Topic 2: Highway

Pavement Structure
Transportation & Highway
Engineering
Dr. Zhen LENG
Associate Professor
Spring 2022
 Contents
❑ Definition and Types of Pavement
❑ Flexible Pavements
❑ Rigid Pavements
❑ Comparison between Flexible and Rigid
Pavements

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 What is Pavement?
❑ A layer or layers of compacted material designed to
withstand the stresses applied by vehicle wheel
loads and provide a smooth riding surface.

Layered Structure

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 Pavement Types
❑ Flexible Pavement ❑ Rigid Pavement
❑ Bituminous Pavement ❑ Concrete Pavement
❑ Asphalt Pavement

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Flexible Pavements

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 Flexible Pavements
❑ Also known as, bituminous pavements or
asphalt pavements.
❑ Composed of compacted stone beneath a
bituminous surfacing.

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Flexible Pavement Structure in HK
❑ Flexible Pavement in Hong Kong consists of three
main layers: bituminous surface, roadbase and
sub-base. The surfacing layer is generally sub-
divided into a wearing course and a base course
laid separately.
Wearing Course (WC) Bituminous
Base Course (BC) Surfacing

Roadbase (RB)

Sub-base

Subgrade

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 Functions of Each Layer
❑ Wearing Course: provides a uniform running
surfacing whose roughness and texture ensure
adequate resistance to skidding. Usually, it is
impervious to prevent water penetrating into the
pavement structure and destroying its stability. It
must be capable of carrying the high stresses
induced by traffic without deformation.
❑ Base Course: provides a good regulating layer on
which to construct a wearing course that will give
good riding quality. It also contributes to the structural
strength of the pavement. Occasionally, the wearing
& base courses are combined in a single layer.
❑ Roadbase: the main structural layer in the flexible
pavement. Its purpose is to distribute traffic loads so
that the stresses and strains developed in the
subgrade and the sub-base are within the capacity of
the material of these two layers.

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Functions of Each Layer (Cont’d)
❑ Sub-base: is also a load-distributing layer
but of weaker material than the roadbase.
In addition to reducing the stresses and
strains in the subgrade, the sub-base may
act as a cut-off blanket to prevent moisture
and subgrade material from migrating
upward from the subgrade and may also
provide a suitable platform on which to
construct the upper layers of the pavement.
❑ Subgrade: defined as the prepared and
compacted top surface of a road bed on
which the pavement structure is
constructed. Generally, top 0.5 m portion of
the soil foundation is denoted as subgrade

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 Bituminous Materials for Flexible
Pavements
❑ Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA): a combination of aggregate
and asphalt binder mixed together at elevated
temperatures that forms a hard, strong construction
material when cooled to surrounding temperatures.

Liquefied when heated Mix

HMA Compact

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 Bituminous Materials for Flexible
Pavements
❑ HMA is also known by other names, such as
asphalt concrete (AC), and asphalt mixture.
❑ HMA Types:
▪ Dense-graded HMA (most traditional)
▪ Gap-graded stone mastic asphalt (SMA)
▪ Open-graded HMA

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Aggregate Distributions of HMA

Open-graded

Dense-graded SMA
(Gap-graded)

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 Typical Aggregate Gradations
❑ Gradation: the particle size distribution of an
aggregate as determined by sieve analysis

Sieve Analysis

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 Dense-Graded Mixes
❑ A well-graded or continuously graded HMA
mixture intended for general use. When properly
designed and constructed, a dense-graded mix
is relatively impermeable.
❑ Purpose: dense-graded mixes are suitable for all
pavement layers and for all traffic conditions.
They work well for structural, friction, leveling
and patching needs.
❑ Materials: Well-graded or continuously graded
aggregates, and asphalt binder (with or without
modifiers).

