Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102135

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser

Does self-esteem matter? A framework depicting role of self-esteem

between dispositional mindfulness and impulsive buying
Tavleen Kaur Dhandra *
1 Chungdae-ro, Seowon-gu, Cheongju, 28644, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: There is a continuum from ordinary to excessive impulsive buying tendencies (IBT), and low self-esteem appears
Dispositional mindfulness to be one of the major underlying motivators of this behavior that needs to be explored and controlled. Based on
Impulsive buying tendency the results of two independent studies, the present study makes a novel attempt to demonstrate the possible
Impulsive buying behavior
relation between mindfulness, self-esteem, IBT and impulse buying behavior. The present work emphasize on the
Self-esteem
beneficial effects of mindfulness in enhancing self-esteem, which can curb impulsive tendencies and behavior.
The effect of mindfulness on self-esteem and IBT is corroborated with two studies (n ¼ 344/n ¼ 328). The results
from study 1 revealed that dispositional mindfulness (measured with Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Sca­
le–Revised scale) is related to IBT through self-esteem. The study 2 using serial mediation demonstrates that
dispositional mindfulness (measured using Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale) relates to impulsive buying
behavior through self-esteem and IBT. The findings of the present study highlight the importance of self-esteem
in the relationship between mindfulness and impulse buying. This research offers a framework that can enable
individuals to control their sudden urge to make impulsive purchases, using the positive effects of mindfulness
and enhanced self-esteem.

1. Introduction
Impulsive buying is related to unplanned and sudden purchases. The
tendency to buy on an impulse is often centered on the occurrence of an
immediate stimulus object and is frequently associated with the feelings
of pleasure and excitement or a strong urge to buy (Rook, 1987). It is
regarded as an irresistible, less deliberate and more arousing buying
behavior in contrast to a planned consumption behavior. Impulsive
buying behavior has been associated with dispositional negative affect
and several negative outcomes in different fields including social re­
actions, post-purchase satisfaction, personal finance, and overall
self-esteem (Rook, 1987; Verplanken et al., 2005). Kacen and Lee (2002)
have explained impulse buying behavior as a spontaneous purchase
portrayed by a moderately speedy decision-making and a subjective
predisposition for having an instant possession of the goods. Hausman
(2000) considers impulse buying as an ‘enigma within the marketing
world’ because it is believed to be normatively wrong; yet, it accounts
for a huge percentage of retail sales internationally.
Individuals with greater tendency to buy on impulse are more prone
to get attracted and act on the sudden urges and buy impulsively (Beatty
and Ferrell, 1998). Impulsive buying tendency (IBT) is an internal trait
experienced by the consumers, a general stable tendency rooted in
personality and a tendency “to buy spontaneously, unreflectively,
immediately, and kinetically” (Rook and Fisher, 1995; Verplanken and
Herabadi, 2001; Verplanken and Sato, 2011). This is one of the critical
components in activating buyers into impulse buying (Beatty and Fer­
rell, 1998). Although impulsive buying is repeatedly assessed in the
context of a shopping environment, there is a convincing evidence for
chronic individual differences and personality characteristics in con­
sumer’s proclivity to purchase on an impulse (Dittmar and Drury, 2000;
Hausman, 2000; Olsen et al., 2016; Thompson and Prendergast, 2015;
Verplanken and Herabadi, 2001). Dholakia (2000, pg.956) stated,
“impulsive consumption behaviors are preceded by distinct psycholog­
ical processes”. It is argued that buying on impulse is a hedonic need
mainly stimulated by attainment of higher order needs roughly classi­
fied in Maslow’s “hierarchy of needs” (Hausman, 2000). Attempts made
to satisfy those higher order needs in the hierarchy results into varying
forms of impulsive buying decisions or behavior. For example, the
sudden urge to buy something emanated from thoughts such as
self-discrepancy (Verplanken and Sato, 2011), or a strong urge to bolster

* Earlier at College of Business, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, South Korea.

