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Helical Torsion Springs while being similarly wound to the cylindrical Compression and
Tension springs, have specially shaped ends to permit a torque force to be applied, and
transmitted, in a plane normal to the helix axis.
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Torsion-bar springs are, basically, straight bars of metal, with splined, square or flanged ends,
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that can accept and transmit torsional forces.

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Disc (or Cone, Cupped or Belleville Washer) Springs are shaped like the cup washers used
as locking devices. Often referred to as Belleville Springs or Washers, they are capable of
exerting frictional or linear forces and can be multiplied in the same direction to increase the
spring load or back to back to increase travel.
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Spring Materials
General
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The materials, used for the manufacture of springs, cover a very wide range of metallic and
non-metallic (plastic and elastomer) substances. These notes will, however, be confined mainly
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to the discussion of metallic types, with a small consideration being given to some composite
materials.
There are numerous factors that can affect a choice of material for use in a spring. Perhaps the
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most important of these is the strength of the material: carbon spring steel is the strongest of the
common spring materials, closely followed by Inconel and then stainless steel.
But, of course, carbon steel will very quickly corrode, even in normal operation. Put it in salt
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water and it will be useless within a few weeks. Stainless steel may be used in these sort of
conditions but it is slightly more expensive and not so strong. Inconel is a strong material and
very corrosion resistant but it is also very expensive. it is usually only used in extremely
corrosive environments or where reliability is crucial.
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The operating temperature will also play a part in the choice of material. The maximum reliable
operating temperature of a spring can be as low as 150°C for carbon spring steel, 300°C for
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stainless, but up to about 550°C for Inconel X750.
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The final choice of material may also depend on other factors such as appearance. Stainless
steel or Inconel will not corrode but after heat treatment they are not shiny as would be
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expected. Stainless steel goes a yellowish colour and Inconel goes dark brown. If a shiny finish
is required then the material could be plated after manufacture in which case standard carbon
spring steel may be more appropriate.
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Steels used for Cold-Wound Springs

Below a cross-sectional diameter of approximately 9.5 to 18.5 mm (0.375 in to 0.725 in) certain
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steels are drawn into wires and cold-wound to form the required shape. The wires are then
usually, given some form of heat-treatment, to relieve the stresses imposed by the winding
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processes. Typical types of carbon- and alloy-steel are used for the manufacture of cold wound
springs and include:
 Hard-drawn Spring Wire which is of a low-quality (and cheap) carbon steel. This wire
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has fine seams in its surface, and as such, would only be used in applications of low
stress and low fatigue.
 Oil-tempered Spring Wire which is of a better quality, high-carbon steel, though it may
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also contain surface discontinuities and would be found where long fatigue life is not
required.
 Music Wire which is a carbon-steel of high quality and is suitable for small-sized, helical
springs in applications involving high fatigue stresses.
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 Chrome-Vanadium Steel Wire which is a material that has been used for piston-type
aero-engine valve springs and is, suitable for high temperature and high-stress
conditions
 Chrome-Silicon Steel Wire which when used in valve springs, has a higher fatigue life
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in the lower cycle ranges (10-100 kHz) than other wires
 Stainless-Steel Spring Wire which as is obvious from its name, is used in conditions
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where high corrosion-resistance is the requirement. This grade of wire would also be
utilised in applications where resistance to creep at elevated temperatures is desired.
Some grades of Stainless- Steel wires can be made to accept magnetism, where this
characteristic is needed alongside the other qualities.
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Steels used for Hot-Wound Springs
Above the cross-sectional diameters, previously mentioned, it is considered impractical to cold-
wind and so, the larger diameter metals (bars or rods) are hot-wound and then also subjected to
various stress relieving processes. O N
Similar carbon- and alloy-steels to those already discussed are employed in the manufacture of
hot-wound springs, with the necessary variations in their contents of carbon, chromium,
manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, and vanadium.
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Steels used for Cold-Rolled, Flat Springs

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These steels vary in composition, depending on their location, but are commonly based on
carbon and manganese as the main constituent elements. They may be formed from oil-
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tempered steels (thin sections - clock-type springs) or from annealed steels which are
subsequently heat treated.
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Non-Ferrous Metals used for Springs
Based mainly on copper alloys, where corrosion resistance and good electrical conductivity is
required, and on nickel alloys where the ability to work at elevated temperatures and resist
corrosion is desirable, these alloys include:
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Spring Brass which is comparatively inexpensive, has good electrical conductivity, but is
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unsuitable for high-stress applications.
Nickel Silver (also called German Silver) which has better characteristics than brass and is
made from different percentages of copper, zinc and nickel.
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Phosphor Bronze which has a minimum percentage of 90% copper content and has excellent
electrical conductivity. It is suitable for applications of higher stress levels than those of brass.
Silicon Bronze which has similar characteristics to those of phosphor bronze but is less
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expensive to produce.
Beryllium Copper which has similar conductivity (and corrosion resistance) qualities to those of
copper with the addition of beryllium (2.0-2.5%) imparting greater hardness and other superior
mechanical properties.
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High-Nickel Alloys which are the types more commonly found in aero engine applications and
which fall under various, familiar, trade names such as:
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 Monel
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 'K' Monel (3% aluminium)

 Permanickel
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 Inconel
 Inconel 'X' (2.5% Titanium)
Another high-nickel alloy goes under the name of Ni-Span-C and contains almost 50% iron.
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All of these non-ferrous alloys can be found in the cold-rolled or drawn conditions for the
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manufacture of many types of springs.
Corrosion Protection
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Depending on application, metallic springs may require corrosion protection. Protective coatings
may be of plastic, zinc, nickel, chromium or tin.
Composite Materials used for Springs

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Some composite springs involve the joining of certain metals with elastomers to form the anti-
vibration mountings (Metalastic Bushes and Housings) such as those found in aero-engine and
auxiliary power unit (APU) installations.
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Others combine synthetic rubber strands, encased within a sheath of braided cotton, nylon or
similar materials. They are usually referred to as 'Shock Absorbers' or 'Shock Cords' rather than

'Springs' and are more familiarly known by the generic name of 'Bungee Cords'. Bungee Cords
may be encountered on many light- and medium-sized aircraft while their use on heavier aircraft
is not unknown.
Springs of resin impregnated Aramid and Carbon fibre construction can be made but cost of
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production usually outweighs any weight saving achieved.
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Spring Dimensions
The close-coiled round wire helical compression spring is the type of spring most frequently
encountered, and it alone is shown below. It is made from wire of diameter ‘d’ wound into a helix
of mean diameter ‘D’, pitch ‘p’, and total number of turns ‘nt’. This last is the number of wire
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coils prior to end treatment .
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Close-coiled requires a small helix angle, say α ≤ 12o.
The ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter is known as the spring
index, C = D/d. Portions of two springs which have the same mean coil
diameter but different wire diameters and hence different indices are
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compared here. It is clear that low indices result in difficulty with spring
manufacture and in stress concentrations induced by curvature. Springs in
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the range 5 ≤ C ≤ 10 are preferred, while indices less than 3 are generally
impracticable.
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Loads are transferred into a spring by means of platens, which are usually just flat surfaces
bearing on the spring ends.
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Plain ends - when the wire is just cropped off to length - are suitable only for large index, light
duty applications unless shaped platens or coil guides are employed, because each spring end
contacts its platen at a point offset from the spring axis and this leads to bending of the spring
and uncertain performance. O N
Ground ends distribute the load into the spring more uniformly than do plain ends, but the
contact region on a flat platen will be very much less than 360o which is ideal for concentricity of
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bearing surface and spring axis. One or more turns at the end of a spring may be wound with
zero pitch, this is called a squared or closed end. Subsequent grinding produces a seating
best suited for uniform load transfer, and so squared and ground ends are invariably specified
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when the duty is appreciable. Grinding the ends becomes difficult when the spring index
exceeds 10, and is obviously inappropriate for small wire sizes - say under 0.5 mm.
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The active turns na are the coils which actually deform when the spring is loaded, as opposed to
inactive turns at each end which are in contact with the platen and therefore do not deform
though they may move bodily with the platen. The free length Lo of a compression spring is the
spring's maximum length when lying freely prior to assembly into its operating position and
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hence prior to loading. The solid length Ls of a compression spring is its minimum length when
the load is sufficiently large to close all the gaps between the coils.
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The Table shows how na, Lo and Ls depend upon wire diameter, total turns, pitch and end
treatment, however the Table's predictions should be viewed with caution - especially if there
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are less than seven turns - because of variability in the squaring and/or grinding operations.
The springs illustrated here are right handed, but left hand lays are just as common. The lay
usually has no bearing on performance, except when springs are nested inside one another in
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which case the two lays must differ to avoid interference. Springs with closed ends do not
become entangled when jumbled in a container, which is sometimes an important consideration
in assembly.
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Spring Characteristics
Spring are normally specified by:
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 Material
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 Wire diameter or cross sectional area
 External diameter
 Internal diameter
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 Free length
 Solid length
 Pitch
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 End style - open, closed, ground, looped etc.
 Spring Rate
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The Spring Rate or stiffness of a spring is the load required to produce a unit of deflection.
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If a Load/Deflection graph for a typical, helical-wound spring were to be plotted, a straight-line

(or linear) load/deflection graph would be the result (see below). (Provided the spring was not
loaded beyond its elastic limit and the effects of temperature and repeated loading were
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ignored.) This indicates that the deflection is directly proportional to the load, so if the load is
doubled, then the deflection also doubles.
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Non-linear load/deflection graphs can be produced by springs with unevenly spaced coils (see
below, broken line). These Progressive or Variable Rate springs are of particular use in valves.
Belleville springs share these particular characteristics and prove extremely useful in certain
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control and indicating functions. Another non-linear plot (refer to solid line) can be found when a
thin, flat, circular disk is loaded to a large deflection. The individual characteristics of these
different spring types are used to good effect in many aeronautical applications.
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Piston engine valve springs are made of heat treated spring steel and are usually duplicated
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and of different strengths to reduce valve bounce. When duplicated they are wound in opposite
directions to prevent coil interlocking.
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Spring Rate
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This is the change in load per unit of deflection, generally given in pounds per inch (lbs/in).
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Application of Springs in Aircraft Engineering
There are many applications involving the use of springs in aircraft engineering and some
examples are:
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 Pressure Regulating/Limiting Devices: in Fuel, Hydraulic, Lubrication, and Pneumatic
systems
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 'Fail Safe' or 'Return to Neutral Condition' Devices: in Electrical Relays and Solenoids,
and also in Electric, Hydraulic, Mechanical, or Pneumatic Actuators
 Acceleration and Speed Control Devices: in Engine and Propeller control systems and in
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Power-Assisted Flight Controls and Wheel Braking systems
 Shock Absorbing Devices: in Landing Gear systems and as Anti-Vibration Mountings for
delicate instruments and components which are subject to movement
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 Devices which are capable of applying a constant force (linear or rotary) in a desired
direction, as in the holding closed of an aero engine valve spring for one example
 Devices with the ability to accurately indicate (and control) the value of an applied force,
as used in many instruments such as Ammeters, Voltmeters, Fuel Flow Meters and
Tachometers provide typical examples.
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Spring Maintenance
General
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Most springs are contained inside units and assemblies and are not accessible during aircraft
maintenance, these will be inspected, tested and if necessary replaced during component
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overhaul.
Springs which are accessible generally require very little maintenance. When visible, inspection
must be carried out at the specified intervals for damage such as;
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 fretting against adjacent components,
 distortion - crushing, bending and stretching,
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 overheating as evidenced by discolouration,
 cracking and
 corrosion. O N
Spring Rate may be tested in-situ by measuring the load applied by, or need to overcome a
spring loaded mechanism. For instance, a spring balance may be used on a door handle to
measure the force required to operate the overcentre spring mechanism of a door latch system
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(although this will also measure stiffness and friction throughout the system).
For disassembled springs Spring Rate may be assessed by measuring the length of the relaxed
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item then applying a specified load and measuring the compressed or extended length.
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Any defect found is cause for replacement. It is essential that only the correct spring is used as
these parts are often vital to the operation of the system in which they are installed. For this
reason replacement springs must be selected by part number with reference to the Illustrated
Parts Catalogue.
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Inspection and Testing of Springs
Springs will generally require little in the way of maintenance. Those that are in exposed areas
can become corroded over time and those in areas of high temperature can, if they become
overheated, lose their temper and cease to have the necessary mechanical compliance to
satisfy the task for which they were designed.
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Corrosion, that occurs on static springs, can reduce the loads that the spring can carry, whilst if
a spring that carries cyclic loads becomes corroded, then the combination of fatigue and
corrosion can result in a serious loss of fatigue strength.
Overheating, usually shown as blistering of the surface protection can, in extreme
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circumstances, show a change of colour of the metal due to the loss of temper. It must be
assumed in this event that the spring is not suitable for the designed task.
It is important that any exposed springs are carefully inspected for signs of either of the
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problems of corrosion and overheating.
In some instances, springs have to be checked against figures or graphs to prove whether they
are in a suitable condition to continue in service. Some checks have to be done out at
a hydraulic actuator is dismantled for overhaul.

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prescribed intervals whilst others are done on an ‘opportunity basis’, such as when a brake unit
The most common check done on coil springs is on its static measurement.
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The manufacturer will publish the exact dimension of the unloaded spring with some small
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tolerance, whilst the servicing technician will accurately measure the spring’s length and
compare the two dimensions.
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Providing that the spring is within the published figures, then the spring is considered to be
serviceable.
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The other check, usually completed in a workshop environment, is the load/deflection check.
This check is done on the springs which are used in more critical services, such as piston
engine valve springs.
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A special test rig is used, to load the spring with either a compressive, tensile or a torsional
loading and a meter on the rig will display the load versus deflection figures. A series of loads
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are subsequently applied to the spring and the relevant deflections noted.
On completion, the figures are compared to a graph, published by the spring manufacturer, to
establish the serviceability of the spring.
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If a spring fails any of these checks it is simply replaced with a serviceable item.
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Glossary
Active Coils
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Those coils which are free to deflect under load.
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Angular relationship of ends
The relative position of the plane of the hooks or loops of extension spring to each other.
Buckling
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Bowing or lateral deflection of compression springs when compressed, related to the
slenderness ration (L/D).
Closed ends
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Ends of compression springs where the pitch of the end coils is reduced so that the end coils
touch.
Closed and ground ends

As with closed ends, except that the end is ground to provide a flat plane.
Close-wound
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Coiled with adjacent coils touching.
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Coils per inch

Same as "Pitch"
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Deflection
Motion of the spring ends or arms under the application or removal of an external load.
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Elastic limit
Maximum stress to which a material may be subjected without permanent set.
Endurance limit
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Maximum stress at which any given material may operate indefinitely without failure for a given
minimum stress.
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Free angle
Angle between the arms of a torsion spring when the spring is not loaded.
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Free length
The overall length of a spring in the unloaded position.
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Frequency (natural)
The lowest inherent rate of free vibration of a spring itself (usually in cycles per second) with
ends restrained.
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Hysteresis
The mechanical energy loss that always occurs under cyclical loading and unloading of a
spring, proportional to the area difference between the loading and unloading load-deflection
curves within the elastic range of a spring.
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Initial tension
The force that tends to keep the coils of an extension spring closed and which must be
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overcome before the coil starts to open.
Loops
Coil-like wire shapes at the ends of extension springs that provide for attachment and force
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application.
Mean coil diameter

Outside wire diameter minus one wire diameter.
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Modulus in shear or torsion
Coefficient of stiffness for extension and compression springs.
Modulus in tension or bending

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Coefficient of stiffness used for torsion and flat springs. (Young's modulus).
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Open ends, not ground
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End of a compression spring with a constant pitch for each coil.
Open ends ground

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"Opens ends, not ground" followed by an end grinding operation.

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Permanent set
A material that is deflected so far that its elastic properties have been exceeded and it does not
return to its original condition upon release of load is said to have taken a "permanent set".
Pitch
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The distance from centre to centre of the wire in adjacent active coils.
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Rate
Changes in load per unit of deflection, generally given in pounds per inch (lbs/in).
Remove set
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The process of closing to a solid height a compression spring which has been coiled longer than
the desired finished length, so as to increase the elastic limit.
Set
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Permanent distortion which occurs when a spring is stressed beyond the elastic limit of the
material.
Slenderness ratio
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Ratio of spring length to mean coil diameter.

Solid height
Length of a compression spring when under sufficient load to bring all coils into contact with
adjacent coils.
Spring index
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Ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter.
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Stress range
The difference in operating stresses at minimum and maximum loads.
Squareness of ends
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Angular deviation between the axis o a compression spring and a normal to the plane of the
other ends.
Squareness under load
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As in squareness of ends, except with the spring under load.
Torque
A twisting action in torsion springs which tends to produce rotation, equal to the load multiplied
in inch-oz, inch-pounds or in foot-pounds.

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by the distance (or moment arm) from the load to the axis of the spring body. Usually expressed
Total number of coils

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Number of active coils plus the coils forming the ends.
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Module 6
Licence Category
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A, B1, B2 and B3
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6.8 Bearings
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Module 6.8 Bearings 8.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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LEVEL 2
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examples.
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subject.
subject.
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LEVEL 3
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manner.
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instructions.
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Table of Contents
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6.8 Bearings________________________________________________________________ 9
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General __________________________________________________________________ 9
Types of Bearings ________________________________________________________ 10
Ball Bearings ___________________________________________________________ 11
Radial Bearings _________________________________________________________ 12
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Angular-Contact Bearings _________________________________________________ 12
Thrust Bearings _________________________________________________________ 12
Instrument Precision Bearings ______________________________________________ 12
Roller Bearings _________________________________________________________ 13
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Other Bearing Types and Features __________________________________________ 15
Limit System ____________________________________________________________ 17
General _______________________________________________________________ 17
Fits ___________________________________________________________________ 17
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Tolerances _____________________________________________________________ 17
Bearing Clearance and Classification ________________________________________ 18
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Handling and Cleaning of Bearings __________________________________________ 19
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Handling_______________________________________________________________ 19
Cleaning_______________________________________________________________ 19
Removal, Lubrication and Fitting ____________________________________________ 20
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Effects of Bad Maintenance Practice or Adverse Working Conditions ________________ 21

Bearing Lubrication_______________________________________________________ 23
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General _______________________________________________________________ 23
Lubricant Selection ______________________________________________________ 23
Grease Considerations ___________________________________________________ 23
Oil Considerations _______________________________________________________ 24
Solid Soft Film Lubricants _________________________________________________ 25
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Inspection of Bearings ____________________________________________________ 27

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Safety Precautions _______________________________________________________ 27

Points for inspection______________________________________________________ 27
Feel Test ______________________________________________________________ 28
Run Test ______________________________________________________________ 28
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Bearing Defects _________________________________________________________ 28

Storage _________________________________________________________________ 36
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Objective
Bearings 6.8 1 2 2 1
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Purpose of bearings, loads, material,
construction
Types of bearings and their application
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6.8 Bearings
General
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Bearings are broadly classified by the type of rolling element used in their construction. Ball
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bearings employ steel balls which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst roller bearings utilise
cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers, running in suitably shaped raceways. Both types of
bearings are designed for operation under continuous rotary or oscillatory conditions, but, whilst
ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads, other types of roller
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bearings accept mainly radial loads. The following paragraphs amplify the uses of the various
types of bearings, and examples are shown.
Caged bearings are in general use for engine applications and in equipment with rotational
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speeds in excess of approximately 100 rev/mm. Most other bearings on an aircraft are intended
for oscillating or slow rotation conditions and do not have a cage; they are generally shielded
and pre-packed with grease, but some have relubrication facilities.
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Types of Bearings
Bearings are, broadly, classified by the type of rolling element used in their construction. Ball
bearings employ steel balls, which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst Roller bearings utilise
cylindrical, tapered and spherical rollers running in suitably shaped raceways.
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Although these notes give information on the uses of the various types of ball and roller
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bearings, - together with general information on installation, maintenance and inspection, - the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) should be the final arbiter for specific installations.
Ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads, whilst the other
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types of roller bearings may accept only radial loads.
Those bearings, which are contained in cages, are, in general, used for engine and gearbox
applications with rotational speeds in excess of approximately 100 rpm. Most other bearings, on
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an aircraft or in an engine, are intended for oscillating or slow rotation conditions and do not
have a cage. They are generally shielded or sealed and pre-packed with grease, although some
have external lubrication facilities.
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Ball Bearings
These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel balls. This class of
bearing relies on the motion of the balls to reduce friction between the inner race carried on the
shaft of the machine and the outer race which is normally fitted inside a housing on the
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stationary part of the machine. The bearing may be constructed using single or double rows of
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balls, each row controlled by bronze or brass cage, but bearings which do not have a cage are
often used. Ball bearings are designed for RADIAL or THRUST loads or a combination of both
and are able to operate in either direction of rotation. Ball bearings can be of rigid or self-
aligning type depending on the requirement, this being determined at the time of manufacture.
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Ball bearings may be divided into four main types that define the way in which the bearings are
used. The main types of Ball bearings are:
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 Radial Bearings
 Angular-Contact Bearings
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 Thrust Bearings
 Instrument Precision Bearings
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Radial Bearings
Radial bearings are the most common type of bearing and can be found in all types of
transmission assemblies such as shafts, gears, control rods and end fittings. They are
manufactured with either a single or double row of balls, rigid for normal applications and self-
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aligning for positions where accurate alignment cannot be maintained, such as in control rod
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ends.
Angular-Contact Bearings
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Angular-Contact bearings are capable of accepting radial loads and axial loads in one direction
only. The outer ring is recessed on one side to allow the ball and cage assembly to be installed,
thus enabling more balls to be used and the cage to be in one piece. The axial load capacity
depends on the contact angle.
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In applications where axial loads will always be in one direction, a single angular-contact
bearing may be used but, where they vary in direction, an opposed pair of bearings may be
used.
Thrust Bearings
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Thrust bearings are designed for axial loading only. They will usually be found in use together
with roller or radial ball bearings. The balls are retained in a cage and run on flat or grooved
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washers. These bearings are adversely affected by centrifugal force and so work best under
high-load, low-speed situations.
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Instrument Precision Bearings

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Instrument Precision Bearings are manufactured to high accuracy and finish. They are generally
of the radial bearing type and can be found in both instruments and communication equipment.
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Roller Bearings
These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel rollers instead of balls.
Roller bearings are normally only used to support radial loads but can be designed to
compensate for linear expansion of the shaft or housing, by ensuring that the inner and outer
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races are truly parallel. Location and control of the rollers is achieved by a groove cut in the
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inner or outer races which act as recesses for the rollers. This arrangement allows the rollers to
take up lateral expansion of the shaft by allowing the rollers to slide across the surface during
rotation.
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Roller bearings may be divided into three main types that define their use. They are:
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 Cylindrical Roller Bearings

 Spherical Roller Bearings
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 Tapered Roller Bearings
Cylindrical Roller Bearings

Cylindrical Roller bearings will accept greater radial loads than ball bearings of the same size.
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This is due to the greater contact area of the rolling elements and, if they have ribs on both
rings, cylindrical roller bearings will also accept light, intermittent, axial loads. Normally the
rollers have a length equal to their diameter, although some rollers have a length greater than
their diameter to cater for special applications.
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Roller bearings, which have a length much greater than their diameter, are normally called

needle roller bearings. These are designed for radial loads only and are best used in situations
where the movement is oscillatory rather than rotary, such as in universal joints and control rod
ends.
Spherical Roller Bearings
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Spherical Roller bearings can be found with single or double rows of rollers, which run in a
spherical raceway in the outer ring, thus enabling the bearing to accept a small degree of
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misalignment. These bearings will accept high radial loads and moderate axial loads.
Taper Roller Bearings

These bearings obtain their description from the shape of the inner race, this being in the shape
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of a cone. The tapered bearing consist of the coned shaped inner and a cup shaped outer race.
The rollers are tapered and made from hardened steel. This class of bearing can support radial
loads in one direction only. Because of this, this class of bearing will often be found to contain
two individual rows of bearings, each row using the same inner and outer races, but with the
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rollers arranged with the tapers on the rollers in opposite directions, thus allowing the bearings
to withstand radial loads in either direction.
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Tapered Roller bearings are designed so that the axes of the rollers form an angle to the shaft
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axis. They are capable of accepting radial and axial loads simultaneously, in one direction only.
It is common to find tapered roller bearings mounted in pairs - back to back - so that loads can
be accepted in both directions.
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Needle Roller Bearings
These bearings consist of an inner and outer race separated by narrow trunnion ended rollers.
This class of bearing ft normally used where space saving is an important factor as they are
physically smaller in diameter than other classes of bearing but are longer and will support the
same loading as an equivalent sized ball or roller bearing. This class of bearing are able to
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support only radial loads.
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Other Bearing Types and Features

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Self-Aligning Bearings
Bearings which allow a limited movement of the shaft. So that the inner and outer races are not
always exactly aligned with each other. The action is, of course, achieved without impairing the
operation of the bearing and is a type common to ball and roller class of bearing.
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Single and Double Row Bearings

These bearings employ either a single or double row of either ball or roller bearings. Balls and
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rollers are never mixed within the same bearing races.
Sealed Bearings
Some bearings will have a seal in the form of a circular plate fitted at one end of the bearing,
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this prevents the lubrication used in the bearing from escaping into other parts of the machinery
and causing contamination. This type is called SEMI-SEALED If the basic idea of a seal is
applied to both ends of the bearing and the bearing is primed with the correct amount and grade
of lubricant during manufacture, then sealed, it is called a FULLY SEALED bearing. Foreign
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matter cannot enter this type of bearing, but the bearing cannot be lubricated or maintained
other than to wipe the bearing clean and check it for roughness or wear by carrying out a hand
rotation test.
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(a) Journal for Radial Loads (b) Thrust for Axial Loads
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(c) Self Aligning Double Row Roller (d) Rigid Double Row Ball Bearing
Bearing
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Cage types
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Limit System
General
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For ease of manufacture and replacement it is essential that the components of similar
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mechanisms should be inter-changeable. For this reason limits are imposed on the
manufacturing errors to ensure that any two mating parts are manufactured to the limits stated
on the drawing. The limits are based on the tolerance and allowance applied to the dimensions
of a manufactured part. The correct functioning of a component of any mechanism depends
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upon their size. A rotating part must have clearance in its bearing, too large a shaft or too small
a hole can lead to damage and mechanical failure. Due to imperfections in workmanship, it is
not possible to manufacture component parts to theoretically correct dimensions, but
interchangeability of parts can be achieved if their dimensions are within certain limits, thus the
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need for a limits system which defines how much bigger or smaller than the basic size a part
can be made and still be considered acceptable. The limit system in use is the ISO system of
limits, which is wholly metric and covers up to 3150mm. The actual numerical values of
tolerances are listed in the form of engineering tables contained in the revised version of British
Standard 1961, limits for Engineering. The limits system used in the manufacture of a particular
component.
O N
component should always be shown in the title block of the engineering drawing for the
Fits
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Defined as being the difference, before assembly, between the sizes of two parts of two parts
which are to be assembled. By using various methods of assembly, some gentle - some
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extremely forceful, it is possible in engineering to obtain a fit whether or not the shaft is smaller
than the hole. When the shaft is smaller, a clearance exists between the parts, therefore the
assembly is relatively easy. When the reverse is true, an interference is said to occur and force
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of some kind is needed to compete the assembly. From these two basic situations, three types
of fits emerge, Clearance, Transition and Interference:
 Clearance Fit. A fit which always has a positive clearance or, technically, where the
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tolerance zone of the hole is always above that of the shaft.

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 Transition Fit. A fit which can be either a clearance or interference fit or where the
tolerance zones of the hole and shaft over lap.
 Interference Fit. A fit which always has interference, or where tolerance zones of the
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shaft, is always above that of the hole.
Tolerances
It is the aim of modern engineering production methods to make parts swiftly and to an
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acceptable degree of accuracy. No engineering components can be made, or need to be made,

exactly to size. By using high quality machine tools and a certain flexibility in dimensions, parts
can be made at a tremendous rate and at the same time, guaranteed to be fully
interchangeable. This can be done by adopting a system of limits which in practice, defines how
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much bigger or smaller than the basic size an item can be and yet still be considered
acceptable. A tolerance can be unilateral or bilateral. A unilateral tolerance is one which permits

a variation in one direction only, either above or below the basic size. A bilateral tolerance
allows a variation either above or below basic size.
Bearing Clearance and Classification

The clearance inside a bearing is vital to the correct operation and long life of the bearing.
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There are 4 classes of clearance:
 Group 2
 Normal
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 Group 3
 Group 4
The clearance refers to the clearance between the ball, roller or needle and the outer race and
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is identified by one of the two available methods:
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Dot Method
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This method of marking the bearing uses a dot code (or zeros) to denote the clearance:
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(1) One dot indicates a range 0.00005" less than standard (Group 2 – not suited to high
speed)
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(2) Two dots represent a standard clearance (Normal).
(3) Three dots indicate a clearance 0.00005” greater than standard (Group 3 –
Interference fit – high speed – axial loading).
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(4) Four dots indicate the largest clearance (Group 4 – For use where the bearing
is expected to get hot).
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Handling and Cleaning of Bearings
Handling
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Most bearings used for aircraft and aircraft components are costly because of high precision in
their manufacture. Bearings must never be spun in an un-lubricated condition since dust,
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moisture or other foreign matter may contaminate the bearing and lead to slight damage to the
races, balls or rollers, which will lead to increased wear rates and encourage corrosion.
Bearings should also be handled using lint free gloves as the natural oils and dirt may cause
contamination of the lubricant
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Cleaning
Cleanliness is vital. Key points to cleanliness:
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 Do not unpack bearing until required for use.
 Clean using Trichloroethane or white spirit only.
 When cleaning use a brush not rag.
 Do not handle bearing unnecessarily.

O N
Do not rotate bearing at high speed unless lubricated.
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Removal, Lubrication and Fitting
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Effects of Bad Maintenance Practice or Adverse Working Conditions
In order that the maintenance carried out on aircraft or aircraft components is of the highest
possible standard, the following points must be remembered:
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 Misalignment
Bearings which are misaligned will have a reduced life. The balls or rollers will be unable
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to cope with this condition and will overheat and fail. A broken or distorted cage or signs
of non-concentric wear on the race surfaces are signs that the bearing is incorrectly
aligned.
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 Ingress of Foreign Matter
This will cause rapid wear of the bearings, because even small particles will prevent the
correct rolling action of the balls or rollers and will cause scoring.
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 Inadequate or Contaminated Lubricants
This will cause rapid wear, overheating and stiffness in the bearing. These defects are
usually detected by the lubricant being discolored and the bearings being stiff when
operated by hand, or the balls, rollers or cages and races will show signs of excessive
heat by discoloration.
 Vibration
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This will cause indentations in the surface of the races and ball or roller, which will cause
a roughness in running and result in rapid wear.
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 Excessive Interference Fit

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Will place unbearable strain on the races which when combined with the heating effects
and vibration can cause cracking and eventual disintegration of the bearing.
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 Excessive Pre-Loading
This will cause overheating of the ball or rollers and will lead to breakdown of the
lubricant resulting in the tightening of the bearing, rapid wear and eventual disintegration
of the bearing.
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Intentionally Blank
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Bearing Lubrication
General
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One of the major contributing factors to achieving reliability of bearings is proper lubrication.
Bearings operate on very thin films of lubricant, which have to be maintained to ensure that
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design life is achieved. The ways of ensuring this, and to maximising bearing life, are to a)
select the correct lubricant, b) apply it properly, and c) maintain it in a clean condition. Neglect
or failure in any of these areas will seriously increase the risk of premature bearing failures and
interfere with the trouble free running that is now of such crucial importance in ultra competitive
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global markets.
The increased speeds and higher temperatures at which modern bearings routinely operate,
combined with the demands placed upon them for improved accuracy and reliability, mean that
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the process of selecting a suitable bearing lubrication, today, is more critical than it has ever
been. Properly selected a lubricant will:
 Reduce friction and wear by providing a hydrodynamic film of sufficient strength and
thickness to support the load and separate the balls from the raceways, preventing

metal-to-metal contact. N
Minimise cage wear by reducing sliding friction in cage pockets and land surfaces.
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 Prevent oxidation/corrosion of the bearing rolling elements.
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 Act as a barrier to contaminants.
 Serve as a heat transfer agent in some cases, conducting heat away from the bearing.
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Bearing lubricants fall into three main categories; Oils, Greases and Solid Dry Film Lubricants,
which are usually limited to moderate speed and very light loading conditions.
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Greases, because of their convenience, are by far the most widely used of the three, and have
been the focus of much development over the last decade.
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Lubricant Selection
The selection of a particular type of bearing lubricant is generally governed by the operating
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conditions and limitations of a bearing system. Three of the most significant factors in selecting
a lubricant are:
 The viscosity of the lubricant at operating temperature.

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 The maximum and minimum allowable operating temperatures.

 The speed at which the bearing will operate.
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Grease Considerations
The primary advantage of grease over oil is that bearings can be pre-lubricated, eliminating the
need for - and the cost of - an external lubrication system. Besides simplicity, grease lubrication
also requires less maintenance and has less stringent sealing requirements than oil systems.
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Grease tends to remain in proximity to bearing components, metering its oil content to operating
surfaces as needed.

The negatives with grease are that it does not conduct heat away from a bearing as efficiently
as oil. In addition, grease can increase the initial torque within a bearing and cause running
torque to be slightly higher.
Finally, the speed limits for greases (expressed as a dN value, with dN being the bearing bore
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in mm multiplied by rpm) are generally lower than for oils due to the plastic nature of grease that
tends to cause overheating at high speed.
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Oil Considerations
While grease lubrication is inherently simpler than lubrication with oil, there are still applications
where oil is the better choice. In high-speed spindle and turbine applications, for example oil is
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supplied continuously and provides cooling as well as lubrication. A further example is

instrument bearings with extremely low values of starting and running torque. These require
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only a minimal, one-time lubrication, each bearing receiving just a few milligrams of oil - a single
drop or less.
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The limiting speeds for oil-lubricated bearings are imposed by the bearing size and cage design,
rather than by the lubricant. To illustrate this point, petroleum or di-ester-based oils can
accommodate bearing speeds up to 1,500,000 dN or higher. In the case of silicone-based oils,
the maximum speed rating drops to 200,000 dN. Similarly, when computing life for bearings
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lubricated with silicone-based oils, the Basic Load Rating (C) should be reduced by two-thirds
(C/3). In addition, to ensure long life at high speeds, the lubrication system should provide for
retention, circulation, filtration and possibly cooling of the oil.
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Solid Soft Film Lubricants
Solid Soft films are primarily used to provide solid lubrication for bearings in extreme
applications where traditional fluid lubricants would be rendered ineffective. They offer the
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advantages that their friction is independent of temperature (from cryogenic to extreme high
temperature applications), and they do not evaporate or creep in terrestrial vacuum or space
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environments.
The solid soft film lubricant can either be applied directly to the surface or transferred by rubbing
contact from a sacrificial source such as a self-lubricating bearing cage. The processes have
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been used successfully in a variety of extreme aerospace applications.
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Intentionally Blank
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Inspection of Bearings
Safety Precautions
Y
The cleaning of bearings for inspection normally involves the use of solvents, so the appropriate
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PPE should be worn. This will include respiratory, eye and skin protection by using breathing
masks, goggles and inspection gloves. The moisture from the human hand may contaminate a
bearing surface, as easily as the lubricant can cause damage to the skin through dermatitis.
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Points for inspection
1. A darkening colour of the grease will indicate the presents of metallic particles in
suspension in the grease.
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2. Rotate bearing by hand and check for roughness, after thoroughly cleaning and lubricate
with oil.
N
3. Ensure that the two halves of the cage are still riveted securely together.
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4. Examine the cage for hairline cracks across the rivet holes and the sham corners at the
sides of the ball pockets.
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5. Examine both edges of each ball pocket for wear, this will be indicated by shiny edges
with upturned lips.
6. Serviceable balls have a shiny polished appearance, whereas a dull leaden appearance
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indicates excessive wear.
7. Examine both races for signs of serious scratching and fretting corrosion which has the
red appearance of rust.
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Feel Test
A bearing is tested for roughness by turning the bearing slowly and hand feeling and listening
for any defect. Remember - the bearing must NOT be spun in an unlubricated state.
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Run Test
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Running smoothness may be checked by mounting it on a shaft and rotating at 500 - 1,000 rpm
and applying alternate axial and radial loads in either direction.
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Bearing Defects
Fault What to look for
AC
Worn races Excessive clearance radially/axially, flaking of raceway groove.
Worn balls/rollers Excessive axial/radial clearances, misshapen rolling elements.
Creep
N
Shiny marks on outside of outer race caused by incorrect interference fit in
housing
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Shiny marks on inside of inner race caused by incorrect interference fit on
shaft.
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Worn cage Soft metal dust in and around the bearing. Inspect for loose rivets.
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Overheating Look for bluing of elements and raceways.