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 Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) Mixes
❑ A gap-graded (or discontinuously graded) HMA that is designed
to maximize deformation resistance and durability by using a
structural basis of stone-on-stone contact.
❑ SMA is generally more expensive than a typical dense-graded
HMA (about 20-25%). In the right situations it should be cost-
effective because of its increased rut resistance and improved
durability.
❑ Purpose: provide improved rut resistance and durability.
Therefore, SMA is almost exclusively used for surface courses on
high traffic volume roads or at intersections with heavy traffic.
❑ Materials: gap-graded aggregate (usually from coarse aggregate,
manufactured sands and mineral filler), asphalt binder (typically
with a modifier for increasing viscosity).

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SMA Mixes (Cont’d)

Dense-graded HMA vs. SMA

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 Open-Graded Mixes
❑ An open-graded HMA mixture is designed to have
large air void content and be water permeable (dense-
graded and SMA mixes usually are not permeable).
❑ Open-graded mixes use only crushed stone (or
gravel) and a small percentage of manufactured
sands (i.e., fines and small particles).
▪ Open-Graded Friction Course (OGFC): typically 15% air
voids, lower aggregate standards than Porous Asphalt (PA)
mixes.
▪ Porous Asphalt (PA) Mixes : typically 18-22% air voids, higher
aggregate standards than OGFC and requires the use of
asphalt binder modifiers.

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 Open-Graded Mixes (Cont’d)
❑ Purpose: OGFC and PA are used in surface courses
only. They reduce tire splash/spray in wet weather
and typically result in smoother surfaces than
dense-graded HMA. Their high air voids help to
reduce tyre-road noise by up to 50%.

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 Comparison between Mixtures
Aggregate
Mix Type Permeability Layers Function
Gradation
Well-graded with Water resistance
Dense- Not
aggregate in all All layers and support
Graded permeable
different sizes traffic loading
Only a small
SMA
percentage of Not Surface
(Gap- Reduce rutting
aggregate particles permeable layer
Graded)
in the middle range
Only a small
Reduce tire
Open- percentage of Surface
Permeable splash/spray and
Graded aggregate particles layer
tire-road noise
in the small range

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Emerging Sustainable Paving Materials
❑ Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
❑ Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)

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 Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
❑ Warm-mix asphalt (WMA) refers to those
mixtures which can be produced at lower
temperatures compared to HMA
▪ HMA: 140 to 177 oC
▪ WMA: 100 to 135 oC

Warm Mix Asphalt Hot Mix Asphalt

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 WMA Technologies
❑ Organic Additives (Wax-type material)
▪ Decrease the viscosity of asphalt
❑ Chemical Additives (Usually in liquid form)
▪ Decrease the interface friction between asphalt
and aggregate
❑ Foaming Additives/Technology
▪ Make hot asphalt in contact with cold water, the
cold water will become stream and expand,
therefore reducing the viscosity of asphalt

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 Benefits of WMA
❑ Reduced Fuel Usage
▪ 11-35% energy fuel savings
❑ Reduced Emission
▪ 30-40% CO2, SO2
▪ 50% VOC (Volatile Organic
Warm Mix Asphalt
Compounds)
▪ 10-30% CO
❑ Safer Working Environment for
the Workers

Hot Mix Asphalt

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 Current WMA Challenges
❑ Potential Moisture Damage
❑ Possible Higher Construction Cost

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Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)
❑ RAP is typically generated by
rehabilitation or
reconstruction projects and
can be used in a variety of
ways such as:
▪ As an addition to regular HMA.
▪ As a granular base course when
pulverized (grinded to powder).
▪ As a fill or embankment material
for foundation soil (site
formation).

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 Recycled Hot Mix (RHM)
❑ Recycled hot mix (RHM) is the most common
way of using RAP.
▪ Basically, new HMA is produced at an asphalt plant to
which a predetermined percentage of RAP is added.
❑ RAP addition is typically 10 to 30% by weight
although additions as high as 80% by weight
have been done and additions as high as 90 to
100% by weight are feasible (FHWA, 2001).
❑ When high amount (>30%) of RAP is used, a
rejuvenator or a softer binder is typically used.

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 Benefits of RAP
❑ Conservation of landfill space
❑ Conservation of virgin materials - aggregates
and asphalt binders
❑ Reduces or eliminates landfill disposal fees
❑ Reduces virgin material purchase costs over
that of pavement consisting entirely of virgin
materials.