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Brinelling Indentation of raceways may be seen or felt in a dismantled bearing.

Roughness will be present on a spin test of an assembled bearing. Caused
by ‘skidding’ of the rolling elements due to sudden increases in speed
under high load (wheel bearings on landing for example).
N
False Brinelling Indentation of raceways may be seen or felt in a dismantled bearing.

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Caused by vibration transmitted through the bearing when the machine is

stationary (in transit for example).
Corrosion Pitting of elements and raceways

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Chipping Roughness and clicking on spin test.
Spalling The separation/flaking of the surface layer of the raceway

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caused by thermal or mechanical stresses.

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Normal Fatigue
Normal fatigue failure is often shown as a fracture of the running surface, with subsequent
removal of small particles of metal and is commonly called spalling.
It occurs on both rolling elements and raceways, and is always accompanied by an increase in
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vibration. Moderately spalled areas show the bearing has reached the end of its normal service
life.
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Excessive Loads
Excessive loading of a bearing is usually the same as normal fatigue, but the rolling elements
wear path is usually heavier. There is also increased evidence of overheating with a widespread
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and deeper fatigue or spalled area. This often causes premature bearing failure.
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Damage due to excessive loads

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Installation and Misalignment

Installation damage is usually the result of an impact that occurs when a bearing is fitted
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incorrectly. This may be due to a sharp strike from a drift or pressing the wrong raceway when
mounting the bearing.
Misalignment damage can be seen on the raceway of the non-rotating ring because the rolling
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element wear path is not parallel to the raceway edge. Excessive misalignment can cause high
temperatures as well as heavy wear of the cage.
Loose Fit
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A bearing should always be mounted onto a shaft or housing with an interference fit. If the
raceway becomes loose then it will rotate on these surfaces and cause fretting. This fretting will
remove metal particles, which oxidise and leave a distinctive brown colour. It usually occurs
when the bearing outer raceway rotates inside a worn housing. The external surface of the
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raceway will be scored and discoloured as a result of a loose fitting bearing.

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Loose fit damage
Brinelling – True and False

O N
Brinelling marks on a bearing raceway resemble the indentations that result from a Brinell
Hardness Test. They are described as being either True Brinell or False Brinell marks.
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Brinelling is caused when a load is applied to a ball bearing that exceeds the elastic limits of the
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steel and the raceways are permanently deformed. Brinelling creates measurable dents at each
ball location similar to the deformation caused by a Brinell Hardness Tester. This type of
damage can occur quite easily if proper care is not taken. High energy impacts (from hammers
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and smash-ups), improper bearing handling and incorrect spindle assembly can all damage
bearings. Remember that we are talking about bearings with raceways with roundness
measured in millionths of an inch. You might not even realize the damage has occurred except
for increases in vibration and non-repetitive run-out.
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False brinelling is not related to excessive loads. False brinelling is caused by ambient vibration.
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Even a brand new bearing, sealed in a box on a shelf, is subject to false brinelling if it is
exposed to environmental vibrations for an extended period. When a bearing is not operating it
is subject to false brinelling in the box or in the machine. When a bearing is operating, there is
an oil film between the rolling elements and the raceways. This is called elasto-hydro-dynamic
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(EHD) film. Most people can relate to hydroplaning. When you reach a certain speed on a wet
road your tyres actually lift off the road (not good). But when a bearing operates with the proper
lubrication and at the right speed the balls or rollers lift off the raceway slightly (this is good).
This extremely thin film protects and lubricates the bearing while it is running. When the bearing
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is stopped there is no EHD film and there IS metal to metal contact. That is when false brinelling
can quietly attack your bearings. The combination of metal to metal contact and vibration create
a wear and corrosion pattern that mimics brinelling.
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The prevention is to rotate spindles routinely if they are not in use to reposition the rolling
elements and lubrication. Take steps to reduce vibration or isolate machines from each other

through properly designed mounting pads. Store bearings and spindles in a clean dry area free
from vibration.
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False Brinelling (left) and True Brinelling (right)
Overheating and Lubrication Failure

N
Excessive heating of a bearing manifests itself as discoloration of the rings, rolling elements and
cages from gold to blue. Excessive temperatures will usually be in excess of 400°C. In extreme
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cases the rolling elements and raceways will deform. A blue/black colour indicates an area
close to the heat source and changes to a silver/gold discoloration the further you move away.
Failure or lack of lubrication often has similar signs as overheating because good lubrication
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should cool the material and transfer away any heat produced during rotation. Restricted flow
and excessive temperatures can also degrade the chemical composition of the oil, making it
ineffective and increase wear rates.
ND
The outcome of either overheating or lubrication failure will always result in the eventual failure
of the bearing.
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Contamination and Corrosion
Contamination is one of the leading causes of premature bearing failure. The symptoms are
dents or scratches embedded in the bearing raceway and rolling elements, resulting in bearing
vibration and wear.
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The contaminant would be an abrasive substance that gets into the bearing, such as sand, grit
or dust. The principal sources are dirty tools, contaminated work areas, dirty hands and foreign
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matter in the lubricant or cleaning solutions.
Corrosion is usually the result of a chemical attack on the bearing material by an incompatible
fluid such as moisture. It manifests itself as either black pitting marks or red/brown rust coloured
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areas on the rolling elements, raceways, or cages. It usually results in increased vibration
followed by wear.
AC
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Contamination damage
N
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ND
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Corrosion damage

Flaking or Spalling
Fatigue is the result of shear stresses cyclically appearing immediately below the load carrying
surface. After a time these stresses cause cracks which gradually extend up to the surface. As
the rolling elements pass over the cracks fragments of material break away and this is known as
flaking or spalling. The flaking progressively increases in extent and eventually makes the
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bearing unserviceable.
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The life of a rolling bearing is defined as the number of revolutions the bearing can perform
before incipient flaking occurs. This does not mean to say that the bearing cannot be used after
then. Flaking is a relatively long, drawn-out process and makes its presence known by
increasing noise and vibration levels in the bearing. Therefore, as a rule, there is plenty of time
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to prepare for a change of bearing.
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N
Stages in flaking (spalling)
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Electric Current Damage

When an electric current passes through a bearing, i.e. proceeds from one ring to the other via
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the rolling elements, damage will occur. At the contact surfaces the process is similar to electric
arc welding.
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Such electric currents can be of a low level but last for considerable lengths of time (such as
voltage leakage from a motor or generator) or be very high level for a short duration (such as
that caused by a lightning strike of the aircraft). Equal amounts of damage can occur from both
situations.
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The appearance of the damage is dark brown or greyish black fluting (corrugation) or craters in
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raceways and rollers. Balls have dark discolouration only. Sometimes zigzag burns in ball
bearings raceways. Also, localised burns in raceways and on rolling elements.
The material is heated to temperatures ranging from tempering to melting levels. This leads to
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the appearance of discoloured areas, varying in size, where the material has been tempered,
re-hardened or melted. Small craters also form where the metal has melted.
The passage of electric current frequently leads to the formation of fluting (corrugation) in
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bearing raceways. Rollers are also subject to fluting, while there is only dark discolouration of
balls.
It can be difficult to distinguish between electric current damage and vibration damage. A
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feature of the fluting caused by electric current is the dark bottom of the corrugations, as
opposed to the bright or rusty appearance at the bottom of the vibration induced fluting. Another

distinguishing feature is the lack of damage to the rolling elements of bearings with raceway
fluting caused by vibrations.
Both alternating and direct currents cause damage to bearings. Even low amperage currents
are dangerous. Non-rotating bearings are much more resistant to electric current damage than
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bearings in rotation. The extent of the damage depends on a number of factors: current
intensity, duration, bearing load, speed and lubricant.
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The only way of avoiding damage of this nature is to prevent any electric current from passing
through the bearing.
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Left: Fluting caused by the passage of electric current, in the outer ring of a spherical roller
bearing.
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Right: The outer ring of a self-aligning ball bearing damaged by electric current.
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Storage
If a bearing is to be used immediately after inspection, it should be lubricated with correct
lubricant and installed. If there is liable to be a delay before installation, then the bearing should
be coated in rust-preventing inhibiting oil, wrapped in greaseproof paper, boxed and labelled.
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The bearing should always be stored horizontally, in a clean dry atmosphere.
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Module 6
Licence Category
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A, B1, B2 and B3
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6.9 Transmissions
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Module 6.9 Transmission 9.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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LEVEL 2
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examples.
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subject.
subject.
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LEVEL 3
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manner.
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instructions.
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Table of Contents
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6.9 Transmissions ___________________________________________________________ 9
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Gears ___________________________________________________________________ 9
General ________________________________________________________________ 9
Gear Nomenclature _______________________________________________________ 9
Spur Gears ____________________________________________________________ 11
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Bevel Gears ____________________________________________________________ 12
Helical Gears ___________________________________________________________ 13
Worm Gears ___________________________________________________________ 14
Conformal Gears ________________________________________________________ 15
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Accessory Drives ________________________________________________________ 16
Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train _______________________________________ 18
Gear Ratio _____________________________________________________________ 18
Compound Gear Train ____________________________________________________ 21
Worm Gears ___________________________________________________________ 23
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Epicyclic Reduction Gear __________________________________________________ 24
Reduction Gears ________________________________________________________ 27
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Gear Pattern ___________________________________________________________ 32
Backlash or Lash ________________________________________________________ 34
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Gear Terms ____________________________________________________________ 36

Belts and Pulleys _________________________________________________________ 37
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Control Chains, Chain Wheels and Pulleys ___________________________________ 41

General _______________________________________________________________ 41
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Chain Assemblies _______________________________________________________ 41

Installation of Chain Assemblies ____________________________________________ 42
Inspection after Assembly _________________________________________________ 45
Maintenance ___________________________________________________________ 45
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Ball Screw Jack __________________________________________________________ 47

General _______________________________________________________________ 47
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Ball Screw Inspection_____________________________________________________ 49

Lever Devices __________________________________________________________ 51
General _______________________________________________________________ 53
End Fittings ____________________________________________________________ 54
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Adjustments ____________________________________________________________ 55
Method of Checking a Tubular Member for Bow ________________________________ 56
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Objective
Transmissions 6.9 1 2 2 1
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Gear types and their application
Gear ratios, reduction and multiplication gear
systems, driven and driving gears, idler gears,
mesh patterns
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Belts and pulleys, chains and sprockets
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6.9 Transmissions
Gears
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General
Gears are toothed wheels used to transmit power between components of a machine where the
centre distances between the shafts is limited. They give a positive drive of a fixed velocity ratio
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and do not slip.
Gears are used in conjunction with the various bearings and shafts in various components to
transmit power, change direction of rotation and to increase or decrease speed.
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Gears may be cast, moulded or cut from solid steel, brass, bronze and plastics. Frequently used
combinations for wheel and pinion respectively are carbon steel/alloy steel, alloy steel/case
hardened steel. O N
When two gears are running together the large one is called the gear and the smaller is called a
pinion. If the pinion drives the gear, the unit is a speed reducer; if the gear drives the pinion, it is
a speed increaser. Gears are more often used as speed reducers.
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The second major function of gears is to provide a usable range of gear ratios in a machine.
Four or five forward gears in a motor car for example or a wide range of cutting speeds in a
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lathe. The gear ratio is the ratio of the number of teeth on one gear to the number of teeth on
the other and determines the amount of speed reduction or increase which takes place. For
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example, if a pinion has twenty teeth and the gear has sixty, the ratio is 1:3 and the gear will
make one revolution for every three of the pinion.
When one gear drives another, they turn in opposite directions (unless one of them is an
internally toothed gear). If it is required that they turn in the same direction, a third gear called
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an idler gear is interposed between them.

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Gear Nomenclature
If two gears running together are imagined to be two smooth wheels whose surfaces are
touching, the diameter of each wheel is the PITCH DIAMETER or the PITCH CIRCLE of the
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gear.
The part of the gear tooth that extends beyond the pitch circle is called the ADDENDUM; the
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DEDENDUM is the part of the tooth inside the circle.
The ROOT CIRCLE is the diameter of the gear measured at the base of the tooth.
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The PITCH is the distance between a point on a tooth and the corresponding point on the next
tooth, measured on the pitch circle. This is known as the CIRCULAR PITCH. To facilitate

calculations, the DIAMETRICAL PITCH is more commonly used, this being the number of teeth
per unit of diameter, measured on the pitch circle.
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Spur Gears
Spur gears are the most common and cheapest type. The have straight teeth and are used to
transmit power between two parallel shafts or shafts in the same axis.
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The sides of the teeth, in profile, describe an involute curve. (If a piece of string is wrapped
around a cylinder, a point on the piece of string will describe the involute curve as the string is
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held tautly and unwound.) The sides of the teeth must be curved, otherwise the operation of the
gears would be noisy, wear would be excessive and a great deal of vibration would be
generated.
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The involute curve has been found to be best because when an involutely curved tooth surface
transmits power to an involutely curved mating tooth, as much of the power is transmitted as
possible even if the centre distance between the shafts varies slightly. The point on the side of
the tooth which is also a point on the pitch diameter of the gear is the point at which the power
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is transmitted most efficiently. The exact curve of the tooth surface is computed from the base
circle of the gear. The base circle is just be the pitch circle and is the point at which the involute
curve from the top of the tooth ends. The tooth terminates in a straight radial flank to the root.
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Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are shaped liked sections of cones. They are used to transmit power between
nonparallel shafts whose axes intersect. The teeth on an ordinary bevel gear are straight but
tapered in length and depth; if extended in length, they would meet at a point ahead of the gear
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on the axis of the shaft called the pitch cone apex. The most common types are straight cut and
usually mounted on shafts 90º to each other and are used for fairly low speed application where
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smoothness and noise are not a problem. Spiral bevel gears have curved teeth and can be
used for higher loads and speeds and are quieter in operation.
When the axes of the two shafts do not intersect, the gear is know as 'hypoid'. Hypoid gears
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required to be lubricated with an oil containing an EP (Extreme Pressure) additive.
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Helical Gears
Bevel gears or spur gears can have spiral teeth on them, enabling them to be designed to
transmit power between shafts at any angle to each other, according to the spiral of the teeth.
They are called helical gears.
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The curved teeth enter the mating teeth while the previously meshing teeth are still in contact.
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This means that some sliding of the teeth against each other takes place and that power is
transmitted with relative smoothness and silence.
Helical gears are more expensive than spur gears and are normally used for high speed, that is
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pinion RPM greater than 3600 and high load applications. Lubrication demands are high and
thrust bearings are required to withstand the trust arising from helical meshing.
To overcome this, two sets of helical gears can be used, with the thrust in opposite directions,
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cancelling each other out. For this application, the gears are sometimes machined out of one
piece of metal with helical teeth meeting in the centre of the face and spiralling outward from
each other. These are called herringbone or double helical gears.
Helical gears are most common in parallel shaft drives. Single helical gears can be used for
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nonintersecting, non-parallel shaft applications provided they have the same pitch and pressure
angle. These are known as crossed helical gears or skew gears and can only carry
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comparatively low loads.
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Worm Gears
Worm gears are capable of large speed reduction and high load applications where nonparallel,
non-intersecting shafts are used and have an advantage over crossed helical gears. The 90º
shaft configuration is the commonest with the worm as the driver. The worm is a screw thread
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with one continuous gear tooth which engages with the helical gear. The set is irreversible and
self locking and is often used in aircraft flap drive mechanisms.
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The frictional heat generated during operation is large compared with other types of gear and
continuous lubrication and heat dissipating casings are required.
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Conformal Gears
The conformal gear tooth pattern has been applied to helicopter gearboxes. The advantage of
the conformal mesh over the involute mesh is that the involute mesh only has line contact
between the two teeth of meshing gear, whereas the conformal mesh has an area contact such
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that higher loads can be taken by conformal gear teeth.
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For the same load, a conformal gear can have a reduction in the number of teeth on pinions,
thus giving a greater gear reduction per stage so that fewer gear stages are necessary in a
main rotor gearbox.
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This leads to a reduction in the size and weight of the gearbox and an increase in transmission
efficiency as there are fewer gears and bearings to cause friction.
There is also a corresponding increase in reliability and maintainability with a more simple and
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compact gearbox. As gearboxes distort under load, the gearboxes containing conformal gears
are constructed more rigidly, therefore some of the weight advantage of conformal gears is
offset by the need for heavier gearbox castings.
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Accessory Drives
Aircraft engines also employ multiple gear trains, in their internal and external gearboxes. These
provide the drives for accessories such as fuel, hydraulic and oil pumps, electrical generators,
engine speed indicators and many other devices
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Here it can be seen that „idler‟ gears are added to reverse the rotation and possibly to alter the
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final ratio of several drives and, while the majority of the gears are of spur and helical
configuration, the drive from the engine shaft, to the gearbox, has bevel gears.
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Accessory Drives Section of Helicopter Gas Turbine Engine

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Typical External Accessory Gearbox

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Spur and Pinion Reduction Gear Train
The smaller, of a high-ratio pair of spur gears, is referred to as the „Pinion‟, while the larger
remains the „Spur‟ and spur and pinion gear arrangements also vary, depending on the desired
results.
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Where the drive pinion is located inside the spur-cut ring gear it has the advantage of not only
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stepping down the ratio of input to output but also (as can be seen), both gears rotate in the
same direction.
Considerable space is also saved, compared to a system using two, externally-cut gears, for a
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similar reduction in output speed.
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Gear Ratio
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Simple Gear Train

The illustration shows two meshed spur gears of different sizes. This is a simple gear train, with
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one wheel on each shaft. The smaller 9 toothed pinion will have to turn two revolutions for each
revolution of the larger 18 toothed wheel and so when the wheel is used as the driver (input)
gear output motion will be faster than the input. In this case:
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Velocity Ratio =
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or
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The velocity ratio for a gear system is usually referred to as the gear ratio and the above value
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would be quoted as a gear ration of 1:2. It equals the ratio of the speeds of the driving and
driven gears.
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Sometimes the gear ratio is defined as the ratio of the driven gear speed to that of the driver. To
avoid confusion the gear ratio should be clearly specified.
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Simple Train with Idler Gear

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Gear Ratio =
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Without Idler
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Gear Ratio as above
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The idler does not alter the overall Velocity Ratio.
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Note: This means that gear 'C' travels or rotates at 3/5 the speed of gear 'A'.
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Compound Gear Train
In a compound train at least one shaft carries a compound gear or two wheels which rotate at
the same speed. The advantage of a compound gear train is that it can produce a high gear
ratio without the disproportionate gear sizes that would be necessary in a simple gear train.
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Consider that in the compound gear train illustrated, the drive gear A has 15 teeth and an
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angular speed of 240 rev/min. For one revolution of gear A the meshing gear B (30 teeth) will
rotate half a revolution. Gear C is mounted on the same shaft as gear B and will therefore also
rotate half a turn. For half a turn of gear C (½ x 18 = 9 teeth), gear D (36 teeth) will rotate
through one quarter of a revolution.
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Gear Ratio =
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Generally, for a compound gear train, in which A and C are the driver gears and B and D are
the driven gears -
Gear Ratio =
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Using the figures for the gear train above -
Gear Ratio =
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Note: This means that gear 'D' travels or rotates at ¼ of the speed of gear 'A'.
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Gear Ratio =
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Driven gear is running at of driver gear
If driver is rotating at 1000 rpm then the final driven gear is rotating at
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Worm Gears
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One revolution of the worm moves the gear one tooth and so the ratio of the angular velocities
is given by the number of teeth on the wheel.
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= the number of teeth in wheel
therefore
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gear ratio = the number of teeth in wheel

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Epicyclic Reduction Gear
There are several basic types of planetary gear arrangements. In one type the ring gear is fixed
and the sun gear is the driven gear. The sun gear meshes with and drives three equi-spaced
gears known as planet gears. These gears are mounted on a carrier or spider and rotate
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independently on their axles.
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Surrounding this gear train is an internally toothed wheel known as the annulus or ring gear
whose teeth are in mesh with the planet gears. If the ring gear is fixed, rotation of the sun gear
will cause the planet gears to rotate about their axes and at the same time to move around the
ring gear. This causes the planet gear spider to rotate at a lower speed than the sun gear.
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When high torque is to be transmitted, the gear tooth is helical.
The speed reduction of this arrangement is
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Gear Ratio =
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Another type of planetary gear system has the ring gear as the driven gear and the sun gear is
fixed. The output shaft is mounted on the spider that holds the planetary gears. Again the output
turns more slowly that the input.
Gear Ratio =
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In a third type the spider is fixed, input being provided by a shaft attached to the sun gear, and
output by a shaft connected to the rotating ring gear. This arrangement is commonly used in
gas turbine air driven starter motors.
Epicyclic reduction gears are also used in the reduction gear assemblies of turbo prop engines.
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Reduction Gears
Reduction gears are driven by gas turbine engines, and normally drive a propeller or helicopter
rotor.
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Power turbines run at speeds, which suit the design characteristics of the rest of the engine.
This does not have anything in common with the speed of the propeller, which is set by its own
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characteristics, chiefly blade diameter.
This, as has already been seen, compromises the design and operation of the coupled turbine
engine but is much less problematic in a free turbine design.
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As power turbines can be spinning at up to 38,500 RPM and anything much over 2,000 RPM is
considered quite fast for a propeller, it is obvious that a means of reducing this speed difference
must be found. A suitable gear train will carry out this function.
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Types of Reduction Gear
There are two main types available to the designer.
 The parallel spur gear type

 The epicyclic type.
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Parallel Spur Gears
This type of gear train has the advantage of being mechanically simple and therefore relatively
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cheap to manufacture.
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Parallel Spur gears in use

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Parallel Spur Gears – External and Internal
Epicyclic Reduction Gears N

A gear train consisting of a sun (driving) gear meshing with and driving three or more equi-
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spaced gears known as „Planet Pinions‟. These pinions are mounted on a carrier and rotate
independently on their own axles. Surrounding the gear train is an internally toothed „Annulus
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Gear‟ in mesh with the Planet Pinions.

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An epicyclic gear

If the annulus is fixed, rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet pinions to rotate about their
axes within the annulus gear, this causes the planet carrier to rotate in the same direction as
sun wheel but at a lower speed. With the propeller shaft secured to the planet pinion carrier, a
speed reduction is obtained with the turbine shaft (input shaft) and propeller shaft (output shaft)
in the same axis and rotating in the same direction.
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Epicyclic Gear train with Fixed Annulus Ring Rear

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If the annulus is free, rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet pinions to rotate about their
axles within the annulus gear. With the planet pinion carrier fixed and the propeller shaft
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attached to the annulus gear, rotation of the planet pinions causes the annulus gear and
propeller to rotate in the opposite direction to the sun wheel and at a reduced speed.
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Epicyclic Gear Train with Fixed Planet gear Carrier

Compound Spur Epicyclic
Compound epicyclic reduction gears enable a greater reduction in speed to be obtained without
resorting to larger components. They may be of either the fixed or free annulus type.
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Gear Train / Epicyclic
Some turbo-props will use a gear train or a combination of gear train and epicyclic.
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Gear Pattern
The pattern of two gears is also very important and closely related to the backlash. The
backlashes and patterns are generally most critical where directional changes are made with
gears, because they are adjustable by moving the gears inward or outward in order to obtain
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the correct relationship. Each gear tooth of a bevelled gear has a heel and a toe.
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The heel is located at the largest diameter of the bevel gear and the toe is located at the
smallest diameter of the gear. If the gears mate in such a manner that the teeth ride too close to
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the heel or toe, the load will not be distributed evenly and the breakage of the teeth will occur.
The illustration shows the pattern set too close to the toe and to the heel. If it is a straight tooth
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bevel gear, the proper pattern should be at the middle of the tooth.
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However many gears are not straight tooth gears, but are helical in design. By being helical
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more strength may be developed in a smaller gear. With this type of gear a different pattern is
developed in a no load condition than under a load. With this type of gear the ideal no load
pattern is shown.
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The patterns of these gears is taken by using Prussian Blue on the gears to leave the imprint of
the other gears on the teeth. The illustration shows some typical patterns and movement
required to correct the pattern. The gears are moved in and out by means of shims. The
thickness of the shims determine the position of the gear and change the backlash and pattern.
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Often these gears on which backlash and patterns must be obtained are supplied and fitted as
matched sets. Sometimes the teeth are marked with X's and O's to ensure correct meshing.
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Gearboxes have control rings which set the backlash and pattern of the gears. The control rings
are matched to a particular gearbox casing. If a control ring is ever removed and lost, the casing
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will have to be returned to the manufacturers for a new ring.
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Backlash or Lash
General
BACKLASH or LASH is the play between two meshing gears and is defined as the difference
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between the distance between two teeth and the width of the engaging tooth. Backlash between
two gears can be altered by changing the centre distance between them. The correct amount of
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backlash is designed into a gear system, which means that the distance between the centres
must be within tolerance.
If the teeth of one gear are set too tightly into the teeth of another, there will be no backlash and
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the gears will not be properly lubricated because a film of oil must be present between the teeth
of the gears as they mesh. This will also cause overheating of the gears.
If the gears are meshed too high in relation to the teeth the load will be transmitted to the
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smallest portion of the tooth, causing the teeth to break. The ideal placement of the teeth is in
the middle area.
At this position the teeth will receive proper lubrication and loading. A typical gear may have
0.003 to 0.004 in (0.08 to 0.1 mm) backlash and this may be measured with a backlash flag and
dial test indicator.
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All gear trains require continuous lubrication which must be pressure fed for high speed gears to
counteract the effects of centrifugal force on the oil. In some cases plastics materials may be
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used which do not require lubrication e.g. nylon. However, these are limited to low speed/ low
load applications due to low thermal conductivity and strength of plastics. The use of plastic
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gears in a gear train can reduce noise.
The provision of one more tooth than is needed to give the required ratio in a pair of mating
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gears is called a 'hunting tooth' and will distribute wear evenly amongst all the teeth on the pair.
Wear can be further equalised by making the pinion harder than the gear wheel since the pinion
does more work per tooth than the gear.
Condition monitoring by continuous checking of temperature and vibration is common practice

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for large gearbox installations.

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Checking Backlash of Gears

The primary purpose of a gear is the transmission of force through motion; therefore, stress and
wear occur continually. For that reason, it is important to visually examine all gears for cracked
or chipped teeth and the presence of pitting or excessive wear. Deep pit marks or excessive
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wear on gear teeth are reasons for rejecting and replacing a gear. Minor scratches and
abrasions on a gear‟s bearing surfaces can normally be dressed out with a fine abrasive cloth,
however, deep scratches or scoring is unacceptable. Correct gear backlash must be checked
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and maintained to ensure proper gear mesh with the aid of DTI and special fixture for the
particular gear box.
The addendum of a gear tooth is 0.318 of the pitch. For example a gear wheel is 3 inches in
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diameter and the pitch of the teeth is 0.5 inches.

0.318 x 0.5 = 0.1590
Multiply 0.1590 by 2 and subtract from the full diameter of the gear wheel. This gives the pitch
circle diameter on which the backlash is measured. Halve the pitch circle diameter and this is
the length of the lever used in conjunction with a dial test indicator for checking the backlash of
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the gearwheels. Double the length of this lever and halve the backlash figure obtained to give
the true backlash
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Gear Terms
Backlash (or lash)

The terms used to describe the clearance which must exist between gear teeth at point of
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mesh, essential with all forms of gearing to allow for expansion and lubrication.
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Idler Gear
A gear which is interposed between the driving and driven gear, its function is to connect the
drive between two shafts. A spur idler gear is used between two parallel shafts to maintain the
direction of rotation and does not affect the ratio of the gears. A bevel idler may be used where
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two shafts intersect and/or are co-axial.
Intermediate Gear
A gear which is positioned between the driving gear and one or more driven gears in a gear
train. It may function as an idler gear or transmit drive through its own shaft.
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Compound Gear
This is a gear wheel which has more than one driving face. These faces may be formed
integrally on one casting or forging, or it may comprise two or more gears bolted or splined
together to transmit drive to a number of shafts.
Pinion
O N
This term is usually applied to the smaller of two mating gears.
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Lay-shaft
A shaft which supports an idler gear or intermediate gear, it may be integral with the gear and
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be supported by bearings, or may be fixed and provide a bearing surface for the rotating gear.
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Rack and Pinion

A device in which a toothed rod (rack) meshes with a mating pinion to translate the rotary
movement of the pinion into linear movement.
Step-Up Drive
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A drive through a gear train in which the speed of rotation of the output (driven) shaft is
increased.
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Example: Used in aero-engines in a generator drive. It ensures that the generator has sufficient
rev/mm to remain “on charge” at engine idling rev/mm.
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Step-Down Drive
A reduction gear in which the rev/mm of the output shaft is reduced while the torque is
increased.
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Example: Used between the engine and propeller in order to allow the engine to develop its
power by running at high RPM while maintaining high propeller efficiency by avoiding the tips
speeds reaching Mach 1
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Belts and Pulleys
It is rare to find belt drives being used on modern aircraft. Due to the risk of slippage once the
belt has taken on a slight stretch, there has to be some method, often automatic, to retain the
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set tension over a long period.
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Whilst some forms of pulley are covered in the section on controls, there are a few situations
where (lighter and less expensive) belts and pulleys are used to transmit movement/power in
place of cables.
Nominally flat belts and pulleys use only friction to transmit the power from input to output
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shafts. These are, unfortunately, prone to slippage so, to reduce the problem, vee-section belts
were devised and yet a further improvement has seen the development of serrated or „toothed‟
belts and pulleys, which use the principle of „engagement‟, rather than „friction‟, to provide drive.
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Some of the uses to which belt drives are put can include a change of ratio, usually in a step-
down situation, as well as a simple connection between input and output shafts which are
displaced by some distance.
The simple belt and pulley system, has a step-up or step-down facility, depending on which
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pulley is driven. It will give a mechanical advantage of 2:1 if the smaller pulley is driven, due to it
being half the diameter of the larger pulley. The larger pulley will rotate at half the speed of the
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smaller one, and can be driven using half the torque.
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Some uses of belt and pulley installations in aviation can include the driving of propellers on
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micro-light aircraft, which use high-revving engines. These engines rotate about 6000 rpm whilst
propellers are most efficient at around 2000 – 2500 rpm. Therefore the drive from the crankshaft
pulley, via a strong wide belt to the propeller pulley, gives a step down ratio of about 2.5:1 on
most of this type of aircraft.
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Another application of belt drives is on certain piston-engined helicopters, which use a belt to
connect the output pulley on the end of the crankshaft to the transmission and rotor. The
tension pulleys, which bear onto the belt, keep it at the correct tension for normal use.
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When starting-up, the tension can be totally released, allowing the engine to be started without

the load of the rotors and transmission. In an emergency the released tension allows the rotors
to free-wheel (autorotate) and, thus, enables a safe landing.
There are a number of places inside piston engines where toothed belts, are used to drive
camshafts and other accessories from the crankshaft.
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In some installations, the drive from the high-speed engine to the low-speed propeller is
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accomplished by the use of a „toothed‟ belt drive. The teeth on the inside of the belt engage with
grooves machined onto the drive (and driven) pulleys. This reduces the chance of slippage.
Most piston engines on smaller aircraft have a belt drive to the AC generator or the vacuum
pump, similar to that found on many motor cars.
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Maintenance of belts usually involves the measurement of their tension, by measuring the
amount of flexure at the middle of the longest unsupported length. Providing the belt is
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otherwise in good condition, excessive slack is taken up by adjusting the position of one of the
pulleys by slackening its retaining bolt, sliding to a new position then retightening the retaining
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bolt.
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The same maintenance applies to most belts, in that the security is checked before each flight.
The belts must also be checked, at regular intervals, for signs of wear, by fraying and splitting,
in addition to a tension check on the either the belt itself or the tensioning mechanism. The
majority of belts (whatever their usage), have a finite life and are also subject to „on-condition‟
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monitoring.
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Control Chains, Chain Wheels and Pulleys
General
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Chains are used to change direction of control runs in systems where considerable force is
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required, such as aileron and elevator controls.
The change of direction is achieved by the use of chain wheels or pulleys. Chains may be found
in control column installations, aileron and elevator controls and in trim control systems.
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Chains may be used in conjunction with cable assemblies. Incorrect assembly of the chains is
prevented by the use of non-reversible chains in conjunction with the appropriate types of
wheels, guards and connectors.
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Chain Assemblies
Chain consists of a series of inner plates, rollers and bushes, connected together by outer
plates and bearing pins. The pitch of the chain is the distance between the centres of the rollers.
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Chain assemblies should be obtained as complete, proof loaded units. No attempt should be
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made to break and reassemble rivets links or riveted attachments.
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Joining the chain to an end connector is achieved by a bolt, which passes through the outer
plate and into a threaded hole in the opposite outer plate. A nut is fitted to the protruding thread,
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and split pinned. In the case of the 8 mm size only, a nut is not fitted, but the bolt is peened.
The use of cranked links for the attachment of the chain to the end fittings is not permitted. The
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use of spring clip connecting links is prohibited.

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Installation of Chain Assemblies

The illustration shows typical arrangements of chain assemblies. Change of direction of straight
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line motion in two planes is achieved by using a „bi-planer‟ block. The transfer of straight line to
rotary motion is achieved by using a chain wheel (sprocket). A chain wheel is also used to
change the direction of the straight line motion.
A range of non-interchangeable end fittings is available as a safeguard against the crossing of

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controls. However, these connectors do not always prevent the possibility of reversing the chain
end to end on its wheel, neither do they prevent the possibility of the chain being assembled to
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gear on the wrong face where two wheels are operated by the same chain. Such contingencies
can be overcome by the use of non-reversible chains.
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Typical chain end assembly

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Non-reversible chains are similar to standard chains except that every second outer plate is
extended in one direction in order to break up the symmetry of the chain. The complete system
of non-reversibility involves the use of five features, i.e. the non-reversible chain, the shroud on
the wheel, correct positioning of the wheel on its shaft, the chain guard, and non-
interchangeable connectors.
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The shape of the special outer plates and the principle of non-reversible chains is shown in the
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illustration.
It will be seen that by providing a shroud on one side of the wheel and by making use of the
chain guard, the reversing of the chain end to end on its wheel is not possible.
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It should be borne in mind that in practice a special feature, such as an attachment collar, a key,
or a flat on the shaft in conjunction with a specially shaped hole, is incorporated in the wheel
mounting to ensure that it can be assembled on its shaft in one definite position only.
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Inspection after Assembly
After installation in the aircraft, the chain should be examined for:
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 freedom from twist, particularly in instances where the attachment is made to threaded
rods by means of screwed end connectors, or where a twist may inadvertently be applied
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to the chain during the locking of the assembly.
 Care should also be taken to ensure that the chain is not pulled out of line by the chain
wheel; the chain should engage smoothly and evenly with the wheel teeth and there
should be no tendency for the chain to ride up the teeth.
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 The pre-tensioning of chains should not be excessive, as this will cause friction, but
should be just sufficient to prevent any back-lash in the system.
 The guarding should be checked to ensure that jamming could not occur and that the
chain would not come off the wheel should it become slack.
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 The security of end connections should be checked, care being taken to ensure that the
split pins in the chain connecting bolts are correctly locked.
 The initial lubricant on new chains should not be removed and the chains should be
further lubricated after assembly by brushing all over, particularly on link edges, with

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lubricant complying with specification DTD 417A, unless otherwise specified.
The wheel or pulley mountings should be examined to ensure that the wheels or pulleys
are firmly secured to the shafts or spindles, that they are correctly located and are
running freely.
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Maintenance
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Chain assemblies should be inspected for serviceability at the periods specified in the relevant
Maintenance Schedule.
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Generally the inspection would be as follows:
 The continued smoothness of operation between the chain and the chain wheel or pulley
should be checked. If the chain does not pass freely round the wheel or pulley, it should
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be removed and checked as described.

 The chain should be checked for wear; if it is worn so that the links are loose and can be
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lifted away from the wheel teeth, it should be removed and checked for excessive
elongation.
 The chain should be checked for damage, cleanliness, adequacy of lubrication and
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freedom from corrosion. If the inspection shows the chain to be corroded or otherwise
defective, it should be removed.
 If it becomes necessary to adjust the tension of the chain, care should be taken to ensure
that the chain itself is not twisted during the adjustment.
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Chain assemblies should be removed from the aircraft for complete inspection at the periods
specified in the Maintenance Schedule.
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If elongation through wear is suspected the following procedure should be adopted:

 Remove the chain from the aircraft by disconnecting at the design breakdown points.
 Immerse the chain in clean paraffin and brush with a stiff brush to remove all traces of
dirt etc.
 Dry the chain with hot air to ensure that all the paraffin is removed in order to prevent
corrosion.
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 Place the chain on a flat surface and apply the correct tension load.
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8mm - 12 lbs
0.375 in - 16 lbs
0.5 in - 28 lbs.
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 Measure the chain and calculate the percentage extension using the formula:
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Where:
M = Measured length of chain under load
X = Number of pitches measured
P = Pitch of chain
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The total length or any section of the chain may be checked as above, and an elongation of
more than 2% or any part will render the complete assembly unserviceable.
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 Suspend the chain freely and check for kinks and twists by sighting along the length. If
kinks or twists exist the chain is unserviceable.
 Check the chain for tight joints by articulating each link over the finger through 180°. If
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further cleaning does not cure stiffness, try carefully tapping the ends of the bearing pins
with a light hammer.
 Examine throughout the length of the chain for corrosion and damage, such as:- cracked
plates or rollers, worn or seized rollers, worn or scored plates, loose bearing pins.
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 If the chain is serviceable, it should be soaked in oil, (generally to DTD 417A) and if not
being immediately re-fitted, it should be coiled flat and wrapped in greaseproof paper.
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Ball Screw Jack
General
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The screwjack is a method of converting rotary force into linear motion. A motor is usually used
to turn a threaded shaft while a nut which is prevented from rotating is driven along the shaft.
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For light loads and low speeds a fixed nut of suitable thread form may be used while at higher
loads and speeds a recirculating ball nut is used.
The recirculating ball nut employs one or more sets of steel balls which act as the female thread
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in the nut. The balls are free to roll and thus circulate through an internal passage or external
transfer tube as the male shaft thread rotates. The male thread has semicircular troughs to
accommodate the balls, and squared or flattened crests. This arrangement reduces friction and
wear and allows large forces to be carried at high speeds. The ball nut is often packed with
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grease or oil and has felt or fibre wipers at both ends to prevent the ingress of contamination
from the shaft.
Typical uses of recirculating ball screws include stabiliser drives, engine thrust reversers, cargo
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doors, galley lifts, wing leading edge slats and the trailing edge flap system described below:
Motive force for the T/E flap system is provided by a hydraulic motor unit with a backup electric
motor located in the main landing gear bay. Drive shafts or torque tubes with splined end
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connectors transfer the rotary drive to transmission gearboxes mounted on the flap tracks on
each wing.
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The transmission gearbox contains mating bevel gears and a torque limiter. One transmission
assembly on each flap also incorporates a “noback” friction brake. The torque limiter consists of
two springs wound together, an internal shaft with two bevel gears, an output shaft, and a
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housing. If a flap jams, excessive torque on the screw actuator will cause the springs to expand
and bind against the torque limiter housing. The torque limiter is designed to operate in either
direction of flap travel. Excessive torque is absorbed by the torque limiter until the flap hydraulic
motor stalls.
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At extended flap positions, the no-back friction brake prevents flap retraction due to airloads.
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The brake consists of a brake disk, ratchet wheel, and two pawls. At extended flap positions,
uploads transmitted to the jackscrew force the brake disk against the ratchet wheel resulting in
a braking action. The brake action does not oppose flap extension since the pawls do not
engage in the ratchet wheel in this direction of rotation. The brake ratchets oppose retraction
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and in order to retract the flaps it is necessary to slip the no-back friction brake from the
upstream side. The transmission gearbox is a sealed unit filled with hydraulic oil.
The ball nut and screw actuator consists of a jackscrew, a downstop nut, and recirculating ball
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bearing nut. The universal joint attaches the jackscrew to the transmission gearbox and allows
angular deflection of the jackscrew during flap operation. The ball bearing nut is attached to the
flap surfaces through a gimbal assembly. During flap operation, the ball bearing nut is
restrained from turning and therefore travels fore and aft on the rotating screw to extend and
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retract the flaps. Total jackscrew travel is restricted by upstops and downstops on the ball nut
and screw actuator. Upstop lugs on the ball bearing nut and on the universal joint limit flap

travel when the flaps are retracted. Downstop lugs on the ball bearing nut and on the downstop
nut limit flap travel when the flaps are extended. The ball bearing nut has drilled passages and
externally mounted tubes that allow recirculation of the steel balls. Scrapers and wipers are
incorporated at each end of the ball nut to remove foreign material from the jackscrew. An oil
reservoir in the ball bearing nut provides lubrication of the nut and screw actuator.
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Ball Screw Inspection
Screwjacks must be periodically inspected for wear, corrosion and damage. Excessive lubricant
film is indicative of worn wipers on the ball nut assembly. Dimensional checks of the screwjack
may also be required. The ball nuts must be inspected for general damage, security of transfer
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tubes, retention of lubricant and locking.
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A backlash check must be performed when specified and will usually involve a test fitting and a
DTI type gauge. Measurements of both radial and axial play are taken. Any ball screw unit
which exceeds the Maintenance Manual limitations must be replaced.
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Separate tests for play and backlash in the universal joint, the transmission gearbox and the
gimbal attachments must also be performed and these are often scheduled to coincide with the
ball screw tests.
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Care must be taken when testing these components to ensure that any findings are isolated and
attributed to the correct component. Aircraft Maintenance Manual test procedures must be
closely followed.
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Lever Devices
Various lever devices and arms are used in aircraft systems. These include bellcranks and
actuation linkages.
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Inspection of these devices depends largely on their configuration. Generally they should be
inspected for twisting, bending and distortion, corrosion, wear and play in any bearings and
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bushings installed.
Upon installation they must be checked for alignment and must not be stressed or bent while
being fitted.
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When installed they must be tested for full and free range of movement, freedom from
obstruction and play.
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Push-Pull Rod Systems
General
The majority of aircraft push-pull systems can be found in both the flying and engine controls.
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They may consist of a series of hollow aluminium tubes, which have either fixed or adjustable
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end fittings. Sometimes, to prevent the tubes vibrating, their length is kept short and idler levers
are fitted between each pair of tubes. As an alternative, rollers or bushes can be installed along
the length of the push-pull tubes to provide support.
The push-pull rods are of light alloy tubing to which the end fittings are attached by taper pins,
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either directly or by a socket assembly fitting which provides a limited adjustment by screw and
lock nut. When the rods are of such length that they are liable to whip, they are supported by
guide blocks. These are split and bored to take the rod, and are usually made of Tufnol
(phenolic resin).
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The maintenance required for this type of control consists generally of inspection and rigging.
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As the bearings in both the idler levers if fitted, and the end fittings are normally sealed for life,
the only inspections to carry out are for signs of damage and overheating. If the pilot
complained of stiff controls, then a check of each bearing assembly would be required, to check
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which bearing was stiff.
Rigging of push pull rods is relatively simple. The rigging pins hold the rods and levers in the
datum position and the adjustable ends are altered until all the connecting bolts can be inserted
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without any force being required.

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End Fittings
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Ball joint end fittings are made of light alloy machined to fit over the ball ends. A slot in the top
of the socket fits over a stop pin extension on the ball and limits the end movement. A spring-
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loaded clip inside the socket shank clips the ball into position and the cup is locked by a key
which when turned through 90 degrees compresses the spring and forces the locking disc hard
against the cup. The key in turn is locked by a spring clip.
Bell and socket joints may also be used to join tubes, in which case the socket is open at the
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end to receive the ball shank. Older types had an opening only at the end and were bayonet-
fitted on to the locking key. In later types, the ball fits into a cup, which is part of the joint and
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locking mechanism. The ball is inserted into the joint from underneath and turned through a slot
into its working position where it is secured by the locking mechanism.
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Adjustments
Servicing is limited to ensuring that all joints are secure and that the ball joints are kept lightly
coated with grease. Any actual adjustment would be made, by releasing the ball joint,
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slackening the locking nut and screwing the ball socket into, or out of, the transmission tube or
lever. The transmission line can, however, be considered to be in correct adjustment when the
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control lever is in the mid-way position, the stop-pins on the balls are central in their slots and
full travel is obtained on the operating lever on the engine, by full movement of the operating
lever in the control box. A small clearance (about 1/8 in.) is necessary at both ends of the
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control box quadrant to allow for spring in the transmission line.

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Method of Checking a Tubular Member for Bow
The maximum permissible bow on a tubular member is 1 in 600 (0.02” per foot length), and this
may be checked by using a three point trammel
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(a) Concave bow is checked as follows:-
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 Set points at the ends of bar to length of member being checked.
 Using a surface table or a straight edge, set the centre point in line with the two outer
points.
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 Apply the trammel to the member, and using feeler gauges, measure between the centre
point and the member.
 If necessary, move the centre point along the bar to clear rivet heads etc., and to ensure
that the maximum measurement is obtained.
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 Using the measurement obtained, calculate the bow of the member-
Example. a member 77" long has a bow measurement of 0.11".
Bow 
Measured deflection
Length
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0.11"
77"

1
700
or 1 in 700
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b) Convex bow is checked as follows:-

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 Set points at ends of bar to length of member being checked.

 Apply the trammel to the member and adjust the centre point to the maximum deflection.
 Using a surface table or straight edge and feeler gauges, measure the displacement of
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the centre point.

 Calculate the bow
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Module 6
Licence Category
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A, B1, B2 and B3
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6.10 Control Cables

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Module 6.10 Control Cables 10.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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LEVEL 2
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examples.
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subject.
subject.
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LEVEL 3
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manner.
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instructions.
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Table of Contents
6.10 Control Cables _________________________________________________________ 9
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General __________________________________________________________________ 9
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Cable Properties _________________________________________________________ 11
Strength _______________________________________________________________ 11
Safety Factors __________________________________________________________ 11
Bending and Fatigue _____________________________________________________ 11
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Abrasive Wear __________________________________________________________ 12
Stretch of Cable _________________________________________________________ 12
Cable Construction _______________________________________________________ 13
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End-Fittings _____________________________________________________________ 17
General _______________________________________________________________ 17
End Fitting Swaging ______________________________________________________ 19
Turnbuckles _____________________________________________________________ 23
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Cable Tensioning Devices _________________________________________________ 27
General _______________________________________________________________ 27
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Tension Regulator _______________________________________________________ 28
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Broken Cable Compensator ________________________________________________ 29
Cable Stops _____________________________________________________________ 30
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Cable Fairleads __________________________________________________________ 31

Quadrants and Drums _____________________________________________________ 35
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Fork Joints ______________________________________________________________ 37

Shackle Pins ____________________________________________________________ 38
Lockclad Cables _________________________________________________________ 39
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Control Cable System Inspection ___________________________________________ 41

General _______________________________________________________________ 41
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Control Cables Inspection _________________________________________________ 41

Control Cable Pulley Inspection _____________________________________________ 44
Control Cable Run and Travel Inspection _____________________________________ 46
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Cable Removal and Installation _____________________________________________ 47

Cable Tension ___________________________________________________________ 49
Cable Rigging ___________________________________________________________ 53
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Flexible Control Systems __________________________________________________ 55

Bowden Cable Systems ___________________________________________________ 55
Teleflex Cable Systems ___________________________________________________ 57
Bowdenflex Cables ______________________________________________________ 63
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Objective
Control Cables 6.10 1 2 1 2
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Types of cables
End fittings, turnbuckles and compensation
devices
Pulleys and cable system components
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Bowden cables
Aircraft flexible control systems
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6.10 Control Cables
General
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Metal cables (or wire ropes as some manufacturers refer to them) are used as a method of
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transferring movement from one place to another, for instance from the control column to the
control surface. A cable is constructed from a number of wires twisted together to form a strand.
Depending on configuration a number of strands may then be twisted in the opposite direction
to form the cable.
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Being flexible they can transfer this motion round corners and into different planes via pulleys.
However, being flexible, they can only transfer a tension or pulling movement, so usually they
are used in pairs as a circuit to enable travel in both directions. Occasionally a single cable may
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be used with a spring loaded return device to maintain tension (like the brakes on a bicycle).
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The cables used in aircraft control systems comply with a number of British, American and/or
European Standards. They are usually 'preformed' during manufacture. Preforming is a process
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in which each strand is formed into the shape that it will take up in the completed cable. This
makes the cable more flexible, less prone to kinking and more fatigue resistant. Another
advantage of preformed cables is that, in the event of a wire breaking, it will lie flat within its
strand, so that the cable is less likely to jam in its pulleys and fairleads (but the damage is also
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less easy to see).
Preformed cables are manufactured from galvanised (zinc coated), or tin over zinc coated
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Carbon Steel, or uncoated Corrosion-Resistant Steel (CRS or Stainless Steel), and are
impregnated with friction reducing lubricant during manufacture. CRS cables are slightly weaker
than the carbon steel equivalents but are less prone to corrosion and may be used in harsher
environments. Non-preformed single strand cable may be found on some minor aircraft
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systems.

British Cable
Minimum Breaking No. of Wires per No. of Strands per Cable diameter
Load Strand Cables
5 cwt. 7 7 0.08 in.
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10 cwt. 14 7 0.12 in.
15 cwt. 19 7 0.15 in.
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20 cwt. 19 7 0.16 in.
25 cwt. 19 7 0.18 in.
30 cwt. 19 7 0.21 in.
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British control cable specifications
American Cable
Diameter (in) No. of Wires per No. of Strands per Minimum
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Strand Cable Breaking load
1/16 7 7 480 lbs
3/32 7 7 920 lbs
1/8 19 7 2000 lbs
5/32
3/16
19
19
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7
7
2800 lbs
4200 lbs
7/32 19 7 5600 lbs
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American control cable specifications
British aircraft control cables are classified by their minimum breaking load while American and
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European cables, by their nominal diameter in fractions of an inch and millimetres respectively.
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Cable Properties
Strength
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Cables in service are subjected to several kinds of stress. The stresses most frequently
encountered are direct tension, stress due to sudden or shock loads, stress due to bending, and
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stress resulting from several forces acting at one time. For the most part, these stresses can be
converted into terms of simple tension. The tensile strength of a cable is determined by its size,
material and construction. The correct strength is selected by the aircraft manufacturer and the
appropriate size and material is specified in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
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Safety Factors
The safety factor is the ratio of the strength of the cable to the working load. A cable with a
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strength of 10,000 pounds and a total working load of 2,000 pounds would be operating with a
safety factor of five.
The proper safety factor depends not only on the loads applied, but also on the:
•
•
speed of operation,
shock load applied,
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• type of fittings used for securing the cable ends,
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• length of cable,
• number, size and location of direction changing pulleys and quadrants,
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• corrosion environment,
• facilities for inspection.
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It will be determined by the aircraft manufacturer and the cable specified accordingly.
Bending and Fatigue

All cables, except stationary ones used as bracing, are subjected to bending around pulleys.
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The detrimental effects of bending may be classified as:

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• Loss of strength due to bending.

• Fatigue effect of bending.
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A cable may be considered a machine in which the individual elements (wires and strands) slide
upon each other when the cable is bent. Loss of strength due to bending is caused by the
inability of the individual strands and wires to adjust themselves to their changed position when
the cable is bent. Therefore, for the satisfactory operation of a cable over pulleys, the cable
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must be internally lubricated. This lubricant is applied during manufacture and care must be
taken that it is not removed during maintenance.
Repetitive flexing of the wires as the cable passes over a pulley, and their straightening, as the
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cable leaves the pulley develops bending loads which, even though well within the elastic limit
of the wires, set up points of stress concentration. Fatigue failure of the wires in a cable is the

result of the propagation of small cracks from these stress points. This results in broken wires
showing no apparent contraction of cross section (no wasting).
Both conditions occur when cables operate over comparatively small pulleys or drums. The best
means of preventing both conditions is to use pulleys of adequate size. Also a cable of more
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flexible construction may be used.
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Abrasive Wear
The ability of a cable to withstand abrasion is determined by the size and composition of the
outer wires and the construction of the cable. The larger outer wires of the less flexible
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constructions are better able to withstand abrasion than the finer outer wires of the more flexible
cables. Finer wires will also cause more abrasion to the softer materials they come into contact
with (e.g. pulleys and fairleads).
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Stretch of Cable
The stretch of a cable under load will result in uneven, delayed or reduced output movement
and is the result of two components:
• structural stretch and

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• elastic stretch.
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Structural stretch is the lengthening of the cable caused by compression of the core and
adjustment of the wires and strands to the load placed upon the cable. This can be minimised
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by preforming the components of the cable.
The elastic stretch is caused by elongation of the wires. It is directly proportional to the load and
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the length of cable under load, and inversely proportional to the metallic area and modulus of
elasticity. This applies only to loads that do not exceed the elastic limit of a cable. The elastic
limit of stainless steel cable is approximately 60% of its breaking strength and for galvanised
cables it is approximately 50%. The effects of stretch in aircraft cable systems is minimised by
tensioning the cable when installed and correctly routed.
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Repair cables are normally ordered from the manufacturer by part number, identified through
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the aircraft's IPC. They are supplied fully formed with the necessary end-fittings, tested to the
correct load factor. If a cable is fabricated by the operator, it is vital to ensure that cable of the
correct grade and material is used, the proper end fittings are installed, and that the cable is
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proof tested prior to installation. The cable fabrication workshop will normally need to be
approved.
It may also be possible to repair damaged cables by splicing in the repair piece with suitable
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end fittings swaged on in situ when approved by the AMM.

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Cable Construction
As we have seen, the thickness of the individual wires determines the flexibility of the cable, so
a cable composed of 19 wires will be more flexible than a similar sized cable constructed from 7
thicker wires. Thicker wires may offer slightly greater strength in larger diameter cables.
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The designation of the cable is determined by the number of strands it contains, and the
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number of wires in each strand. For example a cable designated as 7x19, consists of 7 strands,
each containing 19 wires. A specific diameter of cable may be available in two or more
configurations as shown on the accompanying table, e.g. 1/8 inch cable as 1x19 or 7x19. The
most common configurations for commercial aircraft cables are 1x19 and 7x19. The aircraft
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manufacturer will specify both diameter and construction.
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There is also a very specialised form of aircraft control cable known as Lockclad. Lockclad
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control cable consists of standard aircraft cable over which is swaged an aluminium tube of
proper thickness and length.
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This combination provides several advantages:

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• It lowers the creep stretch

• The smooth cylindrical surface provides for closer sealing through pressure walls.
• It dampens the vibration of the cable.
• It provides a higher coefficient of thermal expansion.
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The swaged tubing compacts the cable which minimises undesirable stretch characteristics
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caused by load application. This combination also provides a coefficient of expansion of the
cable closer to that of the airframe and this may produce an improvement in sensitivity of
control.
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The aluminium tubing is swaged only to straight runs of cable assemblies, those sections
passing around pulleys must be left bare. For this reason, no increase in strength over the bare
cable is obtained by the use of Lockclad. The rigidity of the cladding also makes the routing of
long cable runs impossible so it is rarely used on large commercial aircraft.
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It is possible that cables with a non-metallic core strand, or non-metallic strands wrapped round
a metal core may be encountered. A non-metallic sleeve or void filler which produces a
smoother surface may also be seen, but these are not common on current commercial aircraft.
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End-Fittings
General
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Whilst cables were previously, 'spliced' and 'whipped' with waxed cotton to form end-fittings, the
majority of modern cables have a 'swaged' type end-fitting where a hollow shank or sleeve on
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the fitting is physically distorted to grip the cable. Lightly loaded aluminium and copper end
fittings may be installed with simple hand crimping pliers while the stronger steel fittings used on
most commercial aircraft cables are swaged on using specialised manual or hydraulic powered
tooling.
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Relatively low strength cables with the loop and thimble type end fitting shown opposite are
formed using a Nicopress tool. The cable is passed through a Nicopress sleeve, around the
thimble and back through the sleeve. When satisfied that there is sufficient protrusion, the
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sleeve is placed inside the tool and deformed by compressing the handles. The finished sleeve
is then inspected for cracks and distortion and tested with a go/no-go gauge for adequate
deformation.
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N
Most high strength end-fittings on control cables are special-to-type and those such as fork,
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threaded (internal and external), and ball and ferrule button type fittings can be found in various
locations. The grip of a correctly fitted terminal will be greater than the breaking strength of the
cable.
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Swaging machines may be hand portable or bench mounted, manually or hydraulically powered
units. Most small machines work on the same principle in that rotating dies turn and
progressively compress the sleeve or shank of the end fitting causing it to grip the cable. Large
hydraulic machines may apply pressure to dies which form the swage in one action.
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End Fitting Swaging
Operation of a typical hand swaging tool is as follows:
It is essential that the cable and the terminal you have selected to swage onto it are both of the
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proper size. Check the cable diameter with a micrometer and, using the go-gauge included in
the kit check the outside diameter of the terminal shank to be sure it corresponds to the size of
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the cable.
From the kit, select the matched pair of roll dies suited for the size cable onto which you are
preparing to swage a terminal. Each die has the nominal cable size for which it is suited
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stamped on the flat sides. Install the dies on the machine in the correct orientation so that they
are properly indexed with one another, and secure them. Attach the correct size feed guide
assembly. The machine is now ready to receive and swage the cable-terminal assembly.
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The cable is a close fit in the bore of the terminal before swaging. It is important that the end of
the cable be cut cleanly and squarely and that individual wires be prevented from splaying out.
A proprietary cable cutter must be used for this purpose. If necessary re-cut the cable to obtain
a good end. It is also important that the terminal and the cable be engaged over the full length
of the terminal bore so that the full strength of the swaged joint will be realised. Probe the bore
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of the terminal with a stiff wire to make sure that the depth of the bore is as specified in the
Specification Sheet and that the bore is not plugged by dirt, chips or other foreign objects.
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1. Push the cable into the fitting until the end of the cable reaches the bottom of the bore.
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Mark the cable at point (A) as shown. Place the cable beside the fitting shank and have
mark (A) placed flush with the bottom of the shank. Mark the shank at point (B) using the
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end of the cable. Place the cable next to the mark (B) and mark the shank at point (C) as
shown.
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2. Insert the cable to approximately half the depth of the bore and, taking hold of the cable
close to the end of the terminal, bend it sharply enough to set a kink into the cable. This
is to ensure that the terminal will not move on the cable while they are being inserted in
the swaging machine.
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3. Push the cable back into the fitting until mark (A) is flush with the end of the shank again.
You will start your swaging at mark (C) on the shank.
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4. Grasp the pins protruding from the lower die and rotate until the cutaway portions of the
two dies are centred opposite one another, allowing you to insert the cable-terminal
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assembly between the dies. Place the cable terminal assembly in the feed guide with the
free end of the terminal resting against the feed guide adapter. Slide the feed guide
assembly to the right as far as it will go and then, by hand, rotate the lower die
anticlockwise until the two rolls meet in contact with the terminal at point (C).
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Ratchet the handles of the swager until the rolls have passed completely over the terminal
sleeve. When the first pass has been completed a longitudinal fin or flash on the opposite sides
will be noticeable on the swaged portion of the shank, as shown. To eliminate the flash rotate
the terminal 90° from the first position and pass it through the rolls as outlined in the preceding
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instructions. After the second pass, the terminal shank will appear smooth and round. Measure
the diameter of the terminal shank with the gauge. The shank should now slide through the slot
from one end of the swaged portion to the other. The gauge is made to pass a terminal which
has been reduced to the proper diameter as specified in applicable drawings. If the terminal has
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not been sufficiently reduced, an additional pass may be necessary to reduce it to the required
diameter. Rotate the terminal 45° for the 3rd pass to make the terminal more uniform.
Caution Over-swaging will only cause work hardening, or may lead to embrittlement which
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may induce terminal cracking. For this reason you must never use more than four passes. If
after the fourth pass the diameter on the sleeve has not been reduced to the proper size,

examine the equipment and recheck instructions in order to determine what is causing the
problem.
Irrespective of which method was used for installing the end fitting, the cable assembly must be
inspected and proof tested. A visual inspection for cracks and distortion is performed and then
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the cable is proof loaded to 50% of the minimum breaking load for British spec cables and 60%
for American spec. This proof load is about 10 times the static tension applied to the cable in
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normal operation and tests the integrity of the cable assembly whilst also pre-stretching it.
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Turnbuckles
Turnbuckles are the usual device for tensioning a cable system. A turnbuckle assembly consists
of a left hand threaded fitting swaged on to one cable end, and a right hand threaded fitting
swaged to the other cable end, and a barrel, tapped left and right hand between them.
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Turnbuckles are in safety when:
British types
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- A hardened steel pin will not pass through the safety inspection hole.
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American types - All of the fitting thread is engaged in the barrel.
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It is common practice for the left hand threaded end of the barrel to be identified with a grooved
machined on the outer surface.
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Turnbuckle locking
Most turnbuckles currently are locked using spring clips which are passed down grooves cut in
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the threads of the fittings and the barrel. The clip is positively located when the locking tongue is
located under the lip of the barrel centre hole.
When use of a clip is not possible, or wire locking is specified, this should be done in
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accordance with the aircraft manufacturer’s requirements, usually to the FAA or CAA standards
as appropriate.
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A turnbuckle locked with a clip

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Turnbuckle wire locking procedure

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Cable Tensioning Devices
General
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Although the cable tension can be correctly adjusted on the ground, this tension may alter once
the aircraft is in flight. This can be due to the large temperature differentials involved and the
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consequent expansion and contraction. Flexing of the airframe in flight will also affect the
tension. To overcome these problems a tension regulator is installed in some control runs.
The tension regulator shown here is typical. As the tension in both the cables varies, due to
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expansion, contraction or flexing, the Quadrants will rotate independently about the central
Pivot. The Link Rods transfer this motion to the Locking Crossbar Assembly. The Compensating
Locking Sub-assembly Compression Springs which push against the Locking Crossbar
Assembly, expand or contract to maintain uniform tension.
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Tension Regulator
O N
If, however, a control input is made, the tension in the cables will differ. This causes the Locking
Crossbar Assembly to cock over, locking it against the Lock Bar, so that both quadrants will
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rotate together around the central Pivot. The Output Rod and its arm are attached to the pivot
shaft and so move with the Quadrants to transfer the control input to the control surface or
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power package.
Cable Tension Regulators can be very dangerous when disconnecting cable runs, so it is
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important to ensure that they are locked or 'snubbed', in accordance with the AMM, before any
work is done on the controls. Some tension regulators have a scale on one quadrant and a
datum on the other. This gives an indication of cable tension and is also used to ensure that the
regulator is correctly adjusted when rigging the system.
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Broken Cable Compensator
Some systems require protection against broken cables producing false control inputs. This
may be done using a cable compensator.
Y
The typical cable compensator assembly has two pulleys, each connected to a force link which
meet at, and share a pivot with, a roller. The roller sits in the detent of the cam plate which is
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connected to the output shaft. Under normal operation, with tension on both cables, the two
pulleys act as one and the roller remains in the cam transferring the drive to the output. In the
event of a failed cable, the slackened pulley rotates causing the roller to move moving out of its
detented position. This isolates the output and prevents a false control selection.
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Cable Stops
Some control systems have Cable Stops attached to turn buckles or end fittings. These are
designed to contact stop brackets on the aircraft structure in the event of cable failure or over-
travel, to limit the movement of a control. They are typically used on throttle cables.
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The stop is usually wirelocked into position at a specific distance from a datum.
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Cable Fairleads
The cables of a control run must be supported to reduce the possibility of fouling, vibration and
fluctuations. They are supported by fairleads which are usually made from plastic or fibre
materials. These fairleads should not be lubricated as this will collect dirt and dust, which will
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cause extra wear on the cable and fairlead.
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To prevent chafing of the cables, fairleads are fitted to the aircraft structure where the cables
pass through, e.g. bulkheads and frames. They are made of Tufnol, Micarta or Nylon, and are
normally of two halves bolted together. The cable runs through a hole in the fairlead.
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Fairleads must not be lubricated as they will collect dust and dirt.
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A typical fairlead
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A sealed fairlead assembly

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Cable Pulleys
Cables that run for long distances inside an aircraft, will need to change direction to allow for the
complicated structure. The usual method is by means of a pulley, as this allows the change of
direction with little increase in friction.
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Aircraft pulley's are usually made from resin impregnated fibre materials like Tufnol with a
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sealed bearing fitted in the centre.
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A typical example would be a flying control system opposite, which has pulleys that change the
direction of the cable through various of angles.
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Where a change in direction of the cable is required, a pulley is normally used, due to its low
friction in comparison with fairleads. Guards are fitted to pulleys when the risk of the cable riding
off the pulley is high.
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As previously mentioned pulley diameter is selected by the airframe manufacturer to minimise

stress and wear on the cable.
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Quadrants and Drums
Quadrants and Drums are used where an input to, or output from the cable system is made.
The cables always terminate at these components, the swaged ferrule or ball type end fitting
being anchored to a cut-out in the track.
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Quadrants and drums often have rig pin holes or other rigging facilities. These will be discussed
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later in this section.
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Fork Joints
These are used in conjunction with bracing wires, tie rods, tension rod turnbuckles, etc.
Identification is as follows:
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1. Low Tensile Steel - Plain collar
2. Stainless Steel - No collar or groove
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3. High tensile Steel - Groove around collar
4. H.T. Stainless Steel - Groove around shank
Size and nominal thread diameter is determined by a code marked on the shank. Code
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numbers commence from:
412 which is 4 BA
413 which is 2 BA
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For numbers starting from 414, subtract 406 the size being in 1/32 in. The letter R or L added as
a suffix indicates left hand or right hand thread e.g. 420R.
420 = 7/16 in. B.S.F.

R = Right hand thread
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Shackle Pins
These are used with fork joints, fork ends and other applications where they take shear loads.
They are secured in place with split pins. While non-standard end fittings are used, a collar may
be placed over the small end and the split pin passed through the collar and shackle pin.
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Shackle pins are made from High Tensile Steel and High Tensile Stainless Steel. H.T.S.S.
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shackle pins have a dimple at the shank end and/or the letter ‘Z’ marked on the head.
The diameter is denoted by a letter starting from A which is 5/32 in and rising by 1/32 in from
each letter up to T.
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Length is indicated by a number starting with 1 which is 0.25 in and rising 0.050 in per number,
and is measured from the underside of the head to the nearer side of the split pin hole.
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Example: D9 is 1/4 in diameter, 0.65 in long.
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Lockclad Cables
Lockclad is a standard twisted steel wire cable with an aluminium tube swaged around it. This
type of cable has two advantages. One is that the cable’s coefficient of expansion is nearer that
of the aircraft’s fuselage than the standard steel wire cable. With temperature changes, they
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expand or contract by almost the same amount.
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This combination provides several other advantages.
 It lowers the creep stretch.

 The smooth cylindrical surface provides for closer sealing through pressure walls.
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 It dampens the vibration of the cable.
 It provides a higher coefficient of thermal expansion.
The swaged tubing compacts the cable, resulting in an increase in the AE value which
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minimizes undesirable stretch characteristics caused by load application. This combination also
provides a coefficient of expansion that more nearly synchronizes thermal expansion and
contraction of control cables to the airframe of the plane, and this effects a noticeable
improvement in sensitivity of control. O N
The aluminium tubing is swaged only to straight runs of control assemblies. Those sections
passing around pulleys must be left bare. For this reason, no increase in strength over the bare
cable is obtained by the use of Lockclad.
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Control Cable System Inspection
General
Y
This section gives the typical inspections for control cable systems. Always check the AMM for
specific information.
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Tests show that flexible cables can have broken wires without an important decrease in
strength. A 7x7 cable, for example, can have two broken wires in a one-foot length and continue
to hold its specified load. However, it is good practice to replace a cable whenever broken or
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corroded wires are found.
Control Cables Inspection
AC
Clean the airplane control cable with a dry, clean cloth. Do not use solvents or abrasive
materials to clean the control cable, solvents will remove the cables internal lubricant, which will
cause corrosion and rapid wear.
N
If necessary, apply applicable grease to carbon steel cable. Do not put grease or corrosion
preventive agents on corrosion resistant steel cables, because attraction of grit increases wear
rate on CRES cables.
O
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Check for broken wires. Rub a cloth along the length of the cable in both directions, do not use
bare hands as serious laceration can occur. Broken wires are indicated where the cloth gets
caught on the cable. Broken wires which lay flat can be difficult to detect.
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Move the control cable to full travel in each direction to inspect where it passes through seals,
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pulleys, drums, quadrants and fairleads, wires usually break where cables pass over or through
these components. Examine these areas carefully paying special attention to cable runs outside
the pressurised areas. Use a torch and mirror to aid inspection in hard to see places.
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Replace a 7 x 7 control cable when one of the following conditions is found.
• Two wires are broken in a 12-inch length of cable.

• More than three wires are broken in the total cable length between the two terminals.
• One wire is broken caused by rust or corrosion.
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Replace a 7 x 19 control cable when one of these conditions are found.
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• Four wires are broken in a 12-inch length of cable.
• More than six wires are broken in a total cable length between the two cable
terminals.
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• One wire is broken caused by rust or corrosion.
Broken wire is only permitted in a cable assembly if it is in a straight part of the cable assembly
and does not go over a pulley, through a pressure seal, or through a fairlead.
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Check for wear on cables. For cables in the pressurised area (fuselage cables), replace a cable
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if one strand has worn wires where one wire cross section is decreased by 40 percent or more.
Flex the cable at the shiny portion to see if any wires break.
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For cables in the unpressurised areas, replace a worn cable where you cannot identify the wire
strands on the worn side.
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Replace all cable assemblies which have damage caused by rust or corrosion. A whitish deposit
on High Tensile Steel galvanised cables indicates corrosion of the zinc coating. Red rust
indicates that the steel wires are corroding.
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Examine for ‘bird-caging’. This is caused when the cable is subjected to a sudden tensile load
which, although insufficient to break the cable causes the pre-formed strands to straighten out
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at the point of maximum stress. When the load is removed from the cable these strands stand
out causing ‘bird-caging’. Affected cables must be rejected.
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Check for kinking. If the cable has a permanent bend when not under tension it must be
rejected. If the heart strand protrudes from between the pre-formed strands it must be rejected.
Check swaged end fittings for cracks, corrosion and signs of pulling off the cable, indicated by a
shiny portion adjacent to the end fitting. Check the hole in the end fitting for elongation using a
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new bolt.
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Check for a broken heart strand, indicated by thinning of the cable, or loss of tension in an
installed cable.
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Control Cable Pulley Inspection
O N
Visually examine the pulleys for roughness, sharp edges, and unwanted material in the
grooves.
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Visually examine the pulley wear pattern for the conditions shown below.
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Examine the pulley for wobble by pushing on the outer edge of the pulley with a 2 pound force
and making sure that the movement of the outer edge is no more than:
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• 0.10 inch for 8-inch diameter pulleys

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• 0.06 inch for 3-inch diameter pulleys.

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Examine the pulley bearings to make sure they are lubricated correctly, can turn smoothly, and
have no flat spots.
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Examine the pulley bolts for worn areas.

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Remove and replace a pulley when you find:
• There is an unusual pulley wear pattern.

• There is too much pulley wobble.
• The pulley does not turn freely and smoothly.
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Examine the pulley brackets for cracks, and for other damage to the structure.
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Repair or replace damaged brackets, if necessary. Pulleys are fitted to change the direction of a
cable run. They are made from Tufnol or Micarta. An integral sealed ball bearing is provided.
Cable guards are provided to prevent the cable coming off the pulley.
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When inspecting cables for the previously mentioned wear and breakages, the complete cable
runs must be examined for incorrect routing, fraying, twisting or wear at fairleads, pulleys and
guards.
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Pulleys must be inspected for wear, to detect indications of seizure, flat spots, embedded
foreign material and excessive tension. Any signs of contact with adjacent structure, pipe-work,
wiring and other controls must also be thoroughly investigated.
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Pulley wear patterns

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Control Cable Run and Travel Inspection
Examine the cable guides and fairleads for worn areas, broken parts, correct alignment, clean
parts, and correctly attached parts.
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Make sure the cable deflection angle at the fairleads is not more than three degrees.
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Examine the cables to the make sure they go along the correct routing, and do not have twists.
Check the minimum clearance from the adjacent structure.
Make sure the cable is free to move through its full travel.
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Cable Removal and Installation
Prior to removing a control cable familiarise yourself with the AMM procedure and in particular,
any cautions and warnings. Ensure you have a serviceable replacement cable, all the tools
required and any assistance you may need. The following is a typical procedure for replacing a
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control cable.
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• Use masking tape to make index marks on the cable, fittings and adjacent structure.
The masking tape lets you refer to the initial position when you install the new cable.
• Loosen the turnbuckles to reduce the tension.
• Remove all fairleads. If applicable, remove the control cable air seal.
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• Install control cable clamps on the cable(s) you do not need to remove to keep light
tension on them. If you can isolate the cable between rigging pin locations, install the
rigging pins through the applicable drum or quadrant. Light tension on the cables that
are not removed will prevent wind off on the cable drums and will also make sure the
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cables do not move out of the pulley guides.
• Release turnbuckles and/or cable end attachments
• Install the new cable at the same time you remove the old cable. Use the old cable to
pull the new cable into position. Alternatively, attach a piece of cord to the old cable
and pull this into position, then use the cord to pull the new cable into position.
NOTE:
N
If you do not attach the new cable or cord to the old cable before you remove the
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old cable, you will have a problem routing the new cable.
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• It may be necessary to remove certain pulleys or pulley guides when pulling through
old and new cables. Keep light tension on cable and investigate any snags.
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• When new cable is in position, install removed pulleys, pulley guides, fairleads and
pressure seals. Check correct routing while installing these components.
• If necessary, remove unwanted corrosion preventive compound, from the surface of
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the control cable with a dry, lint-free cloth. Clean the full length of travel through the
fairleads, air seals, over the pulleys, quadrants, and drums.
• Lubricate the cable if required. Only lubricate carbon steel cables. It is not necessary
to lubricate CRES cables. CRES cables can be wiped with a clean cloth. Apply a light
thin layer of grease, to the cable. Wipe the cable with a clean rag to leave a thin film
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of grease between the strands on the cable.