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Rigid Pavements

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 Rigid Pavements
❑ Also known as concrete pavements.
❑ Composed of reinforced or plain
(unreinforced) concrete slabs laid on the soil
or on a shallow granular bed.

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 Materials for Rigid Pavements
❑ Portland Cement Concrete (PCC): a combination
of aggregate, water and Portland cement to form a
hard, strong construction material when set.
❑ PCC is known by several names including
"cement" and "concrete".

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 Types of Rigid Pavements

JPCP JRCP
Jointed Plain Concrete Jointed Reinforced
Pavement Concrete Pavement

CRCP
Continuously
Reinforced Concrete
Pavement

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Typical Rigid Pavement Structure in
Hong Kong
❑ Rigid Pavements in HK mainly consist of two
layers, the concrete slab and the sub-base.
❑ Most concrete pavements in HK are JRCP
Mesh
reinforcement

Separation
membrane

Subgrade
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 Functions of Each Layer
❑ Concrete Slab: Used as the running surface of roads which
must meet the minimum strength requirement.
❑ Sub-base: The function of a sub-base in a rigid pavement is not
so much to increase the structural stability of the pavement but
to counteract or correct unsatisfactory subgrade conditions
which could lead to non-uniform support for the concrete slab.
Particular instance where sub-base is used to provide uniform,
stable and permanent support to the concrete slab.
▪ Usually, unbound crushed stones are used in sub-base. But lean
concrete and soil cement are also sometimes used.

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 Separation Membrane
❑ Material: normally polythene (plastic
material) sheet
❑ Purposes:
▪ Reduction of the friction between the concrete
slab and the sub-base.
▪ Prevent the loss of fine into a porous sub-base.

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 Joints
❑ Joints are the deliberate planes of weakness
inserted into the concrete pavement.
❑ The purposes of installing joints in road slab are
generally as follows:
▪ To permit contraction and expansion of the concrete
under the action of temperature and moisture
changes.
▪ To allow warping and curling (twisting or angular)
movements due to moisture and temperature variation
between opposite surfaces of the slab.
▪ To prevent unsightly irregular breaking of the
pavement.
▪ As a construction expedient to allow for breaking in
construction at the end of the day's work.

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 Question?
❑ During the day time, is the concrete slab
surface in tension or compression under the
combined effects of vehicle loading and
temperature curling?

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 Joint Types
❑ According to their directions,
Traffic
joints can be divided into the Direction
following types: Slab
▪ Longitudinal Joints: parallel to the
centre line of the road.
▪ Transverse Joints: perpendicular to
the centre line of the road.

Longitudinal joint

Reinforcement

Traffic Transverse joint

Direction

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 Joint Types (Cont’d)
❑ According to their functions , joints can be
classified into the following categories :
▪ Expansion Joints (Transverse)
▪ Contraction Joints (Transverse)
▪ Warping Joints (Longitudinal/Transverse)
▪ Construction Joints (Longitudinal/Transverse)
❑ The number of joints should be kept to the
minimum as far as possible, because the
construction of joints involves a considerable
amount of extra work and is reliable to interfere
with the progress of work (concreting).

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 Expansion Joints
❑ Designed to provide space in the concrete to allow for the expansion
of the slab when the temperature rises above the temperature at
which the concrete was laid.
❑ Expansion joints can help preventing the development of very high
compressive stresses (due to expansion), which can cause the
pavement to buckle or blow up.

❑ These joints can also be used to isolate pavement intersections and

to isolate structures on the pavement.