• Engage the turnbuckles with the turnbuckle barrel installed an equal distance on the
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two threaded terminals.

• Remove the control cable clamps and rigging pins from the control cable and drums
as applicable.
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• Tighten the cable in accordance with the temperature - tension chart in the AMM. Use
a 10 - 200 lb cable tensiometer to do a check on the cable tension. Apply the
tensiometer to the cable at least 6 in. (152 mm) from the turnbuckle terminal or other
fittings. To make sure you have the correct cable tension, permit a minimum of one
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hour at constant ambient temperature (±5°F) for aeroplane and cable temperatures to
become stable.
• If a new cable is installed, operate the system for a number of test cycles, with cables
tightened to two times the working tension ('Double Tensioned'). See the applicable
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chapter for tension specifications. Reduce to normal tension.

• Make the last rigging adjustments, refer to the applicable chapter for rigging load and
test cycle tables. Ensure no more than three threads show out of the barrel of the
turnbuckle when at correct tension.
• Make sure the air seals are correctly adjusted after installation, correctly adjusted
seals do not deflect the cable and allow free movement.
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•
• Check the minimum clearance from the adjacent structure are as follows (the
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clearances that follow are general guidelines only, refer to the applicable chapter to
find any special conditions for a specific system) :
o Between different cable systems - 0.50 in. (12.70 mm) min, (a clearance of
2.00 in. (50.80 mm) is recommended).
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o Between structure, wiring, tubing and fixed equipment:
i. At a fairlead - 0.50 in. (12.70 mm).
ii. At a rubstrip - 0.10 in. (2.54 mm).
iii. (a clearance of 1.50 in. (38.10 mm) is recommended below
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the cable, and 1.00 in. (25.40 mm) is recommended in the
other directions).
o Between doors, landing gear, and components that move - 2.00 in. (50.80
mm), (a clearance of 4.00 in. (101.60 mm) is recommended).
•
•
Replace turnbuckle Locking Clips.
N
Operate controls through full travel to make sure that they move freely and that too
much force is not necessary.
O
• Perform Duplicate Inspections and function checks as required and certify task.
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Cable Tension
As mentioned, the correct cable tension is important to ensure safe and proper system
operation and continued serviceability of the components. The correct tension for a control
cable is specified in the AMM. It is checked by the use of a Tensiometer and adjusted on the
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turnbuckles.
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Before using the cable Tensiometer ensure the standards room recalibration date has not been
exceeded and the serial No on the chart (see diagram), is the same as the serial No on the
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Tensiometer.
Cable tension is temperature dependant so it is important to determine the temperature

conditions in the area where the work is to be done. From the AMM ascertain the cable
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diameter and required tension using the graph or table provided.

A typical modern tensiometer is the Pacific T5 tensiometer.
It has a set of risers. The tensiometer chart indentifies which riser is to be used with each cable
size. Fit the correct riser to the tensiometer.
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Operation of the Pacific T5 tensiometer
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Open the lever to retract the riser and check the gauge is zeroed. Place the sectors over the
cable and close the lever to take a reading. If the dial cannot be observed a small brake lever
will lock the needle so that the reading may be taken with the gauge removed. Observe any
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AMM instructions about reading position and proximity to end fittings. For increased accuracy
take several readings in different points along the cable and average them.
Compare the gauge reading with the tensiometer chart and read across the determine actual
tension in pounds.
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The cable tension can now be adjusted on the turnbuckles if it is out of to limits. A spring loaded
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tool may be used to hold the end fittings while the barrel is turned to tighten or loosen the cable.
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Cable Rigging
A control system will require rigging after a cable change, system maintenance or when a
control problem is found or suspected. Rigging is the means to ensure that all the parts of the
system are in the correct position to allow full travel in the correct sense.
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Rig pins are part numbered tools of specific length which have a red flag attached to show when
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they are installed (dispatch of an aircraft with rig pins still installed could have catastrophic
consequences!). They are inserted into holes in quadrants, drums and other components at
certain points in the system which align with holes in brackets or the adjacent structure when in
the correct position. If they do not align the cable must be adjusted by loosening and tightening
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the turnbuckles until correct alignment is achieved.
Note: When working on flying controls and particularly hydraulic powered systems, surfaces
can move with great speed and force. Ensure all staff are briefed and all safety precautions
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taken.
Specific details of the rigging procedure vary with aircraft type so it is vital to refer to the AMM.
The following is a description of a typical rigging procedure:
• N
Set the control columns, wheels or selector lever in the neutral position. This may
require the use of a protractor, spirit level or a special tool.
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• Set Trim mechanism to neutral if applicable.
• Remove hydraulic power and isolate associated electrical systems (alternate drive
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etc.) if applicable.
• Insert rig pin in control cable drum. Rig pin to be a push fit into drum and alignment
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hole. If pin does not fit, adjust drum position in accordance with the AMM.
• Insert rig pins in system quadrants progressively along system. If pin does not fit,
adjust cable circuit in accordance with the AMM and check cable tension.
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• Insert rig pin into trim actuator quadrant if applicable. Adjust actuator output rod as
required.
• For manual controls: Check position of control surface – trailing edge faired with
aerofoil trailing edge.
• For powered controls: Check rig pin/dimension at power control unit input, adjust
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accordingly. Provide hydraulic power, check position of control surface - trailing edge
faired with aerofoil trailing edge, adjust actuator output accordingly.
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Flexible Control Systems
Normal aircraft cables are only capable of performing a pulling action, due to their lack of rigidity
and so are used in a circuit. Where a two directional movement of push and pull is required in
areas of limited space it would be necessary either to use control rods, with the increased
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weight penalty, or to use flexible control systems. The two most common types of flexible
control system are Bowden Cables and Teleflex Control Systems.
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Bowden Cable Systems
A typical Bowden cable control might be a brake lever on the control column operating a remote
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brake control valve.
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Maintenance of Bowden cable systems is usually restricted to cleaning and lubrication of the
inner cable at regular intervals and adjustment of the outer conduit (e.g. if the brakes needed
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adjustment). The lubrication would keep moisture out of the cable to prevent it freezing at low
temperatures.
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Servicing
 Inspect the cable ends for fraying and corrosion

 Inspect the conduit for kinks and signs of wear
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 Adjust the cable for slackness by adjuster (screw out, i.e. increase the length of conduit
to take up the slackness in cable) Check for adequate locking.
 Lubricate, on assembly, with recommended grease.
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A Bowden cable assembly

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Bowden cable connections

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Teleflex Cable Systems
The Teleflex cable system is more complex than the Bowden cable system in that the operating
cable, within the conduit, is actually a number of spirally wound cables which surround a core
tension cable, giving it support. This allows the cable to transmit a push force as easily as a pull
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force, doing away with the need for any form of return spring.
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A typical use of a Teleflex system might be a throttle lever to engine fuel control system
connection.
The Teleflex cable system is a snug fit within the conduit and, because there might be the
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chance of it becoming seized, due to foreign objects, dirt or freezing, it is vital that the inner
cables are regularly removed, cleaned and lubricated with low temperature grease. It is also
important that the conduits are thoroughly cleaned using a form of ‘pull-through’, prior to the
inner cable being installed.
AC
At longer intervals, it might become necessary to inspect the outer conduit for signs of damage
or kinking; which can cause the control to become tight or ‘notchy’.
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Cable
The cable is made of high tensile steel wires, which enable it to transmit both push and pull.
The strand core A transmits the pull, whilst the first wire wrap B transmit the push. A and B are
wound in different directions to prevent the cable from twisting under load. A wire of heavier
gauge C, interspaced by three turns of wire D, forms the helix which acts as a bearing surface
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when working in the conduit and by which the end of the cable is gripped in the control unit.
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Box Unit
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Tuck the cable into the slot in the pinion and ensure that the cable helix engages with the pinion
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teeth to give a wrap of at least 40 degrees ("single entry" units). On double entry units the cable
should engage with the pinion to give a wrap of 180 degrees, the cable projecting through the
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lead-out hole throughout the travel of the control. Ensure that the cable end does not foul the
blanked end of the conduit when fully extended. All box units should be packed with
recommended grease.
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End Fittings
Sliding end fittings (fork end type). Unscrew the threaded hexagon plug from the body, screw
the lock nut right back, and pass the cable through the plug. Screw the lock spring on to the
end of the cable so that 3/16-in. of cable projects.
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Insert the cable end, with its lock spring, into the bore of the body of the end fitting, and screw
the hexagon plug tight down, preventing the body from rotating. Check that the free end of the
cable is beyond the inspection hole, but not beyond the fork gap (for a fork end fitting). Tighten
the lock nut and turn up the tat washer. Check that the distance from the face of the body to the
end of the sliding tube does not exceed 0.45 in. (0.35-in. old type, without tab washer). This
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ensures that the lock spring is tightly compressed.
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Control end units vary in detail. In the "box" (or wheel) unit at the control end the large wire of
the cable C is engaged between the teeth of the gear wheel and the body of the unit. The gear
lever is turned by a hand lever or hand wheel, thus moving the cable into or out of the box. In
some boxes (double entry) the cable engages the pinion for 180 degrees and an outlet it
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provided for the free end of the cable, which is protected by a short length of conduit. These
boxes permit much greater movement of cable.
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Alternatively, the control may consist of a simple push-pull unit. This is sometimes fitted with a
spring-loaded stop to retain the control in any position; or sometimes fitted with a spring which
returns the control to its original position when released from operation. The cable is attached
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to such a fitting by clamping a short coil of wire, which is screwed to the cable end, between two
parts of the control knob,
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At the operating (or terminal) end the fitting may be box type (with gear wheel) or a simple
sliding end fitting to which the cable is attached in a similar manner to that for a push-pull type
of control. This final attachment to the component operated could vary, being either fork end or
ball and socket – examples of which are shown.
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In assembling, the body of the end fitting must not be screwed on to the hexagon plug. The
plug should be screwed into the fork, not fork into plug. Failure to apply this rule will result in
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the lock spring unscrewing. The same method should be used when removing the fork, and
care should be taken not to jam the spring and foul up the wire wrap.
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Swivelling Couplings
A swivelling coupling is sometimes used to allow the sliding end fitting an angular movement;
this is used when the lever on the component scribes an arc.
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To operate the system, the cable and conduit are connected to control units at each end of the
control run and, in between, to other units and fittings, which are used to direct the run. In many
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locations, the cables are attached to lever-operated wheel units or to push-pull handles. At the
receiving end of the run, another wheel unit or sliding end-fitting is used to actuate the
mechanism.
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Bowdenflex Cables
Bowdenflex cables are another form of push-pull cable which may be encountered. However,
due to their method of construction, they are flexible in only one plane.
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The tension and compression loads are transmitted by a flexible Centre Load Rail. This is
supported by a set of Balls either side, which are kept at regular intervals by two flexible Ball
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Cage Strips. Each set of balls runs in an Outer Guide Rail and the whole assembly is retained in
a flexible casing. Orientation flats are formed on the outer casing parallel to the flat face of the
Centre Load Rail to ensure that the correct plane of flex is evident on installation.
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End fittings are attached to the Centre Load Rail to allow input and output loads to be applied.
The cable requires no lubrication in service and will operate at temperatures of between -40°
and +250°C. Minimum bend radius is around 3 inches while stroke range is normally 1-4 inches.
AC
Bending in the wrong plane will result in high friction and excessive wear.
Applications are similar to those of the Teleflex cable although they are far less common.
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Module 6
Licence Categories
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A, B1, B2 and B3
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6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors

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Module 6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors 11.2

Maintenance Licence
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LEVEL 1
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examples.
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LEVEL 2
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examples.
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subject.
subject.
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LEVEL 3
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manner.
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instructions.
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Table of Contents
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6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors _________________________________________ 13
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Aircraft Cables ___________________________________________________________ 13
Cable Construction _______________________________________________________ 15
Conductors ____________________________________________________________ 15
Conductor Plating _______________________________________________________ 15
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Dielectric Materials/Cable Types ____________________________________________ 16
Cable Performance, Inspection Criteria and Damage Tolerance __________________ 17
Cable Performance ______________________________________________________ 17
AC
Cable Damage and Damage Tolerance_______________________________________ 18
Aircraft Cable Construction ________________________________________________ 23
Conductor _____________________________________________________________ 23
Conductor Plating _______________________________________________________ 23
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Classification of Cables ___________________________________________________ 24
Airframe Cables _________________________________________________________ 24
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Interconnect Cables ______________________________________________________ 24
Equipment Cable ________________________________________________________ 24
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Fire Resistant Cables_____________________________________________________ 25

Fireproof Cables ________________________________________________________ 25
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Multicore Screened and Jacketed Cables _____________________________________ 25

Data Bus ______________________________________________________________ 26
Cable Types _____________________________________________________________ 27
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Standard Copper Cable ___________________________________________________ 27

Aluminium Cable ________________________________________________________ 28
Shielded Cable _________________________________________________________ 28
Data Bus Cable _________________________________________________________ 30
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Insulation Types _________________________________________________________ 31

Examples of Aircraft Cables ________________________________________________ 32
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Cable Coding ____________________________________________________________ 37

General _______________________________________________________________ 37
Construction of the Code __________________________________________________ 38
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Applicable Requirements __________________________________________________ 42

Cable Stripping __________________________________________________________ 43
General _______________________________________________________________ 43
The Stripping Tool _______________________________________________________ 43
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Stripping Tools – Double Blade Action________________________________________ 44

Stripping Tools - Thermal__________________________________________________ 47
Cable Termination ________________________________________________________ 49
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AMP Terminals _________________________________________________________ 49

Crimping of AMP Terminals ________________________________________________ 50

Crimping Tools __________________________________________________________ 55
Crimping Procedure ______________________________________________________ 57
Foot Pump _____________________________________________________________ 61
Crimping Head __________________________________________________________ 63
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In-Line Connectors _______________________________________________________ 65
General _______________________________________________________________ 65
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Use of Crimped Splices in Aircraft Electrical Cables _____________________________ 65
Use Forbidden __________________________________________________________ 65
Location of Splices _______________________________________________________ 66
Support of In-Line Splices _________________________________________________ 66
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Crimp Selection _________________________________________________________ 66
Crimping Action _________________________________________________________ 66
Kapton Cables __________________________________________________________ 68
Other Information ________________________________________________________ 69
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Sealing of Electrical Pressure Bungs ________________________________________ 71
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 71
Assembly ______________________________________________________________ 72
Pressure Bungs _________________________________________________________ 74
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Method of Wiring of Pressure Bungs _________________________________________ 75
Wire Locking of Electrical Connectors _______________________________________ 79
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Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 79
The Exception __________________________________________________________ 80
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Electrical Terminal Blocks _________________________________________________ 81

Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 81
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Construction ____________________________________________________________ 81
Assembly ______________________________________________________________ 82
New Style Terminal Blocks ________________________________________________ 83
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Securing Terminators_____________________________________________________ 84
Bending of Terminals _____________________________________________________ 86
High Density Module Blocks _______________________________________________ 87
Bussing Configuration ____________________________________________________ 88
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Contacts_______________________________________________________________ 89
Environmental Terminal Blocks _____________________________________________ 91
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Burndy Terminal Blocks ___________________________________________________ 95

Installation of Cable ______________________________________________________ 98
Crimping Contacts _______________________________________________________ 99
Insertion/Removal ______________________________________________________ 100
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Pin Insertion ___________________________________________________________ 101

Burndy Crimping Tool ___________________________________________________ 102
Grounding and Earth Points _______________________________________________ 103
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 103
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Testing _______________________________________________________________ 103

Component Parts _______________________________________________________ 104
YHLZG Grounding Modules _______________________________________________ 105
Identification – Earth Stations _____________________________________________ 106
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Crimping Tools _________________________________________________________ 107

General ______________________________________________________________ 107
M22520 Series Crimp Tools ______________________________________________ 108
M22520/1-01 Crimp Tool _________________________________________________ 108
Turret Heads __________________________________________________________ 109
M22520/2-01 Crimp Tool _________________________________________________ 110
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Calibration ____________________________________________________________ 111
Gauge Test ___________________________________________________________ 111
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Crimping a Contact _____________________________________________________ 112
Pneumatic Crimping Tools ________________________________________________ 113
PICO Crimping Tools Model 500D1 _________________________________________ 113
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Canon Crimping Tools Model CBT600 and CBT600B ___________________________ 114
Pneumatic Hand Tool AMP P/N 69365 ______________________________________ 115
Typical Hand-Operated Hydraulic Crimping Machine __________________________ 117
Preparation of Typical Machine ____________________________________________ 117
AC
Operation of a Typical Machine ____________________________________________ 118
Installation of Crimping Dies or Nests _______________________________________ 118
Example of Crimping ____________________________________________________ 118
Electric/Hydraulic Crimping Machine _______________________________________ 121
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Designation ___________________________________________________________ 121
Example of Crimping ____________________________________________________ 121
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Aircraft Connectors ______________________________________________________ 123
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 123
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Construction ___________________________________________________________ 123

Component Parts _______________________________________________________ 124
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Coupling Method _______________________________________________________ 125

Classification __________________________________________________________ 126
MIL-C-26482 __________________________________________________________ 127
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MIL-C-26500 __________________________________________________________ 128

MIL-C-83723 __________________________________________________________ 128
MIL-C-81511 __________________________________________________________ 129
MIL-C-38999 __________________________________________________________ 130
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Contacts______________________________________________________________ 135
Crimped Type Connectors ________________________________________________ 136
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Contact Insertion and Extraction ___________________________________________ 137

Contact History ________________________________________________________ 137
Locking Mechanisms ____________________________________________________ 139
Tool Selection _________________________________________________________ 140
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Insertion / Extraction Tools _______________________________________________ 141

Tweezer type insert/extract tools ___________________________________________ 147
Installing a Contact _____________________________________________________ 152
Removing a Contact ____________________________________________________ 153
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Front and Rear Release__________________________________________________ 154

Terminal Block Contact Installation _________________________________________ 155
Terminal Block Contact Removal ___________________________________________ 156
Testing _______________________________________________________________ 157
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Cable Protection ________________________________________________________ 159

Cable Environment _____________________________________________________ 159
Cabin Drainage ________________________________________________________ 159
Cable Support _________________________________________________________ 159
Cable Support at Terminal Fittings _________________________________________ 160
Cable Clamps _________________________________________________________ 161
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Loop Clamps __________________________________________________________ 163
Standoff Supports ______________________________________________________ 165
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Prevention of Chafing ___________________________________________________ 166
Looms/Cable Bundles ____________________________________________________ 167
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 167
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Ties _________________________________________________________________ 168
High Vibration Areas ____________________________________________________ 169
Loom Assembly Checks _________________________________________________ 170
Cable Bundle Breakouts _________________________________________________ 170
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Made Up Cabling _______________________________________________________ 171
Installation of Electrical Wiring _____________________________________________ 171
Cable clamps __________________________________________________________ 173
Conduit (Metallic and PVC) _______________________________________________ 174
Interference ___________________________________________________________ 176
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Heat-Shrinkable Sleeving _________________________________________________ 177
Hot Air Heat Guns/Infra-Red Heat Guns _____________________________________ 177
Selection of Heat Shrinkable Sleeving _______________________________________ 178
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Selection Criteria _______________________________________________________ 180
Connector Sealing ______________________________________________________ 181
Moulded Parts _________________________________________________________ 181
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Tape Irradiated Heatshrink _______________________________________________ 181

The Product Range _____________________________________________________ 183
Heat Shrink Heat Sources ________________________________________________ 184
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Heat Shrink Tubing _____________________________________________________ 185

Heat Shrinkable Sleeves _________________________________________________ 189
Aircraft Coaxial Cables ___________________________________________________ 191
Introduction ___________________________________________________________ 191
N
Cable Losses __________________________________________________________ 193

Types of Coaxial Cable __________________________________________________ 195
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Co-axial Connectors _____________________________________________________ 197

General ______________________________________________________________ 197
Co-axial Connector Families and Series _____________________________________ 198
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MIL-C39012 Series Co-Axial Connectors ____________________________________ 198

Construction ___________________________________________________________ 201
Styles ________________________________________________________________ 202
Crimped Connection ____________________________________________________ 203
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Assembly of a Typical Coaxial Connector ____________________________________ 205

Coaxial Cable Testing ____________________________________________________ 208
Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR) _________________________________________ 208
Impedance ____________________________________________________________ 208
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Pulse Widths __________________________________________________________ 209

Blind Spots____________________________________________________________ 210
Velocity of Propagation (VOP) _____________________________________________ 211
Locating Multiple Faults __________________________________________________ 212
General notes _________________________________________________________ 213
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Cable Wrap Connections _________________________________________________ 214
General ______________________________________________________________ 214
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Changes to the Cable Integration Unit (WIU) __________________________________ 217
Cable and Terminal Specifications _________________________________________ 218
Distribution of Stress ____________________________________________________ 218
Easy Removal _________________________________________________________ 219
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Quality Assurance ______________________________________________________ 219
Mechanical and Electrical Stability __________________________________________ 219
Hand Cable Wrapping Tool ________________________________________________ 220
Manual Unwrap ________________________________________________________ 222
AC
Cable Wrapping Tools ___________________________________________________ 223
Manual _______________________________________________________________ 223
Four Steps to a Standard Cable Wrapped Connection __________________________ 224
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Objective
Electrical Cables and Connectors 6.11 1 2 2 2
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Cable types, construction and characteristics
High tension and co-axial cables
Crimping
Connector types, pins, plugs, sockets,
AC
insulators, current and voltage rating, coupling,
identification codes
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6.11 Electrical Cables and Connectors
Aircraft Cables
Y
In a modern transport aircraft the electrical cables are the arteries taking life to the aircraft. The
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electrical power supplies are distributed to the numerous consumers by cables which have been
designed to fulfil, in the most efficient, safe and cost effect manner, the need of each consumer
with regard to its environment and at the same time remain certificatable.
AD
Reliability is possibly the prime consideration for aircraft cables since the performance of the
aircraft and the safety of the aircraft, its crew and passengers, may depend on the correct
functioning of an electrical circuit under all flight conditions. Great care is taken in the
manufacture of these cables and stringent tests are applied to ensure that all cables are of
AC
maximum reliability.
The following pages describe in detail the various factors that determine the cable reliability. At
this point it is not essential the student remembers the temperature and other ranges quoted.
O
to connect these cables by means of a solder joint.
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A wide range of types of cables are fitted to modern aircraft. On occasions there will be a need
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It should be noted thast many of the lastest aircraft cables are nickel plated. Special solders and
flux must be used to solder theses cables.
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Equipment Cable
A wide range of miniature cables exist for low current use in Avionic wiring assemblies.
Designed primarily for use with miniature plugs and sockets, it is now extensively used for
AV
internal and inter-unit connection of instruments and electronic devices.
Equipment cable is available in both single and multicore forms, standard self colours and
bicolours for ease of circuit identification.
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Single Core Form (Single Strand)

ND
• Single-strand annealed copper or tinned copper conductor.

• PVC or PTFE insulation.
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CAUTION: FUMES FROM HEATED PTFE ARE DANGEROUS

Single Core Form (Multi-Strand)
• Multi-strand annealed copper or tinned copper conductor.

• PVC or PTFE insulation.
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Multi-Core Form
Utilises several single core equipment cables, covered overall with an additional insulation
sleeve.
AC
If required for magnetic screening purposes a sheath of tinned copper braid encloses the cores,
either on single or multi-core cable forms.
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Cable Construction
Conductors
Y
For equipment interconnection and airframe cables, the conductors are normally of the stranded
type and are usually made from plated copper. However, size 24 and smaller sizes of conductor
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will be of copper alloy having a higher tensile strength. Fire resistant cables may also be of
copper alloy or copper conductors throughout all applicable sizes.
The total conductor consists of plated strands which are circular in section and which are laid up
AD
into one of a number of stranded forms. Aluminium conductors are also available for cables of
size 8 and larger but such cables have not been without any problems. Any modification which
involves conversion from copper to aluminium should be classed as „major‟ and thoroughly
investigated, especially in regard to termination techniques. Obviously, „aluminium cables‟ will
AC
need to be significantly larger in cross section than copper for a given electrical load, because
of the higher electrical resistance of aluminium.
Conductor Plating
O N
Plating is employed on copper, copper alloy and aluminium conductors to improve resistance to
corrosion and to assist termination techniques. Very often it is the plating which will determine
the temperature rating of a given cable and the figures given below are those widely recognised
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within the UK.
 Tin plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 135oC.

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 Silver plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 200oC.

 Nickel plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 260oC.
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 Nickel Clad plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 260oC.
Nickel clad copper is used instead of nickel plate on fire resistant cable to provide a thicker
nickel element.
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The temperature figures quoted above may have to be varied downwards because of limitations
imposed by the cable insulation. Higher figures, notably 150 oC for tin plating, are sometimes
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quoted in the USA but performance at such temperatures, especially in regard to stable crimp
resistance and solderability is the subject of debate, if not dispute. It should be noted that the
plating used on crimped terminal ends must be compatible with the conductor plating of the
cable, and information should be sought from termination manufacturers.
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ND
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Dielectric Materials/Cable Types
It is not practicable to review, in this Leaflet, the performance of all of the many types of cable
constructions available except in general terms. Extensive studies have been made, especially
in the USA, in an attempt to determine an optimum cable type. The conclusion drawn is that
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there is not an overall best cable and that all the materials studied have advantages and
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disadvantages. This is little help to a user who is seeking to resolve the conflicting guidance and
advice offered by organisations which have a keen commercial interest in the decisions of an
intending purchaser. This Information Leaflet is intended to alert staff to the difficulty of making
a sound judgement in what has traditionally been considered to be a simple subject.
AD
Insulation material is applied to conductors by one of two basic methods, extrusion and
wrapping. In general terms, extrudable materials are „heat meltable‟ and are not employed for
higher temperature applications. It follows that towards the upper limit of their operating
temperature, their mechanical strength, when measured by abrasion or cut through, can be
AC
significantly less than that measured at room temperature. Airframe categories of cable usually
have a double extrusion, which are not always of the same material. A double extrusion is also
claimed to impart „crack stopping‟ qualities. Radiation cross linking of processed material is
employed on high performance cables and this eliminates melting, increases strength and
Standard test for wet arc tracking.

O N
allows for thinner wall thickness. Cables employing such construction perform well on the British
The most commonly used wrapped insulation material is Kapton*, which is the registered trade
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name to an aromatic polyimide produced by Dupont. Many cable manufacturers world-wide use
Kapton, either singly or in combination with other materials to give a so called hybrid
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construction. Single or double tapes are spirally wound over the conductor to a defined overlap
to give the required tape thicknesses at any one point. Kapton is naturally copper coloured and
it is usual to apply a top coat to provide a coloured surface which will accept print and also give
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added protection to the cable. It follows that it is totally incorrect to talk of Kapton cables without
further definition. Some constructions, notably cables made in the USA to MIL-W-81381/11,
have been the subject of adverse comment and it is possible that the use of this particular type
will be discontinued in some environments. This would not reflect general rejection of cables
containing Kapton because most constructions provide good overall performance including
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excellent mechanical strength, especially the newer higher hybrid types.

TA
*Kapton is a Du-Pont trademark
The process of wrapping insulation provides good control of insulation wall thickness and there
are now cable types which employ only 4 layers of „Kapton‟, giving a total wall thickness of
US
approximately 0.006 inches, and these are being employed throughout the airframe of some
recently certified aircraft types. The CAA has not granted an Accessory Approval as „Airframe‟
types to such cables, these having been accepted on a „Component‟ basis.
ND
A previous paragraph reviewed the special case of PVC insulated cables such as Minyvin
(BSG221) and all PVC cables are now classed as „Obsolescent - unsuitable for new designs‟.
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Cable Performance, Inspection Criteria and Damage Tolerance
Cable Performance
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The prime considerations that govern the construction of any electrical cable are that it must:
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 Be capable of carrying its rated current
 Be able to withstand the applied voltages
 Be flexible, where necessary
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Also it must be able to perform these functions in conditions of:
 Very high temperature

 Very low temperature
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 A large temperature range
The insulation of additional covers must provide a mechanical cover to protect the cable in the
environment in which it is designed to be used, e.g.,


Atmospheric moisture
Fuels
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 Lubricating oils and greases
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 Hydraulic fluids
 Abrasion caused by vibration
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The definition of cable performance has increased in complexity and precision with the
reduction of insulation thickness and weight. Some of the cables now used for airframe wiring
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have no more than 0.006" of insulation thickness and thus there is little margin for error in
manufacture or in an aircraft installation. The operating temperature dictates to a large extent
the materials and constructions used, but installation requirements need to be satisfied by
defining properties such as resistance to insulation "cut through" and abrasion. It follows that
cables need to be selected with care and the factors detailed below should be considered in
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relation to any intended duty.

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Cable Damage and Damage Tolerance
Temperature
The temperature rating of a cable must be defined to permit comparison with the worst case
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requirements of the application. It follows that the location of a cable, relative to hot air ducts
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and local hot spots such as power transformers and some filament lighting, must be known.
Cables have a specified maximum continuous operating temperature and for many types, this
may be achieved by any combination of ambient temperature plus temperature rise due to I2R
losses. However, it should be noted, that in general, it is undesirable to contribute more than 40º
rise by electrical heating and that operating temperature and installed life are directly related.
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The temperature rating of an airframe cable is determined by its construction.
105ºC (obsolescent cable types), 135ºC, 150ºC, 210ºC and 260ºC.
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Clearly this temperature rating had to be known when evaluating any design application.
Flammability and Toxicity

All cables are required to have a defined level of resistance to burning when exposed to
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standard flame tests. In addition to the requirements for flammability, there exists within BCARs
and FARs, general requirements relating to the hazards of smoke and toxicity. In recent years,
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greater emphasis has been placed upon these characteristics and whilst they are not yet
defined in many civil cable specifications, it is generally true that new cable types have been
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more thoroughly investigated.

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Wet Arc Tracking

A requirement has now been formulated to assess the 'resistance to failure' of cables when
subjected to a combination of insulation damage and fluid contamination.
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Tracking can also occur under dry conditions and this is being studied. This failure mode
reinforces the need for good cable installation and maintenance practices.
Fluid Contamination
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Cables are required to display a defined level of resistance to the effects of commonly used
aircraft fluids but this is not to say that cables can withstand continuous contamination, which
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should be avoided. A related hazard is that presented by sealing compounds because this
these may contain agents which are aggressive to cable insulation. It follows that where a new
cable type is introduced, the compatibility with such compounds should be checked. Equally,
the use of a new fluid on an aircraft, e.g. new types of hydraulic fluid, should be considered in
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relation to the ability of cables to withstand contamination. Contamination of cables by toilet or

galley waste has to be rigorously prevented or corrected.
Arc Tracking
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Electrical wet-cable arc tracking is a phenomenon that has been known for many years. This
can occur when leakage currents on a wet insulation surface are great enough to vaporize the
moisture, resulting in the formation of dry spots. These dry spots offer a high amount of
resistance to current flow. In turn, an induced voltage will develop across these spots and result
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in the occurrence of small surface discharges. Initially, these discharges will appear as

scintillations at the insulation surface. These discharges produce highly localized temperatures
on the order of 1000oC. Temperatures of this magnitude will cause thermal degradation of the
insulation material, the nature of which depends on the insulation material used. The FAA
conducted a series of bench scale tests which demonstrated that the ability of an aircraft cable
to resist wet arc tracking and possible flashover is highly dependent on the composition of the
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cable insulation. In addition, the conductivity level of the electrolyte may influence the time and
type of failure (arc track or open circuit) that can occur.
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An example of the damage caused by Wet Arc Tracking

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The actions of cable manufacturers should resolve the problem, but the greatest need is to
ensure that hot stamp printing is properly controlled. „Inter-connect‟ and „Equipment Cables‟
should not be hot stamp printed.
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Minyvin -Some batches of Minyvin have in the past shown a tendency to shed the outer
nylon sheath because of splitting along a flow line inadvertently introduced during
manufacture. In dry areas of aircraft, replacement of such cable is not a matter of urgency
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but if moisture, especially hydraulic fluid, is present then cable must be replaced. In areas
which are exposed and prone to fluid contamination, such as undercarriage bays,
modifications to introduce a more suitable cable have been raised on some aircraft types.
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BMS 13-28 - Larger sizes of this mineral-filled PTFE cable, especially those used on
Boeing 707, 727 and 737 aircraft, tend to experience complete insulation failure due to a

longitudinal splitting of the total dielectric. Replacement by BMS13-58 or EFGLAS to BS
G222 under modification action is desirable.
Abrasion
Some types of cable have shown a tendency to „wear through‟ the insulation at a point where
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the cable rubs on cable or cable rubs on structure. Areas of high vibration induce this failure
mechanism and it may be supposed that the stiffer construction of some cables tends to
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produce a greater contact force and transmit vibration where previously it was damped. Careful
cable loom tying and clipping is necessary to alleviate this.
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A typical source of abrasion

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Conductor ‘Knuckling Through'
Some earlier cable constructions tended to exhibit „knuckling of conductors which could be
severe enough to penetrate the insulation. This was induced by applying excessive pull through
forces and care should be taken not to put cables under tension. FEPSIL to BS G206, which is
now „obsolescent‟, requires particular care in manufacture and installation to avoid this defect.
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Red Plague
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Cables with silver plated conductors can exhibit the aptly named „Red Plague‟ if the plating has
been damaged and then exposed to moisture. Consequently, silver plated conductors are
generally unsuitable for use in unpressurised areas.
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Glycol Fires
It is known that should de-icing fluid contaminate silver plated conductors, an electrical fire can
result. Accordingly, silver plated conductors should not be employed in areas where de-icing
fluid can be present.
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Poor Solderability
It should be recognised that the quantity of free tin or plated conductors rapidly reduces with
time. The replacement of soldered connections during aircraft maintenance will probably require
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that conductors are „tinned‟ as part of the process. The loss of free tin starts as the cable is
manufactured and thus prolonged storage should be avoided.
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Intentionally Blank
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Aircraft Cable Construction
An aircraft cable usually consists of a plated conductor protected by an outer insulative
covering:
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Conductor
The conductor commonly consists of a number of strands of copper cable. The number of
strands depends upon the current rating and degree of flexibility required. However, size 24 and
smaller sizes of conductor will be made of a copper alloy having a higher tensile strength. Fire
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resistant cables may also be of copper alloy or copper conductors throughout all applicable
sizes. The conductor is plated to resist oxidation which occurs with increased temperatures and
moist atmospheres.
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The total conductor consists of plated strands which are circular in section and which are laid up
into one of a number of stranded forms. Aluminium conductors are also available for cables of
size 8 and larger but such cables have not been without problems. Any modification which
involves conversion from copper to aluminium should be classed as 'major' and thoroughly
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investigated especially in regard to termination techniques. Obviously, 'aluminium cables' will
need to be significantly larger in cross section than copper for a given electrical load, because
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of the higher electrical resistance of aluminium.
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Conductor Plating
Plating is employed on copper, copper alloy and aluminium conductors to improve resistance to
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corrosion and to assist termination techniques. Very often it is the plating which will determine
the temperature rating of a given cable and the figures given below are those widely recognised
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with in the UK.
 Tin plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 135ºC
 Silver plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 200ºC

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 Nickel plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 260ºC

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 Nickel clad plated copper maximum continuous temperature - 260ºC
Nickel clad copper is used instead of nickel plate on fire resistant cable to provide a thicker
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nickel element.
The temperature figures quoted above may have to be varied downwards because of limitations
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imposed by the cable insulation. Higher figures, notably 150ºC for tin plating, are sometimes
quoted in the USA but performance at such temperatures, especially in regard to staple crimp
resistance and solderability is the subject of debate, if not dispute. It should be noted that the
plating used on crimped terminal ends must be compatible with the conductor plating of the
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cable and information should be sought from termination manufacturers.

Classification of Cables
Listed below are the broad classifications used for aircraft cables. Regrettably, there is little
International Standardisation of terminology and it should be noted that the term 'cable' is used
in the USA where most other countries talk of 'cable'.
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Airframe Cables
Cables designated as 'Airframe' are intended to be sufficiently robust to satisfy the requirements
of 'Open' airframe wiring and the general wiring of Power Plants. However, in recent years there
has been a strong trend towards very thin insulation which is harder and stiffer than insulation
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such as PVC. Such 'stiff' cables are perfectly satisfactory if the installation is designed to accept
them but they may very well be quite unsuitable for an older airframe design requiring, say,
flexing over hinges. It follows that even if all the major declared characteristics such as overall
diameter and temperature rating are acceptable, the apparently equivalent cables may still not
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be interchangeable. There are two basic methods of applying cable insulation, namely wrapping
and extruding. These methods in themselves can produce different 'handling' characteristics. In
the USA, the term 'Medium Weight Interconnect' may be used for Airframe Cables.
Interconnect Cables
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'Interconnect' is a term adopted by the BSI to designate cables which may be used in protected
areas of wiring such as the interconnection of equipment within racks. Such cable would then
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be positioned into an aircraft. It would not, therefore, be subject to 'pulling through' and other
such stressful exercises. Interconnect cables employ thinner insulation than airframe types,
which saves weight and space and increases flexibility, the latter being most important where
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looms (bundles) are required to turn through small radii into electrical connectors. However, all
the constraints given for airframe cable also apply here.
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The term 'Hook Up' is commonly used in the USA to designate cables of this general type and
the designation 'Light Weight Interconnect' may also be applied.
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Equipment Cable
This cable, invariably known as 'cable', is intended to be used within equipment and, therefore,
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is very flexible and suitable for soldering. It is not designed for use as interconnect wiring but
design organisations do, on occasions, select a particular type for use in protected areas of an
airframe. There is a considerable range of such cables which vary in basic construction and
performance and they should always be very clearly defined. In general, the types in aircraft use
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are produced by CAA Approved Organisations who provide 'CAA Release' to British Standard
G210 or an equivalent specification. Some manufacturers have sought 'Accessory Approval' for
BS G210 cable and this has been granted, but it is not a CAA requirement that any form of
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design approval be applied to this cable when it is used for its intended purpose (which is within
equipment enclosures where the equipment itself is subject to control). It follows that it can be
manufactured and released by a Supplier, approved to BCAR A8-2. The term 'Module Cable' is
sometimes used for this class of cable in the USA.
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Fire Resistant Cables
This type of cable is required to retain a defined level of electrical insulation in the presence of
fire for five minutes, as defined in BCAR Section S1-2 paragraph 1.17.2 and CAR CS-1. 'Fire
Resistance' should not be confused with 'high temperature' and fire resistant types should only
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be employed where this property is required because other characteristics, such as fluid
resistance, will usually be poorer than could be expected from a non fire resistant high
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temperature cable.
Fireproof Cables
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These cables are required to operate for fifteen minutes in a designated fire as defined in BCAR
D6 paragraph 6.5.1 and CAR CS-1 and are for use in designated fire zones. BCAR D6-13
paragraph 6.6.2 and JAR 25.1359 define a fire zone. As for Fire Resistant types, they should
only be used where necessary.
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Multicore Screened and Jacketed Cables

Airframe and interconnect cables may be supplied in a multicore form of generally up to four
cores, the cores being twisted together. The multicore may be jacketed (sometimes known as a
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sheath) or it may be screened and jacketed. The screening is usually a braid which gives 85%
surface coverage, but screening to a higher standard may be used and on replacement of such
cables, the standard must not be degraded. The cores are coloured for identification as defined
in BS G230.
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Data Bus
Data Bus cables are designed to specific requirements which will not, as a general principle,
allow for replacement by any other type other than that specified by the Design Authority for the
installation. (This requirement will also apply to the terminations of such cable.)
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Cable Types
Standard Copper Cable
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There are many different types of cable used for special applications in aircraft electrical
systems, but the majority of the wiring is achieved with MIL-W-5086 or MIL-W-22759 stranded
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tinned copper cable with PVC, nylon or Teflon insulation.
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Examples of common aircraft cabling

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MIL-G-5086 Copper Cable
Aluminium Cable
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Where large amounts of current must be carried for long distances, MIL-W-7072 aluminium
cable is often used. This cable is insulated with either "Fluorinated Ethylene Propolene (FEP),
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nylon or fibreglass braid. Aluminium cable smaller than six-gauge is not recommended
because it is so easily broken by vibrations.
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Shielded Cable
Anytime a cable carries a current, a magnetic field surrounds the cable, and this field may
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interfere with some aircraft instrumentation. For example, the light that illuminates the compass
card of a magnetic compass is powered with low-voltage DC. The field from this small voltage
can deflect the compass. To minimise this occurrence, a two-conductor twisted cable is used to
carry the current to and from this light. By using a twisted cable, the fields cancel each other
out and thus do not interfere with the compass.
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AC or pulsating DC has an especially bad effect on electronic equipment, as its conductor‟s

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radiate electrical energy much like the antenna of a radio. To prevent radio interference, cables
that carry AC or pulsating DC are often shielded. Encasing the conductor in a cable braid
carries this out. This ensures that the radiated energy is received by the braid and is then
passed to the aircraft's ground where it can cause no interference.
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Shielded Cable
Antennas are connected to most of the radio receivers and transmitters with a special type of
shielded cable called "Coaxial Cable". This consists of a central conductor surrounded by an
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insulator and a second conductor. The spacing and concentricity of the two conductors are
critical for the most efficient transfer of energy through the cable. This second conductor is
normally the cable braid, which is then covered in an outer insulator.
O N OUTER
INSULATOR
JACKET
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Coaxial Cable
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Data Bus Cable
One special type of cable used exclusively for various digital electronic systems is called “Data
Bus Cable”. Data bus cable typically consists of a twisted pair of cables surrounded by
electrical shielding and insulators. Digital systems operate on different frequencies, voltages
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and current levels. It is extremely important to ensure that the correct cable is used for the
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system installed. The cable should not be pinched or bent during installation and data bus
cable lengths may also be critical. Refer to current manufacturer‟s manuals for cable
specifications.
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Data Bus Cable

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Insulation Types
Insulation material is applied to conductors by one of two basic methods, extrusion and
wrapping. In general terms, extrudable materials are "heat meltable" and are not employed for
higher temperature applications. It follows that towards the upper limit of their operating
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temperature their mechanical strength, when measured by abrasion or cut through, can be
significantly less than that measured at room temperature.
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Airframe categories of cable usually have a double extrusion which are not always of the same
material. A double extrusion is also claimed to impart "crack stopping" qualities. Radiation cross
linking of processed material is employed on high performance cables and this eliminates
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melting, increases strength and allows for thinner wall thickness. Cables employing this
construction perform well on the British Standard test for wet arc tracking.
The most commonly used wrapped insulation material is Kapton, which is the registered trade
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name to an aromatic polyimide by Dupont. Many cable manufacturers world wide use Kapton,
either singly or in combination with other materials to give a so called hybrid construction. Single
or double tapes are spirally wound over the conductor to a defined overlap to give the required
tape thickness at any one point. Kapton is naturally copper coloured and it is usual to apply a
top coat to provide a coloured surface which will accept print and also gives an added protection
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to the cable. It follows that it is totally incorrect to talk of Kapton cables without further definition.
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Some construction, notably cables made in the USA to MIL-W-81381/11, have been the subject
of adverse comment and it is possible that the use of this particular type will be discontinued in
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some environments. This would not reflect general rejection of cables containing Kapton
because most constructions provide good overall performance including excellent mechanical
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strength, especially the newer higher temperature hybrid types.
The process of wrapping insulation provides good control of insulation wall thickness and there
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are now cable types which employ only 4 layers of 'Kapton', giving a total wall thickness of
approximately 0.006 inches and these are being employed throughout the airframe of some
recently certified aircraft types. The CAA has not granted an Accessory Approval as 'Airframe'
types to such cables, these having been accepted on a 'Component' basis.
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PVC insulated cables such a Minyvin (BS G221) and all PVC cables are now classed as
'Obsolescent - unsuitable for new designs".
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Examples of Aircraft Cables
Nyvin
A general purpose white airframe cable available in the following five forms:
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• Uninyvin
The most common form. Replaced by Raychem 44A.
• Minyvin N
As uninyvin but has smaller insulation diameter to save weight and space. Used on
BAC1-11. Replaced by Raychem 44A.
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• Trinyvin
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Three standard Uninyvin cables twisted together during manufacture. Used only in 3
phase circuits. With each cable having a red, yellow or blue tracer.
• Uninyvin-Metsheath
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A screened cable used in ratio and fuel quantity measurement systems.

• Uninyvinal
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Has aluminium conductor. Used in larger gauge cables to save weight.
Tersil
A fire resistant cable having greater flexibility than Nyvin. Available in similar forms as Nyvin.
Used on landing gear and other areas where movement of the cable is necessary. Exterior
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finish is orange.
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Fepsil

A fire resistant cable which has replaced TERSIL in some instances. Exterior finish is green.
Efglas
A high temperature resistant cable used in some engine circuits. Exterior finish is grey.
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Kapton N
A series of AWG cables with a very high degree of insulation. Kapton cables employed the use
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of PTFE sleeving over thin layers of insulation. They were recognised by the „thin wall‟ of
insulation which was usually a tarnished yellow in colour. Kapton cables have been superseded
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by ACT-260 and were/are mainly used on B747-100/200, Tristar, Concorde and older A320
aircraft.
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KP 150
A modern general purpose cable. Has large saving in weight and space over Nyvin.
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BMS 13-13
(Boeing Materials Specification) cable is an American equivalent to Nyvin. Single cables are
coloured white; Doubles: red and blue, Triples: red, yellow and blue.
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BMS 13-42
An earlier cable performing similar function to the British KP 150. Replaced by BMS 13-48.
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Used on older B747‟s.

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BMS 13-51
Used on Tristar, Concorde, B737, B747, B747- 400 and B757. Replaced by ACT-260.
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ACT-260 N
A recent cable having a high degree of Arc Track Resistance. Used on ATP. Replaced by KP
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260.
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Ratchem 44A
A recent replacement for Minivin. Used on HS 748.
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Co-axial
Used in radio aerial circuits and fuel measurement circuits.
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Note: The length of cable, and hence the impedance is critical in these circuits due to the
capacitance effect.
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Thermocouple Cable
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Used as cold junction compensation cables or as extension cable.
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The correct cable combination must be used in thermocouple circuits and the coloured
insulation denotes the material of each conductor. These cables are always manufactured as a
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pair.
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Intentionally Blank
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Cable Coding
General
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A modern aircraft contains miles and miles of cable and cable. It is therefore important that we
can identify individual cables easily.
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Nowadays most aircraft manufacturers have adopted a method of coding cables and cable
which conforms to the ATA 100 specification. This method is often referred to as 'series coding'.
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The code number appears on the wiring diagrams, cables lists and other electrical or electronic
drawings. The code number is imprinted at regular intervals on the cable or cable itself.
Alternatively an identification sleeve may be used.
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On modern cables the code is imprinted onto the cables. This is achieved by a method known
as 'hot stamping'. As the name suggests this method uses a machine to bur onto the insulation
the cable code. For operators employing this coding method it is vital that they are aware of risk
degrading the insulation properties of the cable. Therefore any cable which has been hot
stamped must undergo stringent insulation testing.
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There are several tests available and are detailed in BS G230 Test 16. In essence it is a simple
test involving placing the stamp cable against a metal surface and applying a high voltage
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source. The IR value for a new cable should be close to infinity.
It is important to note that stamp printing may only be applied to cables and sizes which have
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been certified as capable of accepting such markings.

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Construction of the Code
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Cable Number Prefix N
The first four digits of the code is the cable number prefix and identifies the aircraft system to
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which the cable is connected. This number will also cross reference to its associated ATA
system number.
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Cable Number
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A dash separates the ATA number prefix from the cable number. A cable number consisting of
a maximum of 5 digits is used to differentiate between cables, cables or coaxial cables in a
particular subsystem.
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A different cable number is used for each conductor not sharing a common connection. Notice
that both cables shown in the diagram have the same cable number. This is because there is a
permanent connection between the two cables. If there were a switch or relay contact between
the two cables then the cable number would change because in this case there would not be a
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permanent connection between them.

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Cable Segment Letter
In the case where two cables were permanently connected, such as in a terminal block, or a
splice, the cable number didn't change. We still need to discriminate between these two cables.
We use a letter for this purpose.
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A different letter is used for each segment sharing a common terminal or connection and having
the same 4 digit ATA number. Where practicable, segments are lettered in alphabetical
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sequence and the letter A identifies the first segment starting at the signal and/or power source.
The letters I and O are not used. Double letters AA, AB, AC . . . . ., BA, BB, BC, . . .etc, are
used when more than 24 segments are required. Segments joined by a permanent splice have
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different segment letters assigned to them.
Cable Gauge
The cable or cable size number is used to identify the American Cable Gauge (AWG) size of the
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cable or cable. The cable size number is not normally included for coaxial cables. For
thermocouple cables a dash is used instead of the cable size number.
The cable gauge is not shown on a wiring diagram if a note similar to the following appears.
Note:
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All cables are 20 gauge unless otherwise specified.
N
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Ground, Phase or Thermocouple Letter
The letter 'N' (ground or earth) is used as a suffix to the cable identification code to identify a
segment of a cable or cable that is a part of the ground network.
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The phase letters 'A', 'B' and 'C' are used as suffixes to the cable or cable identification code on
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all cables segments carrying three phase ac power from the source of power up to and
including the aircraft item using the three phase ac power.
The phase letter 'V' is used as a suffix to the identification code to identify all segments of the
high voltage side of a single phase power circuit.
N
When a suffix letter such as N, indicating a ground cable is a part of the cable identification
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code and the cable gauge is indicated in the wiring diagram note, a dash is inserted before the
suffix letter.
Example: 3135-27B-N
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The following suffixes are used for thermocouple identification.
CHROM - CHROMEL
IRON - IRON
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ALML - ALUMEL
COP - COPPER
CONST - CONSTANTAN
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Although the series code is an internationally accepted standard for identifying cables and
cables it does suffer from a distinct disadvantage in that you can't determine to which pieces of

equipment a particular cable is connected without referring to the Wiring Diagram Manual.
Some earlier aircraft types employed a method of cable identification which would help you find
where a particular cable terminated.
The ATA 100 Specification basic coding consists of a six position combination of letters and
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numbers, which are printed on the outer covering of the cable. The identification code is
normally printed at specified intervals along the length of the cable. When printing is not
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practical the code is printed on non-metallic sleeves and positioned along the cable
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 Position 1 – Unit number, used where the component shave identical circuits
 Position 2 – Circuit function letter and circuit designation letter which indicate the circuit
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function and the associated system

 Position 3 – Cable number, allocated to differentiate between cables which do not have a
common terminal in the same circuit. Generally, contacts of switches, relays etc. are not
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classified as common terminals. Beginning with the number 1, a different number is

given to each cable.
 Position 4 – Cable segment number, which identifies the segment of cable between two
terminals or connections, and differentiates between segments of the circuit when the
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same cable number is used throughout. Segments are lettered in alphabetical sequence,
excluding the letters I and O. A different letter is used for each of the cable segments
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having a common terminal or connection.

 Position 5 – Cable size
 Position 6 – Suffix data, used to indicate the type of cable and to identify its connection
function. For example, in the sample code NMS V indicates Nyvin-metsheath
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ungrounded cable in a single phase system.

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This example shows another typical code.
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shows the other functions
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The last letter relates to the function of the system to which the cable relates. The Table below
AC Power X
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De-icing and anti-icing D

Engine control K
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Engine instruments E
Flight control C
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Fuel and oil Q

Ground network N
Heating and ventilation H
Ignition J
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Inverter control V
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Lighting L
Miscellaneous M
Power P
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Radio navigation and R

communication
Warning devices W
Function code letters
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Applicable Requirements
The applicable airworthiness code will depend on the type of aircraft in which the cable is to
be installed. This may be BCAR Section D, BCAR Section K, BCAR Section G or CAR.
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The following list is provided for guidance purposes only:
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BCAR Section D6-13 paragraph 7.1
Cables and Associated Fittings and Equipment
BCAR Section K6-13 paragraph 7.1
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BCAR Section G6-14 paragraph 7.1

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CAR CS-25
25.1309 Equipment, Systems and Installation
25.1353 Electrical Equipment and Installation
25.1355 Distribution System
25.1359 Electrical System Fire and Smoke Protection
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See also NPA 25DF-191, Miscellaneous Electrical Requirements
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Cable Stripping
General
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The majority of electrical cables in present day use are insulated with materials that have been
developed to have great mechanical strength as well as other properties.
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Several types of stripping tools have been designed to strip the insulation layer from cable prior
to terminal crimping, however it is essential that only the correct tool is used.
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The Aircraft Maintenance Manual details all the correct approved tools which must be adhered
to when carrying out any crimping task on the aircraft.
Failure to use the Correct Approved Tool will inevitably result in:
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 A reduction in the current carrying capacity or rating of the cable if strands are lost.
 A reduction in the insulation protection of the cable.
 Unacceptable mechanical or electrical characteristics of the completed cable terminal.
The Stripping Tool

O N
An approved stripping tool should be visually inspected before use and a test crimp carried out
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on each size of cable to be stripped.

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The tool should be considered suspect and appropriate action taken if on inspection the
following characteristics are evident.
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 Bruised, nicked or severed conductor strands.

 Kinks in the conductor or cable adjacent to the terminal.
 Ragged cuts to the insulation or protective sleeving.
There are commonly four types of cable strippers available which are:
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 Single Blade
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A rotary device which cuts around the cable.
 Double Blade
A four action device which is a high precision cut and strip tool.
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 Thermal
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Removes the insulation by melting.
 Abrasive
Grinds off hard insulation (eg. Enamel)
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Of the above listed, only Double Blade and Thermal are used within British Airways.
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Stripping Tools – Double Blade Action

The cut and pull action of the double blade cable strippers is in five stages. Each of the stages
are independant, however they are co-ordinated by the use of mechanical handle interlocks.
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Because high tolerance mechanical interlocks are used, the strippers must be kept clean and
free from any debris.
The stages are as follows:
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Relaxed - Cable grip and cutters open.
Half Pressure - Cable grip secures cable and the blades cut insulation.
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Full Pressure - Cutters and grips are seperated, severed insulation drawn from the
conductor.
Half Released - Grips and cutters open, releasing the cable.
Fully Released - Grips and cutters snap back together.
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Following the Stripping Action
Remove any glass fibre strands or discarded cable.
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Re-impose the lay with a gentle twist then inspect the cable for the following:
 Severed or nicked strands

 Kinks


Correct insulation strip length
Damage to insulation
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Stripping Tools - Thermal
A thermal tool is more popular with equipment cable because if used properly it offers no
damage to the conductor. Its drawback is that it must not be used with PTFE as it gives off
poisonous fumes.
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It is a 28V DC tool, capable of stripping up to 4mm cable. The scissor blades are heated and
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melt the insulation. They are then rotated through 180° and the insulation is easily pulled off.
When inspecting the cable, it is important that there are no strands of insulation drawn up the
conductor.
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Intentionally Blank
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Cable Termination
AMP Terminals
To ensure the reliability of aircraft general purpose wiring, the method used to terminate the
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cables should be such that the mechanical and electrical properties of the joint are of a
controlled quality. e.g. A strong mechanical joint with good electrical conductivity (the resistance
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of which is equal to or less than an equivalent length of cable).
There are several methods by which cable terminations may be made but the most commonly
used method is the solderless or crimped termination. Although soldered terminating is still used
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it is becoming rare on aircraft and is generally confined to internal wiring of equipment.
A large number of cable terminations are made by attaching a “terminal” to the end of a
prepared cable using a process known as CRIMPING. This enables a cable to be connected to
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a terminal block or attachment point.
There are several advantages in using 'crimps':
 Good conductivity.


Uniformity of operation.
Strength of connection.
O N
 Corrosion proof.
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Examples of both Ring Tongue Terminals and In Line Splices are shown below.
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Crimping of AMP Terminals
Crimping is a process where deliberate distortion of the terminal shank is used to secure the
terminal to the conductor.
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The crimp is formed by an overall compression of the shank of the terminal onto the conductor,
this results in a “cold flow” of metal between the shank and the conductor. The resulting single
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mass has good Electrical and Mechanical properties. These are sometimes known as 'confined
crimps'.
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Ideally the crimp should be round, but in practice a hexagonal shape has been found to yield
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excellent results, at the same time lending itself conveniently to the manufacture of crimping
dies. Moreover, it is a form of crimp uniformly applicable to large and small cable sizes and to
aluminium as well as copper conductors.
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The most common terminals used are the “AIRCRAFT MARINE PRODUCTS” (AMP) and are
usually of the “Pre-Insulated Diamond Grip” (PIDG) type.
The quality of the completed crimped terminal can only be determined and assured when the
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recommended procedure is strictly adhered to and the correct tools, detailed in the relevant
manuals, identified and used.
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AMP Terminals all have plastic or nylon insulating sleeves covering the shank or barrel. The
sleeves are colour coded, with the colour relating to the appropriate crimping tool size. The
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correct size crimping tool is identified by a coloured sleeve on it‟s operating handle which will
match that of the termination.
This will be looked at in greater detail later in this section.

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Note: PIDG terminals are approved for use in aircraft and have a superior grip due to the use of
a copper sleeve insert.
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The tongue design and size will depend totally upon the size and location of the terminating
stud with which it is to mate. Two of the more common forms are the ring and the fork.

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Following are examples of cable terminals and associated tools, used as a basis for a standard
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range of terminals for use in applications where temperatures (for aircraft electrical cables up to
650ºF) exceed those permitted for the general purpose range of cables.
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The example covers ring tongue heat resistant nickel plated terminals and associated crimping
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tools.
These terminals and crimping tools listed herein are designed for use on aircraft electrical
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cables cleared for use at elevated temperatures e.g. TERSIL cables to Spec BS G227 EFGLAS
cable to Spec. BS C222 and cables to American Spec MIL-W-7139. They are not normally used
on cables with tin plated conductors.
Cable sizes quoted in the attached lists relate to the cable specifications mentioned in the
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paragraph above, which control conductor and overall dimensions. Should cables outside these
ranges be used, care must be taken to check dimensions prior to crimping to ensure that the
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relevant diameters are consistent with those recommended for the terminals chosen. A check of
specimen crimped terminations is recommended.
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In isolated cases the insulation grip when crimped may impede installation on terminal blocks or
components. In such cases it may be permissible to remove the nickel silver sleeve forming the
insulation grip, prior to crimping. When this is done it becomes essential to crimp with the
Solistrand type tool No 49935-B or 46447 both of which cater for the three sizes: 22-16,16-14
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and 12-10.
CAUTION: CRIMPING TOOLS MUST BE REGARDED AS PRECISION TOOLS AND SHALL NOT BE USED ON
CABLES AND TERMINATIONS OUTSIDE THE RANGE FOR WHICH THEYARE APPROVED E.G. NO
TERMINAL OTHER OTHAN THOSE OF AMP MANUFACTURE SHALL BE CRIMPED BY AN AMP TOOL.
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No AMP terminals shall be crimped by any tool other than its assoicated AMP.

No colour identification is provided on nickelplated terminals so careful segregation must be
maintained at all times by stores and production personnel to avoid confusion with tin-plated
terminals.
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All crimping tools in use, whether listed herein, or not, should be periodically tested in
accordance with the relevant requirements.
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Terminals and crimpting tools are listed in the tables provided, for illustration purposes only. The
relevant approved information should always be used when carrying out any task.
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At the time of writing, Terminal Catalogue P/No 323067 is to be replaced by a new part number.
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The relevant approved information should always be used when carrying out any task.
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Crimping Tools
The special tool used for crimping AMP terminals has four important design features to ensure a
constant quality of completed crimp joint:
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 Certi-crimp ratchet
 Locator
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 Insulation adjusting pins
 Colour and dot coding
Certi-Crimp Ratchet
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This ensures the bottoming of the die jaws before the jaws can be opened again. Thus ensuring
that the crimp has been completed and preventing under crimping.
Locator
AC
This “holds” the terminal in the correct position in the die jaws and allows the conductor strands
to protrude 1/32" from the terminal barrel, when the cable is fully inserted.
Insulation Adjusting Pins

To allow for variation in insulation diameter and wear in the tool, the insulation die head has
three degrees of adjustment.
O N
 Loose, (No 3 selected)
 Medium, (No 2 selected)
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 Tight, (No 1 selected)

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Colour and Dot Coding

The "dot" coding system is needed to identify terminals which have been crimped in the correct
AMP hand tool and that the terminals correctly positioned in the tool e.g., if a red terminal is
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crimped in a red handled tool, a single dot impression will be left on the insulation at the barrel
end.
The tools have colour coded handles to specify the size range and a different dot code for each
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tool:
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Colour Size/Range Dot Code

Yellow 26-22 One
Red 22-16 One
Blue 16-14 Two
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Yellow 12-10 One
Since this tool is a PRECISION TERMINATING TOOL it must be subjected to regularly

prescribed checks and have a validity label showing dates of last and next check. If the test
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date has expired the tool must be considered unserviceable and returned for check.
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AMP Crimping Tool
The AMP hand crimping tool shown, is one of the most common type found in the Industry. The
pliers have a self locking ratchet whilst the handles are colour coded in red, blue or yellow for
cross reference to AWG. In addition the AWG is stamped on the plier jaws. The colour code and
AWG cross references to the actual crimp which is pre-insulated with a red, blue or yellow
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sleeve. Also marked on the jaws are the letters PIDG, this refers to the characteristic of the
completed crimp: Pre-Insulated Diamond Grip.
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Crimping Procedure
Preparation of Tool
1. Insert insulation adjustment pins into the No 3 position.
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2. Locate termination in crimping jaws.
3. Insert an UNSTRIPPED cable into the insulation grip portion of the termination only, i.e,
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length “C”.
4. Close handles until certi-crimp ratchet releases.
5. Remove termination and check insulation support as follows: bend the cable back and
forth through 90° once, the terminal sleeve should retain its grip in the cable insulation.
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6. If the cable can be pulled out, set the insulation adjustment pins to the next tightest
position (No 2).
Repeat items 3 to 6.
AC
If required repeat with pins in position No 1.
Note: Always ensure that both insulation adjustment pins are selected to the same position
number.
Insulation Crimping Adjustment

O N
The Double Action Hand Tool has three Insulation Crimping Adjustments. See diagram.
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 Position No 3 is for cable having a Large Insulation Diameter.

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 Position No 2 is for cable having a Medium Insulation Diameter.

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 Position No 1 is for cable having a Small Insulation Diameter.
When making adjustments, make sure that both Insulation Adjustment Pins are in the same
position.
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Colour Code
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High Temperature Terminals are Colour Coded Orange.

Heat Resistant Terminals ARE NOT COLOUR CODED.
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Hashmark Code
A Hashmark Code, see diagram, will appear on the bottom (side opposite crimp indents) of High
Temperature and Heat Resistant Terminals when crimped in the correct AMP Tooling.
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Preparation of Cables
O N
 Using approved stripping tool, remove specific length of insulation as indicated below.
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 Inspect stripped end for severed or damaged conductor strands.

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 Select the appropriate terminal for the size of cable being terminated and to suit the stud
size of the terminal fitting.
 Select a tool by reference to the colour of the terminal. Check cable size range stamped
on tool face.
ND
 Inspect the tool for serviceability and adjust the insulation crimping adjustment pins as
detailed in the previous paragraph “Preparation of Tool”.
 Insert the terminal into the jaws so that the barrel rests against the locator as in the
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diagram.
 Squeeze handles until the terminal is lightly gripped by the jaws.

 Insert prepared cable end into terminal barrel ensuring that all conductor strands enter.
 Conductor strands must be laying together to allow for 100% insertion, if the lay of the
strands is disturbed they should be reimposed with a light twist.
Note: Excessive twisting should be avoided as this increases the conductor diameter.
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 Ensure that no insulating materials enter the wrong area of the crimp.
 When fully inserted the conductor should extend beyond the barrel by approximately
1/32".
 Hold cable in position and crimp by squeezing handles until ratchet releases.
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 Remove completed crimped joint and inspect for correct protrusion of conductor and the
correctly formed dot code.
Cable Stripping
AC
 Strip cable as shown in diagram.
 Insulation Crimping Adjustment The AMP Hand Tool has three Insulation Crimping
Adjustments see diagram.
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Position No 3 is for cable having a Large Insulation Diameter.
Position No 2 is for cable having a Medium Insulation Diameter.
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Position No 1 is for cable having a Small Insulation Diameter.
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 To make adjustment, pull Pin out and push it all the way into desired hole.
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Crimping Procedure
 To open Crimping Jaws, squeeze handles until Certi-Crimp Ratchet, see diagram,
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releases. Open Handles all the way.

 Place terminal in Crimping Jaws as shown in diagram.
 Squeeze Handles until Terminal is held firmly in place, do not deform Terminal Barrel.
Note that once Certi-Crimp Ratchet is engaged, Handles cannot be opened.
 Insert stripped cable into Terminal Barrel.
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 Hold cable in position and complete crimp by SQUEEZING Handles until Certi-Crimp
Ratchet releases.
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Foot Pump
Operating Instructions
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NOTE: Foot pump should only be used in horizontal position.

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a. Remove Cap from end of Hose. Pump Foot Pedal slowly until oil appears at end of hose.
b. Attach Crimping Head to Hose. See instruction sheet packaged with Crimping Head.
c. Place Terminal in Dies. See instructions Sheet packaged with Crimping Head.
d. Lift up Reset Pedal and then push it down.
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e. Pump Foot Pedal until Ram in Crimping Head advances and holds Terminal in place. Do not
deform Terminal barrel.
f. Insert stripped cable. See instruction sheet packaged with Crimping Head.
g. Pump Foot Pedal until Internal Bypass Valve opens and Ram in Crimping Head returns to
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neutral position.
h. Open Latch on Crimping Head and remove crimped Terminal.
i. Before next crimp is made, push Reset Pedal down then follows steps e, f and g above.
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Crimping Head
Crimping Head 69069 Used With Foot Pump 69064

The AMP Crimping Head No. 69069 was designed for Portable Hand Operated use. When used
as a portable Unit, the Crimping Head is mounted on extension hoses to provide a large
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working radius and accessibility to confined areas. See diagram.
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The Head No 69069, in diagram, crimps Terminals on No 8, 6, 4 and 2 cable. It contains a
single Lower Die (Indenter) and an adjustable 4 position Upper Die (Nest).
NOTE: If you wish to place a guide mark on cylinder to help locate flat after collar has
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been attached, use pencil or paints. Do not punch, file or scribe a mark.
 Attach Crimping Head to Power Unit Foot Pump P/No 69064.
AC
 Clean area around Collar on Handle Control and Hose Assembly or Crimping Head
Coupling.
 Remove the Plastic Cap and Clean threaded Base of Crimping Head.
NOTE: It is important that all threaded fittings be thoroughly cleaned before they are
performance.
O N
assembled. Any foreign matter entering the oil system could result in poor
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Crimping Head
 Loosen Set Screw in Collar on either Handle Control or Hose Coupling. See diagram.
 Screw Collar onto threaded Base of Crimping Head as far as it will go.
 Tighten Set Screw until threads are touched. „Back-off‟ Collar until Set Screw engages
flat on threaded Base of Crimping Head.
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 Tighten Set Screw.
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To remove Head, loosen Set Screw and thread Handle or Hose Collar off Crimping Head.
NOTE: If desired, a Guide Mark may be placed on the Crimping Head Cylinder to help locate
the flat after Collar has been attached. Use pencil or paint. DO NOT PUNCH, FILE
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OR SCRIBE A MARK. See diagram. If a Guide Mark is used on Cylinder Head as far
as it will go. Then “Back-off‟ collar until Set Screw on Collar is lined up with Guide
Mark of Cylinder Base. Tighten Set Screw.
AC
Cable Stripping
Strip cable as shown in the diagram (example only).
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In-Line Connectors
General
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Sometimes known as splices, these connectors are provided to join two cables. The butt type is
essentially two crimping barrels in series, one conductor entering and being crimped at each
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end. The parallel type is a single crimping barrel long enough to accept and be crimped on two
conductors, which may enter from opposite ends or at the same end. Three or four way
connectors can also be designed.
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Use of Crimped Splices in Aircraft Electrical Cables
The insertion of a crimped splice is the normal method of repairing a single core electrical cable
when the repair cannot be effected by reterminating the cable and it is not considered
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necessary to replace the cable in its entirety. Additionally, when so authorised in a modification
leaflet or other approved instruction, a crimped splice may be used to connect an extension to
an existing single core cable.
A crimped splice is NEVER to be used in a multicore cable.

O N
Use Forbidden
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A crimped splice is not to be used in a cable which is:

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 Larger than size 6 or carries more than 240V ac RMS.

 In a designated fire zone.
 In an area subject to flexing.
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 A thermocouple or coaxial table.

 The connection between a bonded earth stud and an earth terminal block.
 A cable or circuit specified by the CAA as not permitting in-line crimped splices e.g.
Autopilot and Fire Protection circuits.
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Subject to the above restrictions, operators may use a crimped splice as the method of effecting
a permanent repair to an aircraft single core cable.
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The following techniques and conditions must be observed:

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 Approved tools and appropriate sized materials are to be used in the jointing process.
 Each barrel of a crimped splice is to contain one cable only.
 After crimping, the LAE undertaking the task is to inspect the joint for freedom of faults
and correct size identification.
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 The cable circuit coding is to be fitted adjacent to the splice using printed marker sleeves
or appropriate marker.
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Location of Splices
 The distance between crimped splices in the same cable run is not to be less than 500
mm.


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The maximum number of crimped splices in any 3 metre cable run is 2.
Crimped splices are not to be located under clips and ties.
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 The position of crimped splices made in adjacent cables is to be such that the splices
cannot come into contact with one another.
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 An in-line crimped splice is not to be made in a curved table form having a radius of less
than 3 times the overall length of the heat shrinkable tubing to the used for the splice.
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Support of In-Line Splices

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An in-line splice in an unloomed cable is to be supported on each side of the splice by clips or
ties to a suitable structure, whilst one in a loomed cable is to be similarly supported by clips or
ties to the loom.
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The crimping procedure for an in-line crimp is very much the same as the ring tongue with a few
additions:
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Crimp Selection
AWG is not the only factor to be considered, the environment in which the crimp exists is very
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important, e.g. in an undercarriage bay where it may be exposed to the element of in an engine
bay where it is subjected to high degrees of temperature. There is a selection of environmental
crimps available.
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Crimping Action
Because a splice is a dual crimp it is vital that during the crimping action that the cable and
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splice always enter the tool in the correct manner, this may mean turning the cable through 180º
an impossible solution on the aircraft which can only be resolved by reversal of the tool.

 Remove completed crimped joint and inspect. Select the required in-line splice and a tool
of the same colour coding.
 Adjust the insulation crimping adjustment pins as detailed in “preparation of tool”.
 Insert in-line splice into crimping jaws until properly located.
 Squeeze handles until in-line splice is lightly gripped.
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 Insert prepared cable into terminal barrel. When inserted the conductors should be
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visible in the inspection window, touching the bridge but not crossing it.
 Hold cable in position and complete crimping operation.
 Inspect for correct formation of completed crimp.
 Insert other end of in-line splice into jaws until properly located.
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 Complete crimping operation by repeating the above operation.
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Kapton Cables
An earlier section introduced us to the new types of cables in use on modern aircraft.
Cable types such as Kapton (series) have been introduced on aircraft because of the increased
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requirement for space and weight saving. They offer a high degree of protection, whilst using
only a thin wall of insulation.
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Compared to older types of cable such as Minyvin, the cross-sectional area of the Kapton
(series) is approximately half.
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Kapton series cables have two or more layers of insulation, the innermost being a very thin
layer with a tarnished yellow/brown colour which can be mistaken for the conductor under
certain circumstances. It is for this reason that great care must be taken when crimping to
ensure that all the insulation has been removed.
AC
Special cable strippers are required when carrying out crimping tasks on the Kapton series, and
have a very high tolerance on their cutting jaws.
They are identified by an indent code stamped onto each jaw at manufacture, yet look for all
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intents and purposes the same as any other set of cable strippers.
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Kapton cable strippers may be used for other types of cable however it must be noted:
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ONLY USE APPROVED STRIPPERS ON KAPTON SERIES CABLE!