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 Expansion Joints (Cont’d)
Filler Sealer

Expansion cap partly

filled with cotton

Dowel bars (painted and greased this

❑ Joint Filler end)
▪ Elastic, compressible material without extruding; durable,
sufficiently rigid to facilitate its support during construction.
Example materials for joint filler are fibreboard or cork.
❑ Joint Sealer
▪ Good adhesion to concrete, sufficient resistance to traffic flow,
prevent the ingress of stone grit and water. Example materials
for joint filler are rubber-bitumen compound (hot-poured) or
neoprene strips.
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 Dowel Bars

No dowel bar: zero load transfer efficiency

With dowel bar: improved load transfer efficiency

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 Pumping
❑ When free water gets into boundaries
between the structural layers of the
pavement, each heavy load impact causes
water to move above the interface. Material
such as silt (mud sand) is voided and ejected
out through cracks and joints, producing
channels.

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 Pumping
Direction of
Traffic
Approach Leave
Hydrostatic
Free Water or Water Jet
Pressure

Direction of
Traffic
Approach Leave
Water is Violently Displaced
Carrying Suspended Fines
Pumping

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 Contraction Joints
❑ Designed to prevent on the tension cracking of the
pavement when the pavement contracts due to
shrinkage caused by curing, decrease in moisture
content, or a temperature drop.
Induce the crack by the groove on
the top

Paint and grease Bond with

dowel Concrete

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 Warping Joints
❑ These joints are simply breaks in the continuity of
the concrete which allow a small amount of angular
movement to occur between adjacent slabs.
❑ These joints prevent excessively high stresses due
to restrained warping and curling. The main purpose
of warping joints is for longitudinal jointing.

Tie Bar

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 Construction Joints
❑ These joints are required to facilitate the
construction operations. They are formed when
construction work is unexpected interrupted, e.g.
mechanical break down or bad weather.
❑ These joints are also provided as transverse
joints at the end of each day's work and at other
points where placing of concrete is discontinued.

Paint and grease dowel

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 Spacing of Joint

35.0
Spacing of joint (m)

27.5

21.0

16.5

2.61 3.41 4.34 5.55

Weight of reinforcement (kg/m2)

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 Size of Dowel Bar
Required Pavement Dowel Bar
Depth, mm Diameter, mm

150 - 170 20
180 - 190 25
200 - 270 30
≥280 40

Note: Dowel bar spacing should be 300mm.

Dowel bar length should be 450mm.

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 Requirement of A Good Joint
1. A joint must be waterproof at all times.
2. A joint should not be permitted ingress of stone
grits.
3. A joint must be permitted to move freely at all
times.
4. A joint should not detract from the riding
quality of a carriageway.
5. A joint should interfere as little as possible in
concreting.
6. A joint should not be the cause of an
unexpected structural weakness in a pavement.

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 Comparison between
Rigid Pavement & Flexible Pavement
RIGID PAVEMENT
1.Only concrete slab and sub-
base.
2.Able to bridge over localized
area of inadequate support.
3.Structural capacity from flexural
strength of concrete slab.
4.CBR of sub-grade not so
critical, load over a wide area of
sub-grade.
5.Tendency to develop surface
glaring under sun.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
1.Multi-layers, highest quality
material on top.
2.Reflects the deformation of sub-
grade and subsequent layers on
surface.
3.Stability depends on aggregate
interlock, friction and cohesion.
4.Design greatly influenced by sub-
grade CBR (California Bearing
ratio).
5.Under extreme heat, liable to
become soft and creep.
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Comparison between Rigid Pavement
& Flexible Pavement (Cont’d)
RIGID PAVEMENT
6. Joints are vulnerable.
7. Higher initial cost.
Lower maintenance cost.
8. Not easily repairable.
Expensive for utility work
after pavement laid.
9. Surface more durable.
Better visibility at night.
10. Long curing period.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
6. No jointing problem.
7. Cheaper initial cost but
higher maintenance cost.
8. Easily repairable.
Convenient for utility
works.
9. Surface more pleasing.
Usually less noisy.
10. Can be opened to traffic
immediately.
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 Composite Pavements
❑ The FHWA (Federal Highway Administration, USA)
also identifies a third type of pavement, called a
Composite Pavement.
❑ Composite pavements are combination of HMA and
PCC pavements.

HMA Overlay on top of PCC PCC Overlay on top of HMA

Also Known as White Topping

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