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Due to KAPTON cable only having a thin wall of insulation, problems can be encountered with
the insulation being trapped under the conductor crimp.
AV
To ensure this problem does not occur, an improved type of crimp terminal known as the
RESTRICTED ENTRY has been introduced.
Restricted Entry Terminal

The restricted entry terminal uses an inner sleeve which has a higher tolerance than normal
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terminals and allows only the conductor to enter through to the conductor crimp section of the
terminal.
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Note: Restricted entry terminals do not grip on the insulation they only crimp on the conductor.
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Restricted entry terminals are identified by a thin coloured band along their barrel, the colour of
which related to the size of the restriction and is found by reference to Boeing Wiring Practices
Manual Chapter 20.
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It is essential to use the correct termination for the cable in use.
The diagram below shows a cross section through a restricted entry crimp.
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Other Information
It may be that on certain aircraft system aluminium cable is used, the crimp procedure is the
same with one addition: an anti-oxidising agent must be spread over the crimp or in some cases
the crimp has built in agent which secretes over the conductor during crimping.
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Intentionally Blank
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Sealing of Electrical Pressure Bungs
Introduction
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A pressure bung is the seal between the pressurised and non-pressurised areas of the aircraft.
Its purpose is to prevent the de pressurisation of the aircraft, whilst allowing cables to pass
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through the pressure bulkheads.
Description
A pressure bung is a two piece device designed to provide a support for sealing compound
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which plugs the loom access hole through the pressure bulkhead.
It is manufactured from rigid plastic and the two halves mate using location dowels to provide
positive locking when the bung is secured to the bulkhead.
AC
It is also designed to provide a reasonable degree of flexibility when installing or removing
cables.
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The figure below illustrates an electrical loom pressure bung.
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Assembly
The cables are passed through the pressure bung and structure as the loom is built up and run
into place.
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The loom should be completed prior to the pressure bung being sealed, preferably to a point
where the system is considered serviceable.
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Where this is not possible, then continuity and insulation resistance checks must be carried out
between the loom breaks fwd and aft of the pressure bung on all concerned systems prior to the
bung being sealed.
AD
It can be a long and difficult task to unseal a pressure bung once the sealant has solidified. It is
therefore much better to know that the cables routing and connection is complete before starting
to seal the bung.
AC
With the cables ready to be sealed they should be prepared in accordance with the relevant
maintenance manual. This is normally includes cleaning and separating the cables.
The fitting should now be taped on both sides using 1 inch wide masking tape. Strong string
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should be used as method of removing the tape at a later date.
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The pressure bung is now sealed using the approved sealant which is injected through a hole
made in the tape.
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The bung should be left for about 16 to 24 hours to set, after this time the tape can be removed
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by pulling the string, this completes the making of a pressure bung, however aircraft
pressurisation checks will have to be carried out prior to the aircraft release.
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The diagrams illustrate the assembly of multiple seal points. The process is similar for single or
multiple points however we have to seal the edges of the filler plate when working on multiple
point seals.
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Pressure Bungs
Pressure bungs permit the passing of unbroken lengths of cables through pressure bulkheads
whilst maintaining a seal between either side of bulkhead. The pressure bung housing is
flanged and threaded and the holes vary in size to accommodate cables of various diameters.
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The cables are a tight fit in the bung holes which when fully loaded and forced into its housing
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by the clamp nut is compressed tightly around the cables. All uncabled holes are sealed by
fitting the appropriate size of filler plug.
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Method of Wiring of Pressure Bungs
Preparation
Pressure bungs should be cabled with the correct size of threading tool and the fitting of cables
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through pressure bung holes, is that the bore diameter and the cable threads should be as near
as possible, whilst allowing the cable to slide through easily.
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A small amount of Hellerine Grade M lubricant should be used on the cable threader to allow for
easy piercing of the holes and to ease withdrawal of the threader after cable is fitted.
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All races of the lubricant shall be removed from the bung insert and the housing mating surfaces
before assembly, using a clean cloth, moistened with approved cleaning fluid (Arklone 'P',
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Methanol or ISOPROPANOL).
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After final installation of the bung and a satisfactory pressure test, secure the coupling nut to the
bung with a small fillet of thiokol (PR1422BT-1/2 or PR1422BT-2).
It is recommended that wiring is from the centre, working outwards. Where the housing is not
assembled to the aircraft structure, loosely assemble the bung into the housing before wiring.
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Fit removeable nose to cable threader, lubricate and pierce required hole in bung. Remove
nose from cable threader and pass cable through.
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PULL CABLE TO CORRECT DIMENSION IN BUNG BEFORE REMOVING TOOL
This is most important because pulling the cable through the bung can damage the cable
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insulation.
Fill all holes not cabled to filler plugs of correct size to ensure sufficient seat.
AC
Form cables into neat looms each side of the bung without crossovers.
Where pressure bungs are cabled and cable is subsequently deleted, to maintain seal, cut
cable 6" - 9" each side of the bung and fit a ¾" - 1" plain sleeve at each end.
O N
Bung inserts will normally be selected with holes of correct size to suit cables. Should it be
necessary to fit cables into larger than the recommended holes, suitable packing sleeve may be
fitted to maintain seal.
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Inspection
 Check that the correct bore diameter of threading tool is being used.
 Check that the wiring is done from the centre, working outwards.
Y
 Check that the cable has been pulled to the correct dimension in the bung before the
removal of the tool.
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 Check that all holes not cabled are fitted with filler plugs or cable of corect size to seal
efficiently.
 Check that the cables have not been damaged.
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AC
O N
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Intentionally Blank
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Wire Locking of Electrical Connectors
Introduction
Y
Aircraft systems and components are subject to vibration. Over time this vibration can cause
components and connectors to work loose producing system failure endangering lives.
EM
To prevent this happening, connectors are provided with a positive locking mechanism.
The positive locking mechanism takes the form of:
AD
 Bayonet coupling or
 Ratchet release or
 Locking wire on threaded couplings.
AC
Wire locking on connectors takes the same standard as used with any other component fitted to
aircraft. e.g., number of turns per inch, the angle of approach and the tangential angle.
manufacturer.
O N
Note: It must be noted that these standards may change with the change in aircraft
As well as locking the connector to the equipment, wire locking is also used to prevent the cable
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clamp screws becoming loose under vibration.
Note: It should be noted that any threaded connector in an un-pressurised areas that is not self
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locking, must be wire locked and any connector clamp in an un pressurised area must be wire
locked.
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The diagram illustrates the angle of approach of a wire locked connector.

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AC
O N
The Exception
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Any threaded connector in an un-pressurised area that is not self locking must be wire locked.
The figure below illustrates the assembly of safety wire on the cable clamp.
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Electrical Terminal Blocks
Introduction
Y
The joining of separate sections of cable is usually accomplished by means of terminal strips.
Because the possibility of cross connection of cables exists at a terminal strip, it is essential to
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obtain positive identification of the cable segment and the appropriate terminal stud, by
reference to the wiring diagram before connection.
AD
Construction
The joining of separate sections of cable is usually accomplished by means of terminal strips.
Because the possibility of cross connection of cables exists at a terminal strip, it is essential to
obtain positive identification of the cable segment and the appropriate terminal stud, by
AC
reference to the wiring diagram before connection. A terminal strip is made of a strong
insulating material with metal studs inserted through or moulded into it.
The studs are of sufficient length to accommodate four terminals and are normally insulated
from each other.
O N
The stud sizes must be adequate to withstand the stresses imposed during installation and
tightening of the nut. In practice 10-32 size 6 and 5/16 UNF stud sizes are in common use.
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They are usually in package sizes of 1 to 20 studs and in single or double strips.
IA
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Assembly
When two or more terminals are fitted to a terminal stud, they should be assembled back to
back as shown below.
Y
When it is necessary to join more than four terminals at a terminal strip, adjacent studs may be
interconnected using an insulated metal bus.
EM
Each stud assembly must be tightened to within specific torgue loading limits, dependant upon
the stud size.
AD
The specific tool used for tightening the stud assemblies has a torque drive which „slips‟ before
the torque safe limit can be exceeded and is called a “Wardbrooke” or “Soltorque” spanner.
AC
O N
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New Style Terminal Blocks
MS27212 Series
As well as the Wardbrooke type terminal blocks there are a range of more modern terminal
Y
blocks in use on aircraft.
EM
The New Style Terminal Blocks operate in a similar way to that of the Wardbrook type in that
they use Ring Tongue Terminals to secure the cable to the block. They are available in a range
of sizes carrying up to a maximum of 24 terminals on one block. The size is determined by the
diameter of the cable being used and the stud size required on termination.
AD
Studs and terminals are available in six sizes; 6, 8, 10, 1/4, 5/16 and 3/8 and can be found by
the first dash number on the part number.
AC
SERIES DASH No. SIZE of STUD
MS27212 -(1) 6-32 unc
-(2) 10-32 unf
-(3) 1/4 unf
-(4) 5/16 unf
-(5)
-(6)
3/8 unf
8-32 unc
O N
Example: Part No. MS27212-(4)-(5)
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Broken down, this number relates to a MS27212 Series terminal block using 5/16 Studs.
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The second dash No. tells us that it contains 5 terminals.
Bussing Strips (MS25226) are available for use with MS27212 Series terminal blocks and can
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bus up to the maximum of 24 terminals dependant upon part number.
The bus strips can be plated with Cadium, Silver, Nickel or Tin dependent upon circuit
requirement.
N
The figure below (overleaf) illustrates the bare terminal block with all its accessories removed.
TA
The next figure (overleaf) illustrates the New Style Terminal Block with a 3 terminal bus
connection.
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Note: It should be noted that terminals installed onto terminal block MS27212 should be
restricted against movement in the direction of loosening.
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HI

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O N
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Securing Terminators
Torque loading of holding screws or nuts should be to the recommended values and should be
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marked in accordance with maintenance instrucytions. The connections should not place either
the cable or the equipment in a state of tension. Twisting and kinking in the vicinity of the
connection should be avoided as this maylead to a fracture if the cable is subjected to vibration
N
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Uninsulated or preinsulated terminals may be bent to 90° for installation in restricted spaces
where it is impossible to install them flat.
On terminal blocks the bend must not exceed 30°.
Y
CAUTION: BEND TERMINALS ONLY ONCE IN THE DIRECTION AS SHOWN. BEND
RADIUS NOT TO EXCEED 5/32 ± 1/32 INCH. NO CRACKS ARE ALLOWED IN THE BAND
EM
AREA.
Terminals fitted to terminal block MS27212 must be installed so that movement is restricted to
prevent inadvertant loosening of the cable.
AD
For various ways of accomplishing this with one or more terminals. Terminals may be turned
over to facilitate installation.
AC
O N
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IA
The figure below illustrates how restriction is obtained on single terminals and terminal stack-
ups. Terminals may be turned over to facilitate installations
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Bending of Terminals
On terminal blocks the bend must not exceed 30 degrees.
CAUTION: BEND TERMINALS ONLY ONCE IN THE DIRECTION AS SHOWN. BEND
Y
RADIUS NOT TO EXCEED 5/32 ± 1/32 INCH. NO CRACKS ARE ALLOWED IN THE BAND
AREA.
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Terminals fitted to terminal block MS27212 must be installed so that movement is restricted to
prevent inadvertant loosening of the cable.
AD
For various ways of accomplishing this with one or more terminals. Terminals may be turned
over to facilitate installation.
AC
O N
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High Density Module Blocks
High density module blocks are used on aircraft to perform a similar function to that of the
Wardbrook Terminal Block described previously.
Y
High density module blocks are far smaller in size than Wardbrook and are mounted on a rail
which can be adjusted to accept additional blocks as required for any particular task.
EM
High density module blocks are constructed from high density ridged plastic which is moulded
into shape with the electrical connection encapsulated within the moulding.
AD
The “BUSSING” arrangement within the module block depends on the module block Part
number. Bussing is a function of circuit design as was described earlier so great care must be
taken to ensure the correct module block is fitted.
AC
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Bussing Configuration
The arrangement is of 16 sockets joined together in a configuration of either twos, fours or
eights and can accomodate cables between size 20 to 24.
Y
The figures below show how high density module blocks can be arranged to give a different
bussing configuration dependant on part number selected.
EM
AD
AC
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Contacts
High Density Module Blocks use Pin type contacts as opposed to the Ring Tongue crimps used
in Wardbrook Terminal Blocks.
Y
EM
AD
AC
The pin, as well as the crimp tool used for High Density Module Blocks, can be used for the
N
whole range of cable between 20 and 24, therefore making the task easier, also reducing the
number of tools required at a work station and so reducing the risk of incorrectly crimped
contacts.
O
TI
The contacts are of a self locking type and therefor do not require nuts and washers as in the
Wardbrook type terminal block.
IA
An approved INSERTION/EXTRACTION tool is required to remove and refit the contacts into
the module block. However this will be looked at in greater detail later when we cover crimping
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and insertion/extraction techniques. High Density Module Blocks are fitted into a metal track
where they are spaced and clamped into the correct position.
Different types of clamps and spacers are available.

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Environmental Terminal Blocks
These module blocks perform a similar task to those described in later sections, in that they
connect cables together.
Y
Their distinguishing feature is that they provide an environmental seal for the cable contacts and
are therefore used in areas exposed to environmental conditions.
EM
The physical size of this type of module block is relatively small when compared to other types.
They are mounted on a rail and can be added together in any combination that is required for
any particular task. They can also be mounted for single block applications.
AD
AC
O N
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This type of terminal block is much smaller then the High Density Module Block and much more
solid in construction. They will hold up to 10 connections in each block. These connections are
single sized in any one block. The blocks come in 3 different sizes 20, 16 & 12.
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
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The bussing arrangements are similar to the High Density type connecting 2, 4, 6, 8 or 10
contacts together.
The crimp tool for the contact in this terminal block is similar in construction and operation to
that used for the High Density contacts. It is made by the same manufacturer and is in the
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family group.
EM
This terminal block also uses an insertion/ extraction tool, again the use of this tool is similar to
that used previously.
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AC
O N
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The stripping, crimping and the insertion/ extraction will be covered in detail later in this module.
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Burndy Terminal Blocks
Burndy Terminal Blocks carry out the same function as all of the previously mentioned Terminal
Blocks.
Y
The main difference between Burndy and High Density Terminal Blocks is that they are only
capable of carrying up to eight cables as opposed to sixteen on High Density.
EM
Burndy Blocks are fitted to the same metal rail as is used with High Density Module Blocks and
therefore use the same mounting accessories as mentioned in the previous section.
AD
To enable more cables to be connected, additional Burndy Blocks can be fitted onto the
mounting rail and their bussing arrangement selected by part number.
Burndy Blocks are available with electronic components pre-fitted within the moulding.
AC
Examples of the bussing arrangement of Burndy as compared to that of High Density Module
Blocks is shown in figure below.
This enables the design engineer to select various components for modification and fit them into
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circuit with ease without disturbing whole runs of aircraft cable looming.
O
Resistors, Capacitors and Diodes are normally the components found within selected Burndy
Blocks and are identified by the part number of the particular block.
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The figure below shows a terminal block consisting of High Density and Burndy Blocks and the
identification listing for the different components.
Burndy Blocks use a pin insert method of connection for the cables, which although similar to
that of High Density Modules, requires specialist tooling.
Y
The crimping and insertion/extraction tool used with Burndy Blocks is the same for all size cable
EM
between 16 and 24.
The pins however have to be selected by part number dependant upon the size of cable being
used. It is essential that the correct pins are used for the cable size to ensure correct
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termination takes place and that electrical continuity is maintained.
AC
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Boeing Commercial Airplanes Standard Wiring Practices Manual (ATA 20) details all the
relevent information regarding Burndy Terminal Block Contacts and should be referred to at all
times when carrying out any crimping task on the aircraft or its associated equipment.
HI

Details all the relevent information regarding Burndy Terminal Block Contacts and should be
referred to at all times when carrying out any crimping task on the aircraft or its associated
equipment.
Burndy Terminal Block Contacts are identified by:
Y
o Individual Part Number
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o Colour Code
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AC
O N
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Installation of Cable
The figure below illustrates a typical Burndy Terminal contact (For BACM15C1A/1B/2A or
Burndy YHLZD/YHLZR Terminal Block Family).
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Installation of Contacts on Cables - Standard Module Block only - BACM15C1A/1B/2A or
Burndy YHLZD - & YHLZR -.
EM
1. Select the proper cable/contact combination from table 1.
2. Strip single cables to 7/32 ± 1/32 inch and insert into the cable barrel of contact. Make certain
AD
that the cable insulation BOTTOMS in the insulation shroud and that the conductor is
visible in the inspection hole provided in the contact.
3. Prior to inserting the cable into a BACC47DE3 contact, shrink a ½ ± 1/8 inch piece of
AC
RT876 SLEEVING over the cable insulation.
4. Select the proper crimp tool.

O N
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(Use a Burndy manufactured M10S-1 crimp tool with an S-1 die and an SL-53 locator to crimp
BACC47DE contacts.)
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The insulation of cables terminated to BACC47DE contacts must be crimped and supported by
the four crimp indents of the contact insulation shroud.
ND
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Crimping Contacts
Installation of Contacts Standard Module Lock only - BACM15C1A/1B/2A or Burndy YHLZD -
YHLZR -
Y
1. Select the insertion tool.
2. Start the cabled contacts into the appropriate sockets of the module block by hand.
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3. Use the insertion tip of the insertionextraction handle to push the contact in until an audible
click is heard and a positive stop is reached.
4. Check for proper locking of the contacts by grasping each cable firmly between the thumb
and forefinger.
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5. Pull slowly until the thumb and forefinger slip along the cables.
CAUTION: DO NOT INDENT CABLES WITH FINGERNAILS
AC
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Insertion/Removal
Table 1 below details the correct contact selection for the different cable guage selected.
Table 2 below opposite details the correct insertion/removal tooling required for the contact
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selected.
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Note: All the above information is for training purposes only, reference should be made to
chapter 20 when undertaking any aircraft wiring.
TABLE 1
CONTACT SELECTION
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CABLE INSULATION
CABLE SIZE RANGE
DIAMETER RANGE CONTACT
(AAWG)
(INCH)
COLOUR
AC
MIN MAX MIN MAX BOEING FINISH
BAND
BACC47DE1A GOLD BROWN
20 16 0.080 0.110
BACC457DE1 SILVER NONE
BACC47DE3A GOLD NONE
24 22 0.070 0.080
BACC47DE3 GOLD NONE
24 22 0.041 0.065
O N
BACC47DE4A
BACC47DE4
GOLD
GOLD
GREEN
GREEN
BACC47DE5A GOLD BLUE
20 16 0.063 0.083
BACC47DE5 SILVER RED
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BACC47DE6A GOLD BLACK

20 18 0.056 0.069
BACC47DE6 SILVER BLACK
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BACC47DE7A GOLD RED

22 20 0.047 0.065
BACC47DE7 GOLD RED
BACC47DE8A GOLD VIOLET
24 24 0.032 0.045
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BACC47DE8 SILVER GREEN
TABLE 2
INSERTION/REMOVAL TOOLING
CONTACT INSERTION TOOL REMOVAL TOOL SUPPLIER
N
DHK21 DHK21 DANIELS

BACC47DE ST2220-3-34A-1 ST2220-3-34A-3 BOEING
TA
ST2220-3-34A-2 ST2220-3-34A-8 BOEING

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ND
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Pin Insertion
The figure below illustrates pin insertion for BACM15C1A/1B/2A or BURNDY YHLZD - and
YHLZR - modules.
Y
BACM15C1A/1B/2A or Burndy YHLZD - a n d YHLZR - Standard Module Blocks
EM
1. Select the removal tool. Insert the extraction tip of the Insertion/Extraction tool into the
extraction tool hole in the module bus.
2. Bottom the tool to a definite stop to release the contact retaining spring. With the tool in
AD
this position, remove both the cable and crimped contact by a gentle pull.
3. After the contact/cable assembly has been extracted, remove the extraction tool.
AC
CAUTION: THE USE OF ANY OTHER NON APPROVED TOOL MAY DAMAGE THE
MODULE. ATTEMPTS TO REMOVE THE CONTACT WITHOUT RELEASING
THE RETAINING SPRING MAY DAMAGE THE CONTACT, MODULE AND
CABLE.
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Burndy Crimping Tool
The figure below shows the approved crimp tool for use the Burndy Contacts detailed earlier in
this section.
Y
The Burndy M10S-1 is a high reliability, eight indent, full cycling, ratchet control crimping tool
conforming to the requirements of MIL-T-22520.
EM
It should be noted that within British Airways there are crimp tools (PART NUMBER LH-8)
manufactured by DANIELS which are similar to the approved M10S-1 but as yet are
unapproved for use on British Airways Aircraft.
AD
ONLY USE THE APPROVED TOOL FOR THE TASK.
AC
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Grounding and Earth Points
Introduction
Y
Grounding and Earth points are places where the a.c. and d.c. electrical systems find their
respective earth return paths. They are also points where cable screening is connected to
EM
ground.
An Earth Station is a location where electrical earth and neutral termination‟s are made. They
are usually located adjacent to or included in the connector groups. Single earth and grounding
AD
points will be found around the aircraft.
Testing
AC
When earth posts or terminal blocks are fitted or replaced they must be tested to ensure they
are electrically bonded to the aircraft structure. This test will normally be in two separate parts.
The first part being a bonding test, the second part will be a millivolt drop test.
N
The tests must be done in accordance with the maintenance manual. If the results do not
conform to the maintenance manual specification then the post or block must be removed and
O
the remedial action carried out at various locations depending on system requirement.
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Component Parts
The figure below illustrates the basic make up of a ground or earth point and shows all the
component parts. The corrosion tag or plate is incorporated in each earth post assembly to
prevent electrolytic action between the base of the assembly and the airframe structure.
Y
EM
AD
AC
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YHLZG Grounding Modules
The figure below illustrates three basic variations of grounding blocks. The block shown are
from the “Burndy” YHLZG family.
Y
They use the same pins, crimp tool and insertion/ extraction tool. These blocks are mounted
directly onto the airframe.
EM
There are three variations of this block in common use. The type depends on the number of
cables being grounded to a common bus.
AD
Circuit Isolation
AC neutral cables and DC earth cables must not be connected to the same earth post. This is to
prevent possible feeds from the AC neutral through the DC system to earth should the cables
develop a poor connection at the earth post.
AC
When using the YHLZG family of terminal blocks it is not always required that the circuits are
separated as in the paragraph above.
This is due to this type of terminal block having more than one point of connection with the
airframe structure.
O N
Relay returns should not be commoned with lamp earth returns. If a poor earth connection
should develop, it may be possible for the relay to energise through the lamp because the lamp
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has a very low resistance.

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Identification – Earth Stations
Earth stations are identified on the adjacent structure by numerals preceeded by an asterisk.
Identification of earth posts within a cluster outside Skydrol areas is:
Y
 By a lettered marker sleeve on the tongue of the corrosion tag in the case of triple post
EM
assemblies.
 By letter transfer fixed to the structure in case of single post assemblies e.g. GD 45.
 Identification of earth stations within Skydrol areas is painted on the structure.
AD
The corrosion tag or plate is incorporated in each earth post assembly to prevent electrolytic
action between the base of the assembly and the airframe structure.
AC
O N
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Crimping Tools
General
Y
Although several manufacturers produce crimping tools, they are all to the same specification
and are almost identical in apperance and operation. Figures below show typical crimping tools
EM
as produced by Erma/ Buchanan.
When crimping multi contact connectors it may be that some of the contact positions are not
utilised. These positions should be 'blanked off' with the appropriate size blanking bungs.
AD
AC
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M22520 Series Crimp Tools
The M22520 series crimp tools are used in conjunction with a very wide range of contacts. It is
for this reason that it is going to be dealt with in quite some detail in this section. This crimp tool
is also known as the Daniels AF8 and AFM8.
Y
EM
M22520/1-01 Crimp Tool
This tool is a high precision hand operated crimp tool. It has interchangeable turret heads (of
which there are over a 1,000) to accommodate the very wide variety of contacts that can be
crimped using this tool.
AD
There is a ratchet control mechanism to control the tool to prevent the handles from being
opened before the crimp cycle is complete. The tool produces an 8 impression crimp which
ensures maximum tensile strength.
AC
The depth of the impressions is controlled by an 8 position selector knob. This knob has two
scales on it, the outer scale is calibrated in cable size and the inner scale is the selector
number. O N
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Turret Heads
The purpose of the turret head is to position the contact correctly. This means centrally between
the indentors with the crimp area of the contact in-line with the indentors.
Y
The turret head is held onto the tool body with two Allen bolts. Typically these turret heads have
a rotating contact positioner, this is to accommodate the three different sizes of contact i.e.
EM
RED, BLUE and YELLOW.
There is a data plate affixed to the turret heads. This plate lists the specific contact part
numbers, the positioner colour (if applicable) and the suggested depth selector setting for the
AD
cable size being used.
AC
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M22520/2-01 Crimp Tool
This tool was originally made for the Military but as the use of miniature and sub-miniature
connectors has grown in civil aircraft the tool has become more widely used. This tool will crimp
cables in the range 20 to 32 AWG.
Y
The tool is similar in many respect in that it has a ratchet mechanism and selector knob but is
EM
much smaller in size then the /1-01. The main difference between this tool and its larger partner
is the turret head it is now called a positioner. This is a single hole, single size contact adapter.
It has a data plate on the head of the positioner giving the same type of information as the /1-01
AD
data plate. This type of positioner uses a bayonet quick release lock as opposed to Allen bolts
used on the M22520-1-01.
AC
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Calibration
Because this is a precision tool it has to be tested and certified periodically. This is carried out
by an approved external organisation.
Y
The test engineers will carry out an examination on test crimps which will be tested for:
resistance, milli-volt drop and tensile strength against a laid down standard.
EM
When all of the tests have been completed satisfactorily then a “CALIBRATION TAG” will be
attached to the tool and the tool will be put back into service. If the test proves the tool to be
unserviceable then that tool will be withdrawn from service.
AD
Before using any crimp tool the calibration tag must be checked to ensure that it is still in date, if
the tag is out of date the tool MUST NOT be used.
AC
Gauge Test
Testing of both tools is carried out with a “Go/No Go” gauge. This is a two ended device for
checking the crimp tolerance of a particular tool.
N
One end of the gauge is coloured red, machined oversize to not fit into the fully closed crimp
tool jaws and is therefore called the „No Go‟ end of the gauge.
O
The other end is coloured green, machined under size and is called the „Go‟ area of the gauge.
TI
To Test the Crimp Tolerance of a Particular Tool

IA
a) Set cable selector to position No. 4 if you are testing the M22520/1-01 tool or position
No. 8 if you are testing the M22520/2-01 tool.
b) Fully close crimp handles and hold.
AV
c) Insert „Go‟ gauge fully into the closed jaws.

d) Attempt to insert „no-go‟ gauge into the closed jaws of the crimp tool. The „No-go‟
gauge should not enter into the closed jaws on a serviceable crimp tool.
Then carry out a test crimp using the procedure in the next section.
N
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Crimping a Contact
a. Select the correct contacts for the connector and the cable.
b. Select the correct tool and turret for the contacts.
Y
c. Check tool calibration tag still in date.
d. Set up the selector knob and the colour coded positioner.
EM
e. Strip the cable to the correct dimensions.
f. Insert the contact fully into the turret/ positioner.
g. Insert the conductor fully into the contact.
AD
Note: Items f. & g. may be combined in the reverse order, i.e. the conductor inserted into the
contact and then both inserted into the turret/ positioner.
h. Close the crimp tool handles together until the ratchet mechanism releases.
AC
Ensure that the contact and cable remain in the correct position.
i. When the action is fully closed allow the handles to open and remove the crimped
contact and cable.
j. The contact and cable assembly must now be inspected. The inspection must
cover position and form of the crimp and that the cable is visible through the
inspection hole.
O N
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IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Pneumatic Crimping Tools
PICO Crimping Tools Model 500D1
Y
Model 500D1 crimping tool is used for crimping of Flight Connector contacts, gauge 8 to 4/0.
EM
This is full-cycling pneumatic tool which cannot be opened until full crimp has been completed.
This tool operates on a supply of clean dry air or inert gas within a pressure range of 6 to 9
AD
bars, depending on the size of contact to be crimped.
 With tool in full operating condition, insert contact and cable.

 Press trigger.
AC
Note that indentors cannot be opened until full crimping cycle is completed.
O N
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IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
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Canon Crimping Tools Model CBT600 and CBT600B
The model CBT600 is an air-operated crimping tool which can be operated with a hand valve or
foot valve. It can also operate as a portable crimping tool.
Y
A basic model CBT600 crimps contacts at the air line pressure of 80 to 100 PSI.
EM
The tool must be equipped with an air line filter and lubricator for optimum performance.
1. Insert the locator into the power unit.

2. Install the correct crimping head in the power unit and screw the collar tight.
AD
3. Cycle the tool twice, tightening the collar after each cycle to insure that the head is in the
proper position for crimping.
4. Places stripped cable into a contact and insert into the locator.
5. Depress either the foot or hand valve to crimp. The tool automatically makes a full cycle
crimp.
AC
O N
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IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Pneumatic Hand Tool AMP P/N 69365
This tool has interchangeable dies or jaws and use a compressed air source (6 or 7 bars).
An attachment system enables use at a fixed station, using a foot switch. In this case, the hand
Y
valve is inoperative.
EM
Example of Crimping
With tool equipped with proper die set for the terminal and cable size being used, proceed as
follows:
a) Insert stripped cable in terminal.
AD
b) Slightly lower locator.
c) Position terminal against fixed die.
d) Apply pressure so that moving die advances to complete the crimp.
AC
At end of crimping operation, the die automatically returns to the open position. Remove the
crimped assembly.
O N
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IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
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AD
AC
O N
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N
TA
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ND
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Typical Hand-Operated Hydraulic Crimping Machine
This machine is supplied as a kit containing eight sets of dies for cable size from AWG 6 to
AWG 0000, and an allen key used for fitting the dies to the machine. The crimp formed is a
regular hexagon shape and has two code letters impressed on it by the dies during crimping.
Y
These code letters are HG, HH - HN (for cable sizes AWG6, 4 - 0000) and are the same as
those marked on the cable lugs by the manufacturer.
EM
AD
AC
O N
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Preparation of Typical Machine

The machine operating handles should be screwed into position and the code letters stamped
N
on the dies checked for size. If the dies are to be changed carry out the following procedure.
TA
1. Select the two matched dies bearing the correct code letters for the size of cable in use.
Check that the lugs to be used have the same code letters marked on the terminal palm.
2. Remove the upper die adaptor by sliding it from the dovetailed head of the tool. This
leaves the slotted head of the tool open to allow the lower die to be fitted to the ram.
US
Insert the spigot on the upper die into the hole in the die adaptor until it is held in position
by a spring-loaded steel ball.
3. Close the hydraulic valve by turning the knob clockwise. Pump the handles a few times
to move the ram upwards and disclose the hexagon socket screws which hold the lower
ND
die. Slacken these screws using the allen key provided with the kit. Fit the lower die into
the ram so that the screws fit into the recesses on either side of the die. Tighten the
screws to hold the die, ensuring that they are below the surface of the ram body. Open
the hydraulic valvle to retract the ram.
HI

4. Slide the upper die adaptor, complete with die, into the dovetailed grooves until it is
located centrally by a spring loaded steel ball.
Operation of a Typical Machine
Y
1. Check that the two-letter code on the cable lugs and on both dies is correct for the size of
EM
the cable to be terminated.
2. Close the hydraulic valve. Place the lug centrally between the dies and pump the handles
until the lug is lightly gripped.
3. Strip the cable insulation so that when it is inserted in the lug the insulation lies flush
against the end of the barrel and the conductor projects slightly from the other end.
AD
4. Insert the conductor into the barrel of the lug and pump the machine until the dies are
fully closed. A safety valve will operate with an audible click and pressure on the pump
handles is greatly reduced.
5. Open the hydraulic valve to allow the ram to retract. The crimped termination can then be
AC
removed from the machine.
Installation of Crimping Dies or Nests
dies is performed as follows:

O N
The head of the tool holds two dies for crimping of cables gauge 8 to 2. Correct positioning of
 Press latch to open crimping head.

TI
 Pull back nest lock and rotate thumb knob until the desired nest is obtained.
 With nest properly located, nest lock will spring back into position. If not the case, nest
IA
lock will not spring back into position and crimping head will not close.
 Close crimping head.
AV
Example of Crimping
 Open pressure relief valve for a few seconds to ensure that indenter is located in
neutral position. Close pressure relief valve.
N
 Locate splice between indenter and nest, with brazed seam facing indenter.
 Using short pumping strokes, pump handles sufficiently to hold splice in position
TA
without deferming barrel.

 Insert stripped end of cable into splice barrel.
 Continue pumping strokes until handles require less effort to pump showing that
pressure relief valve operates and that crimping cycle is complete.
US
 Open pressure relief valve lever until indenter returns to neutral position.
 Open crimping head and remove crimped assembly.
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Intentionally Blank
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Electric/Hydraulic Crimping Machine
Designation
Y
AMP electric/hydraulic crimping machine P/N 69120 is used for crimping:
 Splices
EM
 Terminals
 Crimp sleeves/ferrules
Power control is accomplished by means of a handle or a foot switch, in this case, adapter Part
AD
Number 47206 must be used.
Motor voltage is 110 volts (P/N 69120-1) or 220 volts (P/N 69120-2).
AC
Example of Crimping
Always keep unit in upright position.
Never operate unit without its crimping head.
 Remove protective caps.

O N
 Attach crimping head to handle control or to coupling adapter if foot switch is used.
TI
 Place dies in crimping head.

 Using the hand control to advance the ram, press and release reset button then press trigger
IA
or, using the foot control, press and release reset pedal (LH) and then press ram advance
(RH) pedal.
 Locate terminal or splice in dies and advance ram sufficiently to hold terminal or splice in the
AV
dies, by operating with short strokes trigger or pedal. The ram will not return to neutral until
the crimping cycle is completed unless pressure release button on electrical control box is
pressed.
 Insert stripped cable into terminal or splice.
 Squeeze and hold on trigger or ram advance pedal until crimping cycle is complete and ram
N
returns to neutral.
 Remove crimped terminal or splice.
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
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N
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ND
HI

Aircraft Connectors
Introduction
Y
The term “connector” is used to cover a device which provides a semi-permanent connection to
avionic components or equipment. They must have positive location and be capable of quick
EM
connection and disconnection for ease of maintenance.
With the advent of digital systems and fly-bycable, it has now become of high importance that
all connections in an electrical system are of little or no resistive value.
AD
Any resistence in the system would lead to signal loss and heat build up, leading to damage to
components and poor reliability.
AC
Construction
The basic crimped contact connector comes in two parts:
1. The Receptacle
N
This part is normally part of the equipment or structure and is stationary.
O
2. The Plug
TI
The removable half which mates with the receptacle and is usually at the end of a cable/lead.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Component Parts
Each part can then be further broken down into six component parts:
Y
Shell
The outside case of the connector into which the dielectric material and contacts are
EM
assembled.
Contacts
The conductive element in a connector which makes contact, for the purpose of transferring
AD
electricity. Either in socket form or pin form.
Insert
A dielectric insulator which positions and supports the contacts.
AC
Interfacial Seal
A seal which inhibits the area around each contact from moisture.
Sealing Grommet
N
A seal used on the cable side of the connector to seal against moisture, air and dirt.
O
Coupling Mechanism
The ring around the connector which aids in the mating of the plug and receptacle and locks
TI
them together.
IA
The above mentioned parts come together, as shown to make up the connector.
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Coupling Method
The coupling method is usually one of the following three types:
Screw Thread
Y
The coupling ring is threaded with either a Vee thread or Acme thread. On some connectors the
cable clamp must be loosened before removal or installation of connectors. Figure (a).
EM
Bayonet
The coupling ring has slots which slide over spigots on the receptacle. When fully engaged, the
spigots sit in holes in the coupling ring and master lines on plug and receptacle are aligned to
AD
indicate correct coupling. Figure (b).
Push Pull
Rack mounted connectors are in this category. Most „float‟ to assist coupling. As the plug is
AC
attached to the component, when the component is locked to the rack, the connector must be
fully coupled. Figure (c).
Circular connectors require only a straight push to install. A number of spring loaded balls under
the coupling ring slip into recesses on the receptacle to lightly lock the connector. Indication that
plug or by a sighting hole in the outer ring.

O N
the connection is correctly engaged and locked is sometimes given by a painted ring on the
Rack and Panel connectors shall be covered in greater detail later.

TI
IA
AV
N
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ND
HI

Classification
Connectors are organised in the following fashion:
A. Family Name
Y
(Military Number)
EM
B. Series
(Specific group in the family)
C. Part Number
(Specific Characteristics)
AD
D. Contacts
Family Name
AC
MIL-C-5015 (1939)
Simple design, rugged construction, relatively low cost and high power handling capacity. Size
16 - 4/0 AWG contacts, circular, screw coupling with rear release contacts, e.g., MATRIX 944.
O N
The MIL-C-5015 connector contained the BACKSHELL as a composite part of the connector.
Later development of connectors moved to enable different manufacturers to design their own
specific Backshell arrangements to enable different types of pins or contacts to be fitted.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

To the engineer this complicates the job of recognition and fitment of the correct Backshell
arrangement, however the main rule to remember with regard to any connector family after MIL-
C-5015 is as follows:
The FAMILY name only denotes the connector mating surfaces specification.
Y
Any Backshell arrangement may be fitted as required and is found by a part number once the
EM
Family has been identified.
Connector part number identification will be dealt with later in this section.
AD
MIL-C-26482
Greater density of contacts, smaller cables, lighter in weight than the previous series, both
crimp and solder type contacts between size 12-20 AWG.
AC
Series 1: circular, bayonet coupling, front release contacts.
e.g. CANNON KPSE, BENDIX PTSE , (Where SE relates to CLIP RETENTION FRONT
RELEASE)
O N
Series 2: circular, bayonet coupling, rear release contacts.
TI
e.g.NAS 1599, (E0052 /53/54. Now used as a replacement for any existing front release
connector in this Family.)
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

MIL-C-26500
Originally designed for missiles, now used as on aircraft. AWG 20-12 contacts, circular, screw
thread or bayonet, front release.
Y
e.g. BACC45F
F.S. - Threaded Plug
EM
F.P. - Threaded Receptical
F.T. - Bayonet Plug
F.R. - Bayonet Receptical S q u a r e Flange etc.
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
MIL-C-83723
The MIL-C-83723 series connector replaced the previous types and enabled rear release
AV
contacts to be used in conjunction with existing connectors fitted to the aircraft.
SERIES 1 are compatable with MIL-C-26482 (Bayonet).

N
SERIES 2 are compatable with MIL-C-5015 (Threaded).

TA
SERIES 3 are compatable with MIL-C-26500 (Bayonet or Threaded).
The MIL-C-83723 Family are the most common connector in present use within British Airways
on Boeing Aircraft.
US
It should be noted that REAR RELEASE connectors are marked with a BLUE LINE on the
moveable locking surface.
ND
The MIL-C-81511 and MIL-C-38999 connectors were developed at the same time in direct
competition but by different manufacturers. They are similar in design but are NOT
COMPATABLE and cannot be used as replacements for each other.
HI

Early Boeing 747 used MIL-C-81511 connectors however it is now commonplace to find the
vast majority of these two types of connectors adopted into service with Boeing Aircraft are of
the MIL-C-38999 family.
Y
EM
AD
AC
MIL-C-81511
N
This family of connectors has a higher pin density for a given shell size and is lighter and takes
smaller cable sizes than previous connectors. The connectors will take AWG20- 12 contacts,
O
are scoop proof (recessed pins) circular and fitted with bayonet couplings and front release
contacts.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

MIL-C-38999
This family of connectors was developed at about the same time as the MIL-C-81511 family and
are similar in design but are more popular.
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
The MIL-C-38999 family are widely used on military aircraft hence they have a military part
number (D on part number indicates US Dept of Defence). On commercial aircraft they will
N
generally be found in the following places:

TA
Air Conditioning Ducts,
Test Sockets and

US
Engine Control Systems.
There are three Series:

ND
HI

Series 1
Scoop Proof, circular bayonet coupling, rear release contacts. Eg.,Amphenol 418
Series 2
Low silhoulette, circular, bayonet coupling, rear release contacts. Eg., D38999/40
Y
Series 3
EM
MIL-C-38999 Connectors introduced the threaded TRI-START circular connector. The threaded
part of the connector has three separate threads within the coupling ring that enables the
connection to be made quickly whilst reducing the risk of cross-threading and therefore pin non-
alignment. These types of connectors are generally fitted to Engines and/ or their associated
AD
equipment.
The figure below illustrates the thread arrangement for a MIL-C-38999 Tri-start connector. The
AC
MIL-C- 38999 series connectors have a breech lock and will be fitted to the GE90 engine as
installed on the Boeing 777 aircraft.
All threaded connectors from the MIL-C-38999 specification family on, must have an integral
locking device fitted within the connector.
O N
This locking device usually takes the form of a locking ratchet mechanism.
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
Series 4
The series of a connector determines the specific group within the family to which a connector
ND
belongs.
To aid this explanation we look at a series of connectors detailed earlier.

HI
The MIL-C-83723 for example detailed the difference between the series.

 SERIES ONE are MIL-C-26482 compatible
 SERIES TWO are MIL-C-5015 compatible
 SERIES THREE are MIL-C-26500 compatible
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
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ND
HI

Part Number
The part number of a connector is actually a detailed description of the type, size, finish etc of it.
See example below.
1 MS27467 Identifies a MIL-C-38999, series 1, straight plug.
Y
2 E Describes the service class
(environmental operating characteristics)
EM
3 21 Indicates the shell size,
(the smaller the number the smaller the connector)
4 A Indicates the finish on the connector shell
(plating, colour etc)
AD
5 41 Indicates the insert arrangement of the contacts by size and
location. The holes can be numbered, lettered or not marked. In
this case they count in a spiral from the inside out, with a line to
guide and each multiple of 10 in parenthesis.
AC
6 P Indicates contact style (P=Pin, S=Socket)
7 A Indicates polarisation (Key/insert orientation) See Figure (c)
Note: Reference must be made to chapter 20 for a detailed breakdown on connector

numbering systems
O N
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N
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US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
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N
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ND
HI

Contacts
Contacts are either Pins or Sockets and fall under the military specification MIL-C-39029. This
standardised the documentation system, test methods and a uniform band colour code
identification system.
Y
This is called the BIN (Basic Indentification Number) code. Coloured bands, read from the cable
EM
insert end, translated form the standard eletrical 10 colour codes give a reference number. The
data can then be found in an appendix to MIL-C-39029.
Civil aircraft use the 2 band civil standard ISO specification. Other contacts only have a single
AD
colour band (Eg. red, blue or yellow) Some contacts may have no colour band. It is for this
reason that great reliance must be placed on obtaining the correct part number.
It is normal to have the 'hot' or live side of a circuit connected to socket contacts, and the 'cold'
AC
to pins. This reduces the possibility of short circuits when connecting/disconnecting.
O N
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IA
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N
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ND
HI

Crimped Type Connectors
All connectors currently being manufactured must conform to strict specifications which will be
dependent upon use: e.g. environment, application etc. These specifications are usually to a
standard demanded by the military which will more than meet civilian requirements. Early US
Y
manufactured connectors were normally to a specification laid down by the Air Force and/or
Navy and were termed the ANSPEC, these have since been superseded and are now termed
EM
MIL (Military) SPEC. In UK a similar method has been adpoted but termed the defence
specification or DEFSPEC, in addition they must conform to British Standards (BS 9522).
Each manufacturer of connectors produce a connector catalogue which details each connectors
AD
individual specification. The following are a small example of the many hundreds of connectors
available.
In addition to the Spec No the connector will have a Part No and a manufacturers identification
AC
No. In this example the latter is: TCT Series (Mk 33).
TCT Series Mk 33 is a high density designed to meet the requirements of MIL-C-3899. The
coupling mechanism features a robust quick 3 start thread wirh an anti-vibration device within a
coarse ribbed coupling nut. A full 360° turn of the couling nut brings the plug to the fully mated
N
position. These connectors are available in various sizes and styles.
O
Specification
Standard Materials and Finishes - SHELL;
TI
Aluminium alloy or stainless steel with the following finishes:

IA
 Nickel, Cadmium Olive Drab (aluminium shells)

AV
 Passivated or nickel plated (stainless steel shells)
Insulator:
High grade rigid plastic/silicon rubber
N
Contacts:
Copper alloy - gold plates
TA
Polarisation:
Key/Keyway
US
Contact Arrangement:
37 platforms. 5 to 120 contacts
ND
Electrical Data:
3 to 50 amps
HI

Contact Insertion and Extraction
This section of the module covers all the different aspects of connector contact insertion and
extraction. It will cover the basic history of removable contacts, the locking mechnaisms of
connectors and the insertion and extraction of contacts from connectors with the requirements
Y
of tooling and processes.
EM
Contact History
As connectors changed with time, so did contacts. Contacts, as an integral part of the connector
AD
system developed through to the current types available.
The earliest connectors used contacts which were not removable from the connector body.
They were fixed into the connector during manufacture and required soldering onto the cable.
AC
Problems were created using this method in that any task requiring a remake in the centre of
the connector would be difficult because the outer cables or loom would have to be de-soldered
and removed to enable access to the inner contacts.
O N
Following on from the non-removable contact connector the first removable contact connectors
were developed. These connectors used soldered contacts which were held in place by the
shape and size of the rubber insert and could be removed with relative ease for remakes or
TI
modification purposes.
As there was no locking mechanism fitted to these connectors, system failure and even aircraft
IA
fire occured as contacts became pushed back or detached from their connector. It became
evident that all connectors should have a positive looking mechanism for contacts.
AV
Plessy developed a connector that used removable locked contacts which were soldered to the
cable. This design was then modified to accept crimped contacts.
The process of crimping contacts on to the cable removed the requirement to remake solder
N
connections when working on cables in the centre of a connector, and in doing so decreased
the aircraft down time.
TA
Modern connectors are manufactured with locking mechanisms built into the inserts.
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Locking Mechanisms
There are two types of locking mechanism, namely FRONT and REAR release. Front release is
the earlier type which has been superseded to some extent by the rear release type.
Y
Front release connectors are still in wide use to-day, however they may be replaced with the
rear release type (if this is an approved replacement) when the connector is removed due to
EM
either modification or defect.
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Tool Selection
Part numbers of the tooling required for the removal and insertion of contacts from a connector
is found in the Standard Practices Manual. The method for finding the required tooling part
number is as follows:
Y
 Using the index find relevant section for the family and type of connector being used.
EM
e.g. MIL-C-26500 Front Release connectors. 20-61-11.
 The table will state the description and location of the information sought.
e.g. Contact Insertion Tools, Paragraph 10.B. Page 60.
AD
Note: If the preferred tool is not available in stores, alternative part numbers are provided in
that section.
AC
A typical chart is shown beloiw. The second chart shows an example of alternative contact
insertion tools for size 20.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
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US
ND
HI

Insertion / Extraction Tools
There is a vast range of electrical connectors used in aircraft electrical/avionics systems. This
section describes a range of plastic removal/insertion tools used to remove or insert the pins of
some connectors.
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Typical pins and associated insertion tools

IA
AV
N
TA
Insertion/Extraction Tool
US
Plastic insertion and extraction tools were introduced to prevent damage to contact retaining
clips and insert materials, and are colour coded for contact size, i.e. Red, size 20; Blue, 16 and
Yellow 12 and 22. In composite tools the extractor is always White.
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
Use of plastic insertion tool
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Installing (coloured end):
Figure (a) – Hold the insertion half of the tool (coloured) between the thumb and forefinger and
lay the cable to be inserted along the slot, leaving about ½" protruding from the end of the tool
to the crimp barrel of the contact.
Y
Figure (b) – Squeeze the cable hard into the tool at the tip, between the thumb and forefinger,
EM
and at the same time, quickly pull the protruding cable with the other hand away from the tool.
Figure (c) – The cable will now have snapped into place. Pull it back through the tool until the
tip seats on the back end of the crimp barrel.
AD
Figure (d) – Holding the connector with the rear seal facing you slowly push the contact straight
into the connector seal.
AC
Figure (e) – A firm stop will be evident when the contact positively seats in the connector.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
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ND
HI

Removal (White end)
Figure (a) – With the rear of the connector facing you, lay the cable of the contact to be
removed along the slot of the removal half (White) of the tool, leaving about ½" from the end of
the tool to the rear of the connector.
Y
Figure (b) – Squeeze the cable hard into the tool between the thumb and forefinger about ¼"
From the tip and at the same time quickly pull the connector away from the tool with the other
EM
hand.
Figure (c) – The cable will now have snapped into place. Slide the tool down over the cable
and into the rear seal and push it slowly into the connector until a positive resistance is felt. At
AD
this time the contact retaining clip is in the unlock position.
Figure (d) – Press the cable of the contact to be removed against the serrations of the plastic
tool and pull both the tool and the contact-cable assembly out of the connector.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
Caution: Do not tip, spread or rotate the tool while it is in the connector.
ND
HI

Figure B below shows a comparison of front release and rear release contacts.
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
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N
TA
US
ND
HI

Figure a below shows the front release system and 38b shows the front release system.
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Tweezer type insert/extract tools
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
Tweezer type extractor tool use

N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI
Tweezer Type Insert/Extract Tools

Installation/Removal Instructions
To Install Contacts:
Open the tool tips by squeezing the handles and the tips around the cable insulation. Slide the
tool along the cable until the tip end butts against the shoulder on the contact.
Y
Carefully push the contact forward and directly in line with the grommet hole until the contact is
EM
felt to snap into position.
Slide the tool back along the cable insulation until it clears the grommet and remove the tool
from the cable.
AD
To Remove Contacts:
Open the tool tips sufficiently to place around the cable insulation. Slide the tool down the cable
until the tool tips enter the grommet and come to a positive stop. A slight increase in resistance
AC
will be noticed just before contact.
Holding the tool tips firmly against the positive stop on the contact, grip the cable and
simultaneously remove the tool, contact and cable.
O N
Caution: The tips on the installing and removal tools used on small contacts have very
thin wall sections. This causes them to have sharp edges which can cut the cable
installation or connector sealing grommet. Do not squeeze, spread, tip or rotate the
TI
tweezers while entering the connector grommet.
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
Insert/Extract Tool Operation

HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
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AV
N
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ND
HI

Installing a Contact
The procedure for installing contacts is common for all types of tool.
All contacts are inserted from the rear of the connector. The pin will recess deeper than the
Y
socket insert in order to protect the pins whilst the connector is uncoupled. Both the plug or
receptacle may hold pins or sockets.
EM
Any backshell or strain relief clamp should be retained on the loom for correct assembly on
completion of the contact insertion.
AD
a. Select correct insertion tool.
b. Fit tool to contact/cable.
c. Push fully into connector. DO NOT ROTATE. Take care not to damage sealing
grommet.
AC
d. Fully seat the contact until a snapping/ clicking is heard/felt.
e. Remove the tool in a straight line. DO NOT ROTATE.
O N
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N
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Removing a Contact
The procedure for contact removal is determined by the nature of the locking mechanism
employed in the connector, that is whether the connector is front or rear release. Contacts are
removed as follows:
Y
1. Identify the connector as front or rear release. (A blue line on the connector signifies a rear
EM
release mechanism).
2. Remove any Backshell or strain relief clamp.
3. Remove or loosen any compression ring.
4. Select the correct removal tool.
AD
AC
O N
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N
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ND
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Front and Rear Release
Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
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Terminal Block Contact Installation
Terminal Blocks
So far in this section we have only dealt with contact insertion and extraction with regards to
Y
connectors. Similar contacts are used with some „terminal blocks‟ fitted to aircraft and require
their own methods of insertion and extraction.
EM
The tooling required for terminal block contacts is identified in exactly the same way as
connectors, and the contacts inserted and extracted in a similar way as detailed for rearrelease
connectors.
AD
Contact Installation
1. Start the cabled contacts into the appropriate sockets of the module by hand.
2. Using the approved insertion/extraction tool, slide the tool (insertion end) over cable and
AC
position the tool tip against the shoulder on the contact.
3. Align the contact and tool perpendicular to the module face and carefully insert into the
cavity until the contact seats.
This is indicated by a clicking sound, followed by increased resistance to further forward

movement.
O N
4. Remove tool carefully whilst maintaining perpendicular alignment.
5. Check for correct seating of each contact by grasping the cable between thumb and
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forefinger and pulling slowly in line with the contact, until the thumb and forefinger slip on
the cable.
IA
AV
N
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ND
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Terminal Block Contact Removal
1. Remove any support ties on the cable/ contact to be extracted.

2. Using the approved extraction tool, snap the white end of the insertion/extraction tool
Y
(the extraction end) over the cable and carefully slide the extraction tool straight into the
cavity, over the rear of the contact until the tool bottoms.
EM
3. Grip the cable and tool simultaneously and pull out in a straight line.
AD
AC
O N
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Testing
When the installation is complete, each contact must be tested for satisfactory retention within
the locking device. This is achieved in one of two ways:
Y
 A gentle pull on the cable until both thumb and forefinger slide up the cable, as explained
earlier.
EM
or
 Check with retention test tool.
Note: Uncabled cavities are usually filled to assist in the environmental sealing of the
AD
connector, this is not carried out on terminal blocks. Plastic sealing plugs are normally used
where necessary and normally supplied with the connector and contacts.
They fit into the connector into the rear of the uncabled contact, providing a seal with the sealing
AC
grommet.
O N
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Y
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AD
AC
O N
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Intentionally Blank
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Cable Protection
The risk of mechanical damage and of damage by fluids or vapours, to cables must be
minimised. Where possible, cables are so routed as to avoid such risks; otherwise, adequate
protection must be provided for the cables.
Y
Cables must be so installed or protected as to be unaffected by sources of heat which, together
EM
with heat generated within the cable on load, could produce temperatures in excess of the
maximum permissible continuous temperature for which the cable is designed.
Cables must not be so sharply bent as to cause risk of damage or deterioration.
AD
The ends of all conduits, tubes and ducts which carry electric cables must be so prepared or
bushed with insulating material at the points of entry as to reduce to a minimum the risk of
damage in service and when drawing in the cable. Inspection panels may have to be provided
AC
for continuous ducts.
Cable Environment
N
Aircraft electrical cables often suffer from the effects of extreme changes in temperature and
this change often takes place very quickly. Not all cables can be kept within the pressurised
O
compartment and in some installations, the cables may be subjected to temperature changes of
60ºC. Remember that cables routed along the rear spar of a civil air transport may be
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experiencing ambient at altitude (-56º) and then a tropical airport at 30ºC. The cable can get
very wet.
IA
Cabin Drainage
AV
Wherever possible, cables connected to apparatus must be arranged to run downwards from
the apparatus. Where this is not possible, the cable must incorporate a download loop
immediately before entering the apparatus.
Where conduits, tubes or ducts are used, they must be so installed that any moisture
N
accumulating in them will drain safely away; in addition, the cables used in them must be
capable of withstanding such moisture as may nevertheless be encountered.
TA
Cable Support
Particular care in the supporting of cables is necessary at the following points:
US
 Adjacent to cable terminations.

 Where relative movement is likely to occur between adjacent parts of the structure to
ND
which the cables are fitted.

 Where cables are in proximity to moving parts.
 At bends, especially where several small cables are run together to form a relatively
heavy group.
HI

Cable Support at Terminal Fittings
At terminations it is particularly important to guard against cable movement (vibratory or
otherwise) which can lead to fatigue fracture of the conductor or the terminal fitting. Cables
should be secured as near as possible to the terminal fitting and it is recommended that where
Y
practicable the distance from terminal to nearest point of support should not exceed six inches
(measured along the cable). Where it is not possible to provide this degree of support, the
EM
means used for terminating the cable should withstand any stresses resulting from movement of
unsupported cables under vibration.
In older aircraft cable binding and support was achieved by wax string and looming cord, these
AD
methods are very much at the trailing edge of technology. Today tie-wraps are a far more
efficient way of securing cables. The use of 'P' clamps are invaluable in securing cable looms.
AC
O N
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Cable Clamps
Cable clamps are designed to meet a specific situation when a cable loom is secured. There
are many types of clamp and many different arrangements.
Y
The following figures show different applications of cable clamping.
EM
Cable troughs and conduits are other methods used to enclose and protect cable looms,
particularly large looms.
Note: When using conduits drainage holes should exist at low points to relieve moisture caused
AD
by condensation.
AC
O N
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N
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US
ND
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Y
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AD
AC
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Loop Clamps
Loop clamps are used to support cable bundles and prevent the contact of cables on adjacent
structures.
Y
Loop clamps are available in a variety of materials, such as nylon, aluminium alloy, and
stainless steel They are available in sizes from 0.25” to 1.625”. Metal loop clamps are fitted with
EM
a protective layer of insulating material to prevent damage to the cables.
Loop clamps should always be replaced with the same part number as was originally installed,
options can be used where given in the appropriate manual.
AD
Only use the smallest loop clamp that will:
 Hold the cable bundle secure
AC
 Not allow abrasive movement of the cable bundle
 Not crush or pinch the cable
Do not allow cables other than multiple conductor twisted cables to cross each other under loop
clamps. The cables and cables can be damaged.
N
When proper grip of the cable cannot be achieved with the loop clamp, one of the following
O
methods may be used to increase the size of the cable bundle.
TI
 Filler rods or plugs (sometimes known as rubber nails)

 A length of heat shrink (unshrunk)
IA
 Approved insulation tape
The diagrams show the correct use of filler rods and plugs and insulation tape.
AV
N
TA
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ND
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Y
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AC
O N
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Standoff Supports
A common method of supporting cables is to raise the loop clamp or P clip away from adjacent
stucture by the use of a standoff. these are available in a variety of heights.
Y
When plastic or nylon loopclamps are used washers are normally needed to spread the load
around the mounting hole.
EM
The illustrations below show typical arrangements when using standoff supports.
AD
AC
O N
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Prevention of Chafing
It is not always possible to prevent cables coming into contact with surfaces subjecting the
cables to chafing. Where the cable is at risk protective strapping is made of use. One of the
more common methods of strapping is 'SP.WRAP' (a helical plastic tape).
Y
Cable Droop of a loom between supports should not be more than 0.5" when light pressure is
EM
applied a mid point between clamps.
When installing a loom the following points must be considered, the:
AD
o Minimum bend radius of a bundle is five times the outside diameter.
o Minimum bend radius of a coaxial cable is twelve times its outside diameter.
o Cables must be completely insulated from any metal clamps.
AC
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Looms/Cable Bundles
Introduction
Y
This section will deal with the looming and routing of cables on the aircraft. It will cover the basic
requirements of loom forming, security and attachment to the aircraft as well as the correct path
EM
the loom must take on installation.
A loom or harness is a group of cables tied at regular intervals along its length to form a
semirigid assembly. The loom is identified as mentioned earlier with a cable bundle number and
AD
is generally specific to an aircraft system.
The path the loom takes and the specified „run‟ the loom follows, between equipment or
components within the aircraft, is known as the loom routing.
AC
The general requirements for „standard‟ cable bundle forming are:
1. Individual cables should lay parallel wherever possible.

2.
3.
remake.
O N
Where possible, sufficient spare cable should be left at the terminal ends for one
Cable breakouts should not cross over the main loom or harness body.
4. The loom shall be secured with individual ties spaced at regular intervals along its
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length.
5. Specific requirements and specifications detailed in any relevant technical publications
and/or drawings should be strictly adhered to.
IA
Materials and dimensions for the installation of cable bundles are to be found by
reference to the appropriate loom installation drawing.
AV
6. Cable breakouts should be supported on both sides with cable ties.
Note: The loom should be formed using finger pressure only, any bends or branches should be
N
made without creasing the insulation.

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Ties
The most common methods of securing individual cables together to form a loom is as follows:
 Tying the cables with nylon or dacron lacing cord.
Y
 Tying the cables with waxed string.
 Securing the cables by loom strapping with tie wraps.
EM
Note: An approved torque loaded strap gun is available when carrying out loom strapping.
Tying the Looming Cord
AD
The prefered method of tying the looming cord is as follows:
1. Form a CLOVE HITCH around the cable

loom. Figure 1.
AC
2. Finish off with a THUMB KNOT over the
hitch. Figure 2.
3. In high vibration areas finish off with a
REEF KNOT over the hitch. Figure 3.
O N
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High Vibration Areas
Reference should be made to the Aircraft Maintenance Manual for the definition of “High
Vibration Areas” and the tie separation distances required for specific loom positions.
Y
When tying looms in the engine and pylon areas the spacing between ties is 2 inches. In other
high vibration areas the spacing is between 6 to 8 inches, while for areas ouside the vibration
EM
zone the spacing can be as much as 3 feet apart.
Note: Plastic cable ties (tie wraps) are not approved for use in high vibration areas.
AD
AC
O N
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Loom Assembly Checks
Both during and on completion of looming, the individual cables, including terminals should be
checked for continuity point to point in accordance with the wiring diagram.
Y
On installation of a loom assembly any other check/tests called for will be detailed on the Job
Card, or called up by reference to the appropriate section of a maintenance manual eg.,
EM
insulation test, functional check.
Cable Bundle Breakouts
AD
All cable bundle breakouts should curve smoothly from the bundle in the same plane as the
parent bundle centreline.
The breakout should not lay across any cables when exiting the parent bundle or loom as
AC
vibration could cause chaffing of the cables, which could lead to system failure.
The loom should be tied no more than 1 inch either side of the breakout to give full support and
additional strengthening to both loom and breakout.
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Made Up Cabling
Cable looms and cabling made up on the bench must be inspected before installation in the
aircraft to verify the following.
Y
That all cables, fittings, etc have been obtained from an approved source, have been
satisfactorily tested and have not deteriorated in storage or been damaged in handling.
EM
That all crimped joints and soldered joints have been made in accordance with the relevant
drawings, are clean and sound and insulating materials have not been damaged by heat etc.
AD
That all connectors and cable looms conform to drawing requirements in respect of materials,
terminations, length, angle of outlets, orientation of contact assemblies, identification and
protection of connections.
AC
That cable-loom binding is secure. That continuity, resistance and insulation tests are carried
out in accordance with drawing requirements.
Installation of Electrical Wiring

N
The following paragraphs describe how cables and cable bundles must be installed and
protected. This is a general description and the maintenance manual of the aircraft you are
O
fitting cables/cable bundles to must be used.
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General
IA
 The cable bundles must be fixed to the structure with cable clamps without extra
protection.
AV
Note: Gas and fluid lines are not part of the structure.
 Use conduits only as a protection for cable bundles.

N
 Install and protect cable bundles in such a way that they are accessible for inspection
and maintenance.
TA
US
ND
HI

 Install and protect cable bundles in such a way as to prevent any form of damage, such
as caused by:
(a) Touching.
Y
(b) Chafing.
EM
(c) Hammering.
(d) Sliding.
AD
(e) Kinking.
(f) High ambient Temperatures.
AC
Cable bundles, including the means for fastening and protection, must be resistant to the
circumstances and substances, which exist in their surroundings.
Installation of Cable Bundles

O N
Assemble the cable to bundles with bundle ties or bundle lacing tape.
 To prevent damage to the cable bundles, sufficient space must be kept between the
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bundles and the surrounding parts.

IA
 Install cable bundles with a minimum clearance of 1cm (0.4inch) to prevent chafing
against sharp edges.
AV
 At least 15cm (6inch) separation is required between cables and lines carrying fuel or
oxygen.
 At least 7.5cm (3inch separation is required between cables and control cables.
N
 Maintain a minimum 13mm (0.5inch) separation between cables and water lines, pitot
static lines, etc.
TA
Note; where mechanical support is provided which will prevent the actual contact, the minimum
distance can be reduced to less than 13mm.
US
Maintain a 5cm (2inch) minimum separation between cables and insulated bleed air ducts.
Provide a mechanical support to prevent any possible contact between the cable bundle and
the insulated bleed-air duct.
ND
HI

Cable clamps
Metal cable clamps must have a flexible rubber cushion.
Plastic cable clamps must only be used inside the pressure cabin in places where the load on
Y
the clamp is minimal, as in cable trays, panels and Electrical Power Centre (EPC) areas.
EM
Installation
 Make sure that mounting the ends of the flexible rubber cushion are linked together. This
is necessary to prevent the metal of the cable clamps damaging the cables.
AD
 Install the mounting bolt on the top of the clamp.
AC
 Make sure that after mounting, the cable clamp fully encloses the cable bundle. This is
necessary to prevent the bundle from sliding in the cable clamp.
 Make sure that the maximum outer diameter of the cable bundle does not exceed the
inner diameter of the cable bundle.
 Mount the cables at the correct angles.

O N
 Lay the cables parallel and tightly together inside the cable clamp.
TI
 Ensure the correct distance between clamps is used.

IA
Note: The distance between two cable clamps can vary between 10 to 30 cm (4 – 12 inch)
inside the pressure cabin. This depends on the routing, thickness and stiffness of the
AV
bundle.
N
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Y
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AD
AC
O N
Cable Clamp Spacing
TI
IA
Conduit (Metallic and PVC)

When using conduit for cable bundle protection they must be installed in such a way that they
can not be used as a hand hold, or as a foot rest by passengers or maintenance personnel.
AV
The use of plastic conduit can only be used if the use of metallic conduits is impossible.
The inner diameter of the conduit must be 25% larger than the maximum outer diameter of the
cable bundle. To prevent damage to the cables, the ends of the plastic conduits must be
N
provided with adapters. The end of the metallic conduit must be flared and smooth.
TA
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ND
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Y
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AD
AC
O N
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N
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Metallic & PVC Conduit

HI

Conduit Drainage
Where tubing is used, a drainage hole 1/8 inch diameter should be made at the lowest point in
the tubing, after this is established. This prevents condensed moisture from running along the
cables and finding its way into the electrical apparatus. When this is not possible, the cable
should incorporate a downward loop immediately after leaving the apparatus. Where conduits,
Y
tubes or ducts are used, they should be installed so that any moisture accumulating in them will
drain away harmlessly, and the cables used in them should be capable of withstanding such
EM
moisture as may be encountered.
AD
AC
O N
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N
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Conduit Drain Hole
Interference
US
Cables should be installed so as to reduce electrical interference to a minimum and to avoid

confusion between circuits on different types of services. The spacing between any aircraft
unscreened cable and unscreened radio aerial lead should normally be not less than 18 inches.
ND
HI

Heat-Shrinkable Sleeving
Hot Air Heat Guns/Infra-Red Heat Guns
Y
Most wiring tasks carried out on aircraft utilise the use of the electrically heated fan driven air
supply type. It should be noted that in certain areas and circumstances dangerous fuel vapours
EM
exist which require the use of safe heat guns.
Where this safe heat source is required then a nitrogen purged gun can be used, however
current regulations within British Airways require the attendance of fire crew when carrying out
AD
heating of aircraft looms using the electrically driven fan type of heat source.
Precautions when using Hot Air Heat Guns:
AC
o Always ensure Hot Air Gun serviceability and calibration in date.
o Visual check for general condition.
o Always use with extreme caution as expelled air can reach 600°C.
o Always use correct deflection nozzle for work undertaken
o
damage could take place
O N
Ensure that expelled air is directed away from aircraft structure as structural
o Never point the gun at other people. Air at 600° can cause 2nd or 3rd degree
burns
TI
o Allow component to cool before touching
o On completion of task run gun with cold air flow to cool nozzle and gun end prior
to placing gun down.
IA
Infra-Red Heat Guns

Infra-red heat guns are the most recently developed type of heat source available to the aircraft
AV
engineer for use with heat shrink components and tubing.
Infra-red guns are normally found in a carrying case and are made up from two main parts:
N
o Power Supplies.
o Remote portable heat gun complete with interconnecting cables.
TA
The power supplies contain all the necessary volages to drive the gun and are housed in an
integral unit for the gun.
US
Power supplies can be fitted with either B's or aircraft ground equipment electrical 240v plugs.
The heat gun is fitted with a reflector which may dictate the size of job application undertaken
and is appreciatively smaller than that of the largest hot air deflector.
ND
These types of guns are smaller, lighter, quieter and possibly safer to use than hot air however
the same precautions must be observed as with hot air to preserve safety.
HI

The possibility of damage to the aircraft structure is greatly reduced using this type of gun as
inadverant hot air dissipation is not present - the gun relies on an infra-red beam to heat up the
component.
Y
Selection of Heat Shrinkable Sleeving
EM
As with most tasks carried out on aircraft, selection of component or heat shrink sleeving is a
controlled task.
Sleeving is obtained by part No. on certain measurements carried out to the loom over which it
will fit.
AD
Reference will now be made to the maintenance manual for size against material spec.
There are several different material types available and the types applied depend on the
AC
application for which it will be used.
The criteria for selection depends on:
•
•
•
Temperature of loom environment
Amount of fluid contamination present
Flexibility required
O N
• Vibration suffered
TI
• Protection chaffing required

• Fire hazard
IA
Once the type of sleeving required has been selected then reference to the size chart in chapter
20 can be made.
AV
N
TA
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ND
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Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
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Selection Criteria
a) Hydrocarbon solvents
Fluid Resistance (Room
Operating Temperature
Size Range (Expanded
b) Aqueous solutions,
Min Shrink Temp C
Dielectric Strength
Flame Resistance
Standard Colours
(Typical) MV/mo
Continuous C
Y
diameter mm)
acids, bases
Shrink Ratio
Product
Description
Temp)
EM
Polyolefins
Flexible, highly
AD
flame retarded,
Black,
general
1.5 to white, Highly
purpose -55 to a Good
RNF-3000 0 3:1 red, 120 20-35 flame
polyolefin +135 b Excellent
40.0 blue, retarded
material with
AC
yellow
3:1 shrink
ratio.
Clear, flexible,
modified
1.5 to Not
polyolefin, -55 to a Good
RNF-3000 0 3:1 Clear 120 20-35 flame
general +135 b Excellent
purpose
material.
Flexible,
40.0
O
Black,
N retarded
modified Flame
white,
RNF-100 polyolefin, -55 to 1.2 to Retarded a Good
2:1 red, 120 13-35
TI
TYPE 1 general +135 102.0 b Excellent
blue,
purposes 13-35
yellow
material.
IA
Not
RNF-100
Clear flame
TYPE 2
Flexible, retarded
modified Yellow/
AV
polyolefin, green,
-55 to 1.2 to a Good
general 2:1 other 120 13-35
+135 102.0 b Excellent
purpose, dual colour Flame
DCPT
colour striped combinations retarded
material. available
on
N
request.
Highly flexible,
polyolefin with -75 to 1.6 to Flame a Good
TA
RT-102 2:1 Black 90 22

low shrink +135 076.0 retarded b Excellent
temperature.
Highly flame
Black,
retarded, very
white, Highly
flexible -55 to 1.2 to a Good
US
RT-876 2:1 red, 100 20 flame

polyolefin with +135 076.0 b Excellent
blue, retarded
low shrink
yellow
temperature.
CRN Flame
Black
TYPE 1 retarded
ND
Modified
-55 to 1.2 to a Good
polyolefin of 2:1 135 27-38 Not
CRN +135 012.7 b Excellent
high strength. Clear flame
TYPE 2
retarded
HI

Connector Sealing
Thermofit tubing is made from a variety of materials e.g. Polyolefin, PTFE, Polyvinyldene
Fluoride and Neoprene. These materials have many useful applications and will increase the
electrical, mechanical and environmental reliability of the aircraft wiring Systems. The main
Y
manufactures are HellermanTM and RaychemTM.
EM
Heatshrink tubing is a polythene based material which is supplied in a stretched form. The
expansion is carried out during manufacture by a process of bombarding the material with
electrons. Application of heat causes the tubing to shrink to a pre-determined (recovered)
diameter with negligible longitidinal shrinkage. The heat should be applied commencing at
AD
centre of the tubing and working towards the ends.
The tubing can also be slipped over cable terminations, in-line splices and irregular shaped
objects and when shrunk, will form a light mechanical bond with the item it covers.
AC
When used in conjunction with moulded parts, a completely encapsulated harness can be built
up.
Thermofit tubing and moulded parts have an indefinite life, if stored below 93 °C. Neoprene has a
N
shelf life of 9 months when stored at temperatures up to 90°C.
O
Moulded Parts
TI
These are made from a semi-rigid Polyolefin material. They are supplied in an expanded or
over-expanded state3 so that they may be positioned prior to shrinking, over an already
IA
terminated connector. They give good flexibility and strain relief.
There are many different shapes and sizes of moulded parts, amongst which are "Y"and "T"
AV
transitions, and “boots”, both expanded and over-expanded.
To ensure a good moisture proof joint between lengths of tubing, tubing to boots and tubing to
transitions, adhesives should be used. e.g. Hot Melt Adhesive Tape.
N
When shrinking moulded parts, the heat should first be applied at the connector end. The latter
should be held in a gloved hand and rotated slowly to achieve uniform heat distribution.
TA
Tape Irradiated Heatshrink

US
This is a dual wall tape used where the conventional heatshrink tubings or transistions, are
impracticable or unsuitable.
With application of heat, tape shrinks to form a continuous tube or boot.

ND
CAUTION: CLEANING SOLVENT - METHYL - ETHYL - KEYOTNE (MEX). IS USED FOR

CLEANING ALL SURFACES PRIOR TO FITTING OF HEATSHRINK
MATERIALS. IT IS HIGHLY INFLAMMABLE AND TOXIC.
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
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IA
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N
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The Product Range
Some components and mouldings are supplied with a Hot melt glue or environmental sealant
inside the moulding.
Y
On applying an external heat source the sealant melts and seals any gap between loom and
cable. The sealant solidifies once the heat source is removed providing a permanent
EM
environmental seal, which can only be removed by cutting off the component.
The heat shrink range includes:
AD
o heat shrink tubing
o heat shrink component mouldings
o heat shrink identification tags
o environmental splices
AC
o solder sleeves
Note: Solder sleeves and environmental (moisture proof) splices will be covered in
greater detail later. O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
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ND
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Heat Shrink Heat Sources
There are basically two types of approved heat sourcefor use with aircraft looms, they are:
o Hot Air.
Y
o Infra-Red.
EM
Of the two types the Hot Air type is the most common approved source found within British
Airways.
Hot Air Heat Guns
AD
Hot air guns are available in two main types:
 A heat source used to heat a compressed air supply.

 An electrically heated fan driven air supply.
AC
Hot Air Gun Air Deflectors
Hot air guns can be fitted with air deflectors which direct the flow of air around the heat shrink
component or tubing under heat treatment.
N
Deflectors are available in a range of different sizes to ensure that the hot air flow around the
equipment is kept uniform thus keeping shrinkage of the component or sleeving even.
O
It is essential that any component or sleeving shrinks in a uniform manor as failure to ensure
TI
uniformity may cause distortion as the heat shrink component shrinks into place. It may be
impossible to remove this distortion once shrinking has begun as the component or any sealant
IA
sticks to the cables or connectors over which it is fitted.
Deflectors are fitted to heat guns to serve a secondary purpose in keeping hot air away from
AV
aircraft components cables and structure etc., deflectors provide protection against heeat and
therefore damage to such components. Always select a cold setting on the gun and run cold air
through the nozzle and deflector to cool propr to placing the gun down or changing deflectors.
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Heat Shrink Tubing
Heat shrink tubing is available in a variety of sizes and temperature ranges. The example
shown is an extract from the BAe 146 Wiring Manual. This is general purpose, flexible, heat
shrinkable sleeving.
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General Characteristics:
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Self extinguishing (Raychem Type 1) (Hellermann Type 1) Spec: MIL I 23053B/5
 Temperature Range: 55°C to + 135°C continuous. Up to 300°C for short duration (1
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hour).
 Shrinking Temperature: Min 121°C, Recommended temp 250°C - 300°C.
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 Shrink Factor: 50% of supplied diameter.
 Fluid Resistance: Skydrol 500. Kerosene, Hydraulic fluid.
 Colours: Yellow, Black, Red, White, and Blue.
 Length: Four feet lengths.

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Notes:
Select the largest size, which will snugly fit the item to be covered.
Wall thickness will be less if recovery is restricted during shrinking.
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Std Supplied After Wall Part No & Ordering information
Code Dia Shrinking Dia Thickness
Raychem Hellermann
(Nominal)`
RNF100 Type 1 FP301-1
inch inch inch
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3/64" Yellow SFM12 Yellow
001 0.046 0.023 .016
002 0.063 0.031 .017
003 0.093 0.046 .020
004 0.125 0.062 .020
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005 0.187 0.093 .020
006 0.250 0.125 .025
007 0.375 0.187 .025
008 0.500 0.250 .025
009 0.750
010 1.000
011 1.500
0.375
0.500
0.750
.030
.035
.040
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Yellow
1½" Yellow
SFM254 Yellow
SFM381 Yellow
2" Yellow SFM508 Yellow
012 2.000 1.000 .045
3" Yellow SFM762 Yellow
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013 3.000 1.500 .050
4" Yellow SFM1016Yellow
014 4.000 2.000 .055
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Table 7.9: Heatshrink codes
Thermoguns
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Thermoguns are needed for the shrinkage of the sleeves. The following is a list and description
of various equipment.
THERMOGUN MODEL No 1502A Description: Details of electrical supply stamped on

gun body. Self-contained motor heater and turbine,
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i.e., no separate air supply is required. Four

temperature settings, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4.
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Recommended Use: General purpose.
THERMOGUN MODEL No 1509 Description: Similar to Model

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(900W) 1502A temperature (max) 480°C.
THERMOGUN MODEL No 1511 Description: Similar to Model 1509

(1100W) temperature (max) 590°C.
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THERMOGUN MODEL No CV1980 Description: Similar to Model 1511

(1200W) (Part No 989540) except for barrel design. Temperature (max) with air
regulator closed 630°C.
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THERMOPISTOL MODEL 35L Description: Details of electrical supply marked on
pistol. Separate controlled air supply necessary. Low
temperature model, green handle for identification
purposes. Temperature ranges 150°C - 300°C.
Recommended use:
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General purpose for small sleeves and small parts.
Not preferred for solder sleeves and high temperature
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sleeves.
THERMOPISTOL MODEL P50H Description: Details of electrical supply marked on

pistol. Separate controlled air supply necessary. High
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temperature model, yellow handle for identification
purposes.
Temperature range: 240°C - 400°C.
Recommended use:
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Preferred for high temperature sleeves and solders
sleeves.
MINI-GUN CV5302 (680W) Temperature range

(Part No 991831)
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without reflector 175°C
With PR25 reflector 340°C
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MINI-GUN CV5720 (700W) Temperature range
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(Part No 991608) without reflector 240°C
with PR25 reflector 430°C
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Use of a thermogun on heatshrink

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Reflectors for use with Thermoguns
The figure below shows different reflectors.
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REFLECTOR PR13C
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Recommended Use: For smaller sizes of all types of sleeve and solder sleeves.
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REFLECTOR PR24
Recommended Use: For moulded parts and tubes up to 1½ in supplied bore.
REFLECTOR PR25
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Recommended Use: For low temperature solder sleeves and smaller products.
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REFLECTOR PR26
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Recommended Use: For miniature solder sleeve terminations and small products.
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Heat Shrinkable Sleeves
Always use the smallest possible size that slides easily over the assembly. The sleeves are to
be cut to a length, so that, when shrunk, they completely cover the connections and extend
approximately 10mm (0.4inch) over the insulation. The figure below shows insulation sleeve
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before and after shrinking.
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Heat Shrink Sleeving

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Aircraft Coaxial Cables
Introduction
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Aircraft Coaxial Cables or Transmission Lines, are the means by which radio frequency (RF)
energy is guided from one point to another.
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A typical application is the transmission or transfer of energy from transmitter to its associated
aerial or from aerial to receiver.
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Aircraft Coaxial Cables are used for the same purpose to that of Waveguide however it should
be noted that Waveguide operates at a higher frequency than that of Coaxial Cable and will not
be dealt with in this module.
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Generally, in aircraft applications transmission lines are used for frequencies below 5000 MHz
(5GHz) where as above 5 GHz waveguide is used.
A transmission line consists of two cables, of any length suitably insulated from each other.
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The insulation between the two cables is called the di-electric and can take different forms.
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For instance the di-electric used in modern cable is made from a foam material where as
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polyethylene or nylon was used in earlier coaxial cables.
The earliest types of transmission line took the form of a rigid coaxial cable which consisted of a
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central conductor which was supported by metallic insulators of quarter wavelength the
frequency being transferred.
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The di-electric consisted of an air filled space within the interior which was pressurized to keep
moisture out.The second conductor used the outer case.
The figure below (overleaf) illustrates a rigid coaxial Cable with metallic insulators and also it
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illustrates the later type of flexible coaxial cable in use on aircraft.

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As mentioned earlier, flexible coaxial cable employs either foam or polyethylene as the dielectric
material.
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Both foam and polyethylene are unaffected by such fluids as acids, alkalis, aviation fuel oil,
hydraulic fluid or sea water.
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The most modern cables in use with British Airways are manufactured using foam as the
dielectric.
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The use of foam gives considerable weight saving and also enables cables of smaller diameter
to be fitted thus adding to the overal performance of the aircraft.
As with both foam and polyethylene/nylon cables at the lower RADAR frequencies, (of the order
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of 2GHz), the cable losses are low and therefore maximum power transfers can take place
between equipments and their associated aerials or antenna.
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Cable Losses
Transmission line losses may be of three types:
o Copper losses.
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o Dielectric losses
o Radiation or Induction losses
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Copper Losses
Copper losses can take the form of power loss (I R) resulting from the resistance value of the
copper conductor.
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Since the resistance value of the transmission line can never be zero, there will always be some
losses.
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A further loss results from Skin Effect.
Skin effect is the tendency for AC currents to flow near the surface of a conductor.
Since the resistance of a conductor varies inversely with cross-section then it follows that there
will be a higher conductivity at the surface.
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Skin effect is increased with higher frequencies.
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The conductivity of an RF line or conductor can be increased by plating it with silver. The
majority of the current will flow in the silver layer and the copper will serve mainly for mechanical
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support.
Dielectric Loss
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Dielectric loss results from heating the dielectric material (insulation) between the conductors.
The heating is caused by disturbance of the orbits of the electrons as a result of potential
difference between the conductors.The change in the paths of the electrons requires power
which is supplied from the RF input for the line.
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Dielectric losses can be reduced by selecting materials whose atomic structure is readily
distorted.
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Foam Nylon or Polyethylene are used extensively in modern coaxial cables.

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Radiation (Induction) Losses

Radiation or Induction loss result from the fields surrounding the conductors.
When the field surrounding the conductor is cut by a nearby metallic object, a current is induced
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in the object with result that power is dissipated by the object.

The power lost is supplied by transformer action from the RF source of the line.
Radiation losses result from the fact that some lines of force about the conductor do not return
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to it when the frequency cycle changes. These lines of force project into space as radiation and
as they do not return , the energy they use must be supplied by the RF source.

Generally in modern coaxial cables there is minimal radiation loss since both the electrostatic
and magnetic fields are effectively confined within the cable.
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Types of Coaxial Cable
As would be expected, with regards to cables designed for fitment, or fitted to aircraft, there are
hundreds in circulation around the world.
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MIL-C-17 Specification Cables
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As was mentioned in earlier sections, MIL-C Spec laid down detailed specifications to which all
equipment fitted to U.S. Military aircraft had to conform.
The MIL Specification series, were later adopted into commercial aircraft and have since
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become a benchmark for production standards on American aircraft.
MIL-C-17 SPEC detailed the specification for coaxial cable, with
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MIL-C-17D detailing specifications for Polythene, Nylon and Polyethylene cables
MIL-C-17F detailing specifications for the later foam type cables.
RG Type Coaxial Cables

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RG Type Coaxial Cables are the most common within British Airways.
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They conform to the American MIL-C 17 Specification and are found on most of the current
aircraft types.
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The RG number in itself does not relate to a manufacture specification it does however identify
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a particular cable manufactured to MILC- 17 specification.
(IT IS THE CABLE IDENTIFICATION AND MAY BE THE CABLE PART NUMBER)
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RG NUMBERS ARE GIVEN TO CONSECUTIVE DESIGNS AND DO IN NO WAY RELATE TO

THE CABLES CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
For example: Coaxial cable RG 302 is a 75 ohm characteristic impedance.

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Co-axial Connectors
General
Co-axial connectors are used within aircraft applications to connect/disconnect equipment or
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systems utilising radio frequency (RF) voltage and current.
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They are designed to maintain the integrity and performance of the cable and should not effect
the characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable to which they are attached.
There are many different configurations and sizes of co-axial connector fitted to aircraft,
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however they generally fall into two types:
o Single connectors which are attached individually to specific items of equipment.

o Single connectors which are fitted with multiple contact connectors, and as such
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are a sub-assembly or sub-component of the main connector body.
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Co-axial Connector Families and Series
Co-axial connectors are the same as circular connectors in that they are identified by their
family name and series.
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All coaxial connectors used within British Airways conform to the specification MIL-C-39012
which is the family title for these types of connectors and determines the performance of the
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connector.
The MIL-C-39012 spec sub divides into series which detail more information on use, size and
performance of the various connectors within that particular series.
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MIL-C39012 Series Co-Axial Connectors
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The N series Co-axial Connectors, see Figure 3.
The N series of co-ax connector was the original microwave series developed to meet urgent
needs during World War 2.
Designed for use up to 500MH2 they suffered in that they were not of a constant impedance.
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and also manufacturers increased the operating frequency range of the connector to IIGH 2.
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N series connectors use a threaded coupling nut for mating and are quite common on older
aircraft.
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C Series, see Figure 4.

The C series was the first series designed from its inception to be a constant 50 ohm
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characteristic impedance series.
Mating is carried out with a bayonet lock as opposed to thread and allows for positive locking
without the use of any external locking device.
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The C series connectors have an operating frequency range of 0-11 GHz and are available in a
high voltage version with a 0-2 GHz frequency range.
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BNC Series, see Figure 5.

The BNC series of connectors are available in two types:
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1. Non constant impedance (for use below 300 mhz)

2. 50 ohm 0-4 GHz BNC Connectors
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BNC connectors are generally found on aircraft aerials and redio equipment where quick
release is required.
TNC Series, see Figue 6.

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The TNC (threaded nut coupling) series connector is a threaded version of the BNC and
operates to the same specification as the BNC connector.

The TNC series of connectors are used predominately where vibration is a major factor as they
rely on external locking for security.
TNC series connectors are also less susceptible to electrical noise interferance than BNC
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connectors in high vibration areas due to the reduction of axial movement of the threaded
coupling on the TNC series.
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SIC Series
The SC series of connectors operate to the same specification as the 'C' series except they use
a threaded coupling (screw C series).
SM Series
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The SM (sub miniature) series of connectors are now weather proof and were developed for
use with co-axial cables of ¼" overall diameter and smaller eg, foam type co-axial cables. They
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may be used where electrical matching is not required.
SM series connectors are considerably smaller and contain fewer parts than the BNC series of
connectors making them ideal for modern aircraft 747-400, 757/767 etc.
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A brief series listing is shown below which highlights the range of series available and therefore
the danger of incorrect connector identification.
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Construction
Each of the connector series will be manufactured or constructed in a different way however
most connectors will consist of the basic components. These components can be seen from the
exploded view below.
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Arinc 600 type co-axial connectors use similar components to the single connector application
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however they differ in that they are designed to lock into place by a locking plate.
Both single applications and ARINC 600 co-axial connectors consist of an inner conductor
contact and an outer braid conductor contact. The inner contact can be either crimped or
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soldered to the conductor where the braid is generally clamped into place with the use of a
ferrule and locking device.
The ferrule is locked into place by crimping with specialist tools or can be held by tightening lock
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nuts. (ARINC 600 are crimped).
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Styles
As mentioned earlier co-axial connectors are available in different series, each series are further
broken into styles which can be utilised for the run of cable required.
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Crimped Connection
Crimped co-axial connectors require specialised tools for contact fitment. The tool consists of a
main body with interchangable jaws that several different size contacts to be crimped with same
tool.
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Reference must be made to the maintenance manual chapter 20 for the method and tooling
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employed by each series of connector.
Note: It should be noted that on some occasions one crimp tool (with two or more die
openings) can be used to crimp both the centre contact and the jacket. On other occasions it
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will be necessary either to use two different crimp tools or to interchange the jaws.
The shape of the crimp varies with the jaws used and will typically produce hexagonaly shaped
crimped joints.
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Cable Preparation
Correct cable preparation is vital to ensure the quality of a co-axial connection.
Co-axial cable is prepared in five main stages which are:
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1. Removal of the outer jacket
2. Braid cut to the correct length
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3. Di-electric cut to correct length
4. Inner conductor cut ot correct length
5. Braid is opened out
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A craft knife is used to strip the outer jacket and dielectric and so great care must be taken to
ensure that no damage is created to the other surfaces of the cable.
The stripping dimensions are found by reference to the chapter 20 under the series of connector
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or type of connector in use.
In some circumstances tolerances of ±0.010 inch are maintained to ensure good connection.
Failure to comply to tolerance will result in an unacceptable crimp and maybe subject to the
following connection faults:
1.
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Intermittant connection of centre conductor
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2. Intermittant connection of outer braid
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3. Short circuit between centre and braid conductors
4. Environmental contamination
5. Excessive system noise
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Assembly of a Typical Coaxial Connector
There are many different types of coaxial connectors fitted to aircraft and the assembly of each
type of connector will vary.
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The following example demonstrates the method of finding cable trim dimensions and crimping
tools for a common coaxial connector. The connector part number is KC-59-61 and the cable
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part number is RG58C/U.
The information next contains selected portions of the applicable tables and only covers areas
which include the example connector.
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Assembly of Kings K-59-61Connector
1. Cut cable end square, slide clamp nut , gland gasket and K-Grip sleeve over jacket, make
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Cut 1 and 2 through jacket only.
2. Remove end of jacket to Cut 2, flare or bulge back braid and trim with scissors at edge of
jacket.
3. Remove jacket between Cuts 1 and 2 exposing 7/32 length of braid. Push K-Grip over
dielectric and under braid, slide K-Grip sleeve over K-Grip and braid to within 1/ 64 of
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flange on K-Grip, crimp sleeve using designated crimp die.
4. Trim dielectric and centre conductor to indicated dim. Note, when using a bushing on cable
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the .110 dimension is changed to .075 and the 7/64 dim is changed to 9/64.
5. Solder centre contact to centre conductor. (Male contacts may be crimped.)
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6. Thread assembly into connector body, Recommended torque: 55 - 60 in lbs.

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Coaxial Cable Testing
The relationship to the length of a coaxial cable and its impedance is critical. If the impedance
of the line does not match the load impedance, not all the energy fed down the line flows into
the load. Some of the energy is reflected back to the source, forming standing waves on the
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line. Every half wave along the line, high V and Low I points appear, also between these points
will be Low V and High I. The ratio of the voltage across the line at the High V points to that at
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the Low V points is known as the “Voltage Standing-Wave Ratio” (VSWR).
If a coaxial cable is damaged (either crushed, pinched or cut), it will affect the impedance of the
cable; this in turn will result in low power transmissions. Measuring the VSWR on the line will
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identify the position of the damage. To measure the VSWR a “Time Domain Meter” (TDM) is
used.
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Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR)
A Time Domain Meter is a sampling oscilloscope using Time Domain Reflectometry method. It
sends a narrow pulse down the line measuring the time it takes for a return reflected signal from
any anomalies (either crushed, pinched or cut.) in the line to appear. Time is then converted
into distance to locate the discontinuity.
Types of TDRs
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There are two ways a TDR can display the information it receives. The first and more traditional
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method is to display the actual waveform or "signature" of the cable. The display, which is either
a CRT or an LCD, will display the outgoing (transmitted) pulse generated by the TDR and any
reflections which are caused by impedance changes along the length of the cable.
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The second type of display is simply a numeric readout which indicates the distance in feet or
meters to the first major reflection caused by a fault along the cable. Some instruments also
indicate if the fault is an OPEN or SHORT indicating a high impedance change or a low
impedance change respectively, or if POWER is detected on the cable.
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Impedance
Any time two metallic conductors are placed close together, they form a transmission line which
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has a characteristic impedance. A TDR looks for a change in impedance which can be caused

by a variety of circumstances, including cable damage, water ingress, change in cable type,
improper installation, and even manufacturing flaws.
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Insulation (dielectric) thickness
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The insulating material that keeps the conductors separated is called the cable dielectric. The
impedance of the cable is determined by the conductor diameter, the spacing of the conductors
from each other and the type of dielectric material or insulation that is used to separate the
conductors.
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Fault indications on a twisted-pair cable
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If the conductors are manufactured with exact spacing and the dielectric is exactly constant,
then the cable impedance will be constant. If the conductors are randomly spaced or the
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dielectric changes along the cable, then the impedance will also vary along the cable.
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Fault indications on a coaxial cable

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A TDR sends electrical pulses down the cable and samples the reflected energy. Any
impedance change will cause some energy to reflect back toward the TDR and will be
displayed. How much the impedance changes determines the amplitude of the reflection.
Matching the impedance of the instrument to that of the cable under test will help reduce
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unwanted reflections. If the operator forgets to match the impedance, the distance accuracy of
the instrument is not affected.
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Pulse Widths
The amount of energy sent down the cable can be controlled by the operator. Many TDRs have
selectable pulse width settings. The pulse width allows the TDR signal to travel down a cable at
different levels of energy and distances. The wider the pulse width, the more energy is
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transmitted, and therefore, the further the signal will travel down the cable. A TDR may contain

one or all of the following pulse width settings: 2 nanoseconds, 10 nanoseconds, 100
nanoseconds, 1000 nanoseconds, 2000 nanoseconds and 4000 nanoseconds and 6000
nanoseconds.
Note: Even when testing very long lengths of cable, always start the fault finding procedure in
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the shortest pulse width available, as the fault may be only a short distance away. Use the
zoom and gain controls to help locate the fault. If the fault is not located, switch to the next
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larger pulse width and retest. Keep switching to the next larger pulse until the fault is located. All
reflections will be the same width as that of the output (incident) pulse.
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Pulse widths and distance traveled

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Sometimes, larger pulse widths are helpful even for locating faults that are relatively close. If the
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fault is very small, the signal strength of a small pulse may not be enough to travel down the
cable, "see" the fault, and travel back. The attenuation of the cable combined with the small
reflection of a partial fault can make it difficult to detect. A larger pulse width would transmit
more energy down the cable, making it easier to see a small fault.
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Blind Spots
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The pulse generated by the TDR takes a certain amount of time and distance to launch. This
distance is known as the blind spot. The length of the blind spot varies depending on the length
of the pulse width. The larger the pulse width, the larger the blind spot.
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It is more difficult to locate a fault contained within the blind spot. If a fault is suspected within
the first few feet of cable, it is advisable to add a length of cable between the TDR and the cable
being tested. Any faults that may have been hidden in the blind spot can now easily be located.
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When adding length of cable to eliminate the blind spot, remember the TDR will also measure
the length of the jumper cable. The length of the jumper must be considered in the distance
reading. With Riser Bond's exclusive dual cursors, the length of the jumper can be subtracted
by placing the first cursor at the point of connection with the jumper.
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Although not critical, it is best if the jumper cable is the same impedance as the cable under
test. The quality of the connection is the most important factor regardless of the type of jumper
being used. It is important to remember to subtract the length of the jumper from the cable when
measuring from the point of connection because the TDR is also reading the length of this
jumper. The distances below are based on one cable type, and results will vary.
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Pulse width Length of Blind Spot
Twisted Pair Coaxial
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2 nanoseconds 6ft 2m 6ft 2m
1 sec 400ft 120m 430ft 133m
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2 sec 630ft 192m 850ft 360m
4 sec 1250ft 380m 1690ft 515m
6 sec 1850ft 564m ---- ----
Pulse widths and Blind Spot lengths
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Velocity of Propagation (VOP)
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The TDR is an extremely accurate instrument, however, variables in the cable itself can cause
errors in the distance measurements. One way to minimize error is to use the correct Velocity of
Propagation (VOP) of the cable under test. The VOP is a specification of the speed at which a
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signal travels through the cable. Different cables have different VOPs. Knowing the VOP of a
cable is the most important factor when using a TDR for fault finding. By entering the correct
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VOP, the instrument is calibrated to that particular cable. Typically, the VOP of the cable under
test will be listed in the cable manufacturer's catalogue or specification sheet.
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Velocity of Propagation (VOP)

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The speed of light in a vacuum is 186,400 miles per second. This speed is represented by the
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number 1 (100%). All other signals are slower. A coaxial cable with a VOP of .85 would transmit
a signal at 85 percent the speed of light. A twisted pair cable, which typically has a lower VOP
(such as .65), would transmit a signal at 65 percent the speed of light.
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Variations in the VOP of the same type of cable are not uncommon. The VOP of a cable can
change with temperature, age, and humidity. It can change approximately 1% for every ten

degrees centigrade of change from room temperature. It can also vary from one manufacturing
run to another. Every new cable can vary as much as +/-3%. With this change in the dielectric
constant, the VOP changes and therefore the apparent length of the cable also changes. When
using a known length of cable to determine VOP, be certain to use at least 100 feet (33 m). The
longer the test-cable the better.
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Fortunately, there are ways to minimize error. When trying to pinpoint a fault, the most common
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technique used to reduce VOP error is to test the faulty cable from both ends. The procedure
follows.
Determine the path of the cable. With a measuring wheel or tape, measure the exact length of
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the cable being tested. Set the VOP according to the manufacturer‟s specifications, test the
cable from one end, and record the distance reading. If the sum of the readings is the exact
length of the cable that was measured, the VOP is correct and the fault has been located.
However, if the sum of the readings is more than the measured distance, reduce the VOP
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setting and retest. If the sum of the two readings is less than the measured distance, increase
the VOP setting and re-test. If the two sums add up to less than the known length, the operator
must also consider the possibility of two faults. Keep changing the VOP settings until the
distance readings total the known length. O N
The same result can also be obtained mathematically. Take the actual cable length and divide
by the sum of the two TDR readings obtained by the tests from each end. This produces an
adjustment factor. Next, multiply each of the TDR readings by the adjustment factor. The result
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will be the corrected length readings.
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Locating Multiple Faults

Sometimes a cable contains more than one fault. Multiple faults in a cable can be caused by
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many factors, including rodent damage, improper or faulty installation, construction, ground
shift, or even structural flaws from the manufacturing process.
If a fault is a complete open or a dead short, the TDR will read only to that point and not
beyond. If the fault is not an open or short, the TDR may indicate the first fault and other faults
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further down the cable. In the case of a waveform TDR, the waveform signature of the cable will
show most of the discontinuities, both large and small, along the length of the cable.
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Detecting multiple faults

In the cast of a digital numeric TDR, only the distance to the first major fault will be indicated,
and not the smaller faults beyond the larger fault. You must test from the opposite end of the
cable for signs of other possible faults.
Termination
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When testing cables it is best if the cable is not terminated. A termination can absorb the pulse
and no signal will return to the instrument. The TDRs transmitted pulse must be reflected back
EM
to the instrument by a fault or the end of the cable in order to indicate a distance. It is best if all
equipment and components are disconnected from the cable under test.
Sometimes it is not always practical to disconnect the far end of the cable. However, it is still
AD
possible to test a cable that is terminated. If the cable is damaged, the signal will reflect back at
the damaged point prior to being absorbed by a termination.
AC
O N
TI
Measuring coiled cable length with a TDR

IA
General notes
AV
1. Get as close to the fault as possible

2. Make a quality connection between the TDR and the cable being tested
3. Enter the correct VOP of the cable being tested
4. Start with the shortest pulse width available
5. Test from both ends of the cable
N
6. Determine the cable path and depth for more accurate readings
7. Always re-test the cable after the fault has been fixed
TA
US
ND
HI

Cable Wrap Connections
General
Y
A wrapped cable connection consists of a helix of continuous solid, and uninsulated cable tightly
wrapped around a terminal post to produce a mechanically and electrically stable connection.
EM
The number of turns required depends on the cable size used.
In addition to the uninsulated cable wrap turns, an additional turn of insulated cable is wrapped
around the terminal to absorb vibration. The insulated turn is at the bottom of the wrapped
AD
section. The wrap proceeds upward on the terminal post to the end of the cable.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
o Wrapped connections must meet the cable turn requirements of Table 1 for both the
stripped and insulated portions of the cable.
o There must be no damage that exposes base metal which is visible under 5x
N
magnification.
o Cuts, tears, or crushing of the insulation on the insulated turns are acceptable, except
TA
that any conductor must not be visible to the unaided eye on the last half turn before the
cable leaves the terminal.
o The space between adjacent turns of the wrap must not exceed one half the diameter of
the bare conductor, except on the first and last turns where the space must not exceed
US
one diameter of the bare conductor.

o The sum of all gaps must not exceed one diameter excluding the first and last turn.
o The maximum distance between the start of the insulated cable turn and the bushing or
ND
base of the terminal post is 1/16 inch. The maximum distance between wraps is 1/16
inch.
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
o High turns, open turns and overwrap turns are not acceptable
IA
AV
N
TA
US
o The last turn (end tail) must not extend more than one conductor diameter beyond the
outer diameter of the stripped cable.
a) A blunt tool may be used to bend the excess end tail around the post.
ND
b) Make sure to avoid damage to the terminal, cable and wrap.

HI

Y
EM
AD
9. Wrapped cable must not extend over the rounded, tapered, or bevelled end of the
terminal post.
AC
There must be a minimum of one conductor diameter between the completion of the
wrap and the beginning of the post tip configuration.
O N
TI
IA
AV
10. The first turn of insulated cable may overlap the turns of uninsulated cable in a
connection below it one the same terminal post.
N
a) On the first wrapping level, the first turn of insulated cable may overlap the
TA
terminal post bushing below.
b) The requirements for insulated cable covering corners still apply.

US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
Changes to the Cable Integration Unit (WIU)
In almost all cases, repairs, changes, or maintenance of the WIU will consist of either the
removal or addition or cable, or both. If sufficient length is available, existing cable can be
utilised for a cable change.
CAUTION:
N
OBSERVE INSTRUCTIONS LISTED ON THE DECAL LOCATED ON THE WIU
O
COVER. REMOVE THE COVER ONLY AFTER IT HAS BEEN VERIFIED THAT
THE POWER IS TURNED OFF.
TI
CAUTION: DO NOT REUSE ANY CABLE SEGMENTS WHICH HAVE BEEN PREVIOUSLY
IA
WRAPPED.
Repair of Damaged Cable Wrap Posts

AV
If the connector post is damaged, remove and replace the post. Use the process in Subject 20-
72-17 (Boeing Standard Wiring Practices Manual).
If the ground bus post is bent, it may be straightened in place. Ground bus posts are not
removable.
N
Replacement of Existing Cable

TA
Note: If the replacement cable is to be routed the same way as the replaced cable, use the
same gauge and same type of cable.
1. Remove existing cable.
2. Add a shielded and jacketed solid conductor cable to replace the original cable.
US
Note: The gauge of the shielded replacement cable must be the same as the gauge of the
original cable.
ND
3. If a change originates from a Boeing Service Bulletin, the cable type and the cable
routing will be specified in the Service Bulletin.
4. Install ground cables to the closest ground post available on the same grounding bus.
HI

Cable and Terminal Specifications
Distribution of Stress
Y
By bending the cable around the sharp corner of the terminal the oxide layer on both cable and
terminal is crushed or sheared and a clean, oxide free metal-to-metal contact is obtained.
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
Cross section through the terminal edge shows stress distribution produced in the cable
IA
wrapped with high tension around a terminal.

AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Easy Removal
Although cable wrapped connections are quick and permanent, having superior mechanical and
electrical qualities, they may be easily removed if necessary without damage to the terminal.
Y
To remove the connection an unwrapping tool is placed over the terminal, engaging the first turn
of the connection. Rotation of tool removes the connection in seconds.
EM
Quality Assurance
AD
Pull Test - consists of a stripping or removal test which is performed to check that the cable is
being wound tightly enough around the terminal.
UnwrappingTest - determines whether or not the cable is being wound to tightly around the
AC
terminal. This is done by unwrapping the cable from the terminal - if the cable breaks during the
unwrap test, it has been wound too tightly and the cable wrapping bit should be rejected.
Cable Specifications
Any good grade solid conductor with normal ductility can be used as the wrapping cablem but
N
the most common choice is tin plated copper cable. The tinning makes no difference in the
quslity of the connection but it is helpful if the connection is to be soldered later. Minimum
O
elongation of 15% is required for 24 to 32 AWG, while 20% is necessary for larger sizes.
TI
Mechanical and Electrical Stability

IA
Solderless wrapped connections have an excellent mechanical and electrical stability due to
their "Gas-tight" contact area. They remain stable through exposure to severe temperature
changes, humidity, corrosive atmospheres and vibration.
AV
The high shearing force of the cable at the corner of the terminal and high contact pressure
remove surface contamination from the cable and the terminal, producing an intimate, clean,
oxidation free, metal-to-metal contact with a large contact area. Initial pressure at the centre of
N
the contact area may go as high as 100,000 psi. After wrapping is complete, cold flow causes
pressure to drop to about 30,000 psi, where the metal stabilises and the pressure remains
TA
constant.
US
ND
HI

Hand Cable Wrapping Tool
This tool fits those applications where on-the-site, low volume wraps are required.
The type of bit is defined by the wrap it makes.
Y
The tool is available in a variety of sizes for 18 to 32 AWG cable.
EM
Standard Wrap-Only the bare cable is wrapped around the terminal.
Modified Wrap - The first ½ to 2 turns are made with insulation wrapped around the terminal.
AD
These turns are in addition to the recommended turns made with bare cable.
This type of wrap greatly increases the ability of the connection to withstand vibration and also
reduces cable breakage.
AC
Note: Plastic tools are available also.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Y
EM
AD
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Manual Unwrap
Type A
These tools have plastic handles with a spring loaded insulated sleeve for ease of cable pick-up
Y
and removal of close connections without damaging the terminal or adjacent connections.
EM
Type B
This aluminium handle tools is designed to unwrap tight matrices where a very slim profile is
required. Tool will retain cable in sleeve and remove from pin. will unwrap in both left and right
hand direction.
AD
Type C
The spiral unwrappers give clear visibility and allow delicate operator control. Handle is ¼ inch
Hex anodised aluminium.
AC
Type D
A double ended version of the Type C tool for unwrapping in both left and right hand direction.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Cable Wrapping Tools
Manual
Y
The Model 963 Manual cable Wrapping tool is a precision made tool for short production runs
by servicemen, electronic technicians and telephone installers. One squeeze of the handle and
EM
you get a quality wrapped connection. Accommodates all standard wrapping bits and sleeve.
Ten revolutions of the wrapping bit with each squeeze make fast reliable connections. The 963
offers minimum maintenance and long life.
AD
Durable lightweight model 967 also available.
A variety of bits are available for varying size of terminal posts.
AC
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI

Four Steps to a Standard Cable Wrapped Connection
There are four simple steps involved in making mechanically and electrically sound solderless
wrapped connections.
Y
Step 1
EM
Insertion of the pre-stripped cable into the cable slot of the wrapping bit.
AD
AC
Step 2
Anchoring of the cable in the notch of the wrapping sleeve.
O N
TI
IA
Step 3
Insertion of terminal into the centre hold of the wrapping bit.
AV
N
TA
Step 4
Finished wrap is achieved by activating the cable wrapping tool which rotates the wrapping bits
and wraps the cable around the terminal.
US
ND
HI

Don't Press Too Hard!
Pressing down too hard on the tool during the cable wrapping operation results in
"overwrapping", where one or more turns of cable can slip over the preceding turns. An Anti-
Backforce device is helpful in preventing overwrap.
Y
Select Proper Bit and Sleeve
The particular cable wrapping bit and sleeve selected depends among other criteria upon the
EM
size (terminal diagonal) of the terminal to be wrapped. If the terminal hole diameter of the bit is
improperly matched to the terminal diagonal, defects ranging from loose turns or deformed
cable to "pigtails" can result.
AD
Push Cable All the Way Into Cable Slot!
Improper feeding of cable into the cable slot of the bit results in insufficient turns of cable for
regular wraps or insufficient insulation turns for modified wraps.
AC
Don't Remove Tool Too Quickly!
Removal of the wrapping tool before the wrap is completed can result in "spiral" or "open"
wraps, where one turn of cable is more than .005" from another turn. "Pigtails" where the final
turn of cable is not completely wrapped are also caused by too rapid a removal of the wrapping
tool. An Anti- Backforce will help reduce this problem.
O N
TI
IA
AV
N
TA
US
ND
HI


Module 06 - Materials &amp; Hardware

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HINDUSTAN

Materials and Hardware

For Training Purposes Only

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.2

 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.

and specific examples.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.3

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.4

Identification of Steels ____________________________________________________ 27

Heat Treatment __________________________________________________________ 29

Hardening and Tempering _________________________________________________ 32

The Tensile Test _________________________________________________________ 39

The Brinell Hardness Test _________________________________________________ 45

Impact Tests ____________________________________________________________ 49

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.5

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.6

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.7

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.8

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.9

without cracking. It should NOT be confused with ductility.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.10

confused with strength and rigid materials are often brittle.

within a given time, Copper is a good example,

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.11

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.12

Modern Iron Production

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.13

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.14

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.15

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.16

to the industrial revolution.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.17

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.18

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.19

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.20

Plain Carbon Steel

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.21

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.22

The most common of these alloying metals are:

• Prevents grain growth - used in case hardening steels.

• Increases hardness and strength.

connecting rods and similar applications

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.23

• Increases strength, toughness, shock and wear resistance.

• Increases tensile strength and elastic limit.

• Used in the production of cutting tool materials.

Molybdenum - percentage required is very low

• Increases resistance to creep at high temperatures.

• Improves heat and wear resistance.

make many engine parts.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.24

Molybdenum in small percentages is used in combination with chromium form chrome-molybdenum

into finished components. Maraging steel overcomes these problems.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.25

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.26

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.27

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.28

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.29

tempering and surface hardening.

heated throughout and thus soaking time varies.

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.30

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.31

Module 6.1 Ferrous Metals 1.32

Module 06 - Materials & Hardware

Module 06 - Materials & Hardware