E-mail address: tavleendhandra@gmail.com.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102135
Received 4 December 2019; Received in revised form 9 March 2020; Accepted 17 April 2020
0969-6989/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T.K. Dhandra
self-image (Dittmar and Drury, 2000) results from the need to boost
self-esteem.
Extensive research has been conducted on the topic of impulsive
buying (Iyer et al., 2019; Punj, 2011), but the subject of impulsive
buying tendency and impulse buying behavior has not been examined
much in relation to self-esteem. A few studies have been conducted
which indicate a link between self-esteem and impulsivity. The existing
studies demonstrated a negative association between self-esteem and
impulse buying (Verplanken et al., 2005) but did not explore it fully.
This issue holds great importance because it is known that many in­
dividuals buy impulsively to obtain a level of self-expression and social
ties through shopping (Bayley and Nancarrow, 1998). Dittmar et al.
(1996) stated that the consumption and purchase of products has
become a way of obtaining and expressing a sense of self-identity. Such
purchases may range from small to substantially large and most often
lead to problems such as financial difficulties, or negative feelings such
as guilt or disappointment.
Previous research has identified that individual differences in
dispositional mindfulness, that is the predisposition of individuals to be
mindful (aware of the present moment) in their daily life where some
may be different from others, can play an important role in limiting
impulsive attitudes (Armstrong, 2011; Park and Dhandra, 2017; Papies
et al., 2012; Papies et al., 2015). Park and Dhandra (2017) demonstrated
that dispositional mindfulness relates negatively with impulsive buying
tendency through the mediating effect of use of emotion, regulation of
emotion and self-emotion appraisal dimensions of emotional intelli­
gence. In an experimental study, Papies et al. (2012) suggested that
mindfulness is potentially a powerful tool that helps control impulsive
responses. Moreover, mindfulness is also found to be associated with
positive self-esteem (Pepping, O’Donovan and Davis, 2013; Randal
et al., 2015). In two different studies, Pepping et al. (2013) demon­
strated that mindfulness is positively related to self-esteem, and that
mindfulness practice has direct effects on self-esteem. Therefore, this
study proposes a framework by using mindfulness as an antecedent to
impulsive buying behavior and identifies several mediating mechanisms
including self-esteem and impulsive buying tendency.
The objective of the present research is twofold. First, the research is
conducted to replicate and extend, using different methods and outcome
measures (i.e., IBT and impulse buying behavior), the previous rela­
tionship found between dispositional mindfulness and impulse buying.
Second, the study aims to take a step further by presenting a new psy­
chological factor that will possibly play a crucial part in the relationship
between mindfulness and impulse buying. Particularly, it is assumed
that dispositional mindfulness might be associated with impulse buying
through self-esteem. Papies et al. (2012) postulated that creating met­
acognitive insight into an individual’s impulsive responses as transient
mental events may disrupt impulsive responses. Recognizing those fac­
ets of mindfulness that are capable of fostering a sense of self-worth, or
help in achieving one’s self-actualization needs could then be beneficial
in addressing issues related to impulsive buying from a psychological
point of view. In the present research, it is argued that the negative
relationship between dispositional mindfulness and impulse buying is
rooted in a positive self-esteem. There is a lot of importance in exam­
ining whether (and how) these factors relate to each other. Moreover, it
is vital to understand the mechanism underlying the relationship that
has been previously proposed in literature.
2. Literature review
2.1. Mindfulness and impulse buying
Mindfulness is defined as “a non-elaborative, non-judgmental,
present-centered awareness in which each thought, feeling or sensation
that arises in the attentional field is acknowledged and accepted as it is”
(Kabat-Zinn, 1994). Mindfulness is also referred to as “an enhanced
attention, awareness, and acceptance of the present moment” (Brown
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102135
and Ryan, 2003). The essence of mindfulness is the art of paying
attention which generates greater clarity, more awareness, and accep­
tance of present-moment. Particularly, mindfulness involves a
non-judgment awareness and acceptance of one’s moment-to-moment
experience. It is a process through which individuals “go about deep­
ening their attention and awareness, refining and putting them to
greater practical use in their lives” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). The development
of mindfulness builds up an individual’s capacity to be available, to be
mindful of what is going around, to notice the surge of
moment-to-moment change and to create more deliberate decisions, by
not being reactionary or ruled by any careless tendency, pattern, or
reaction (Ward, 2014). Previous research demonstrates the beneficial
effects of mindfulness in enhancing emotional stability, self-esteem,
reducing impulsive reactions or tendency to buy on impulse, reduction
in reactivity to emotional stimuli, and reducing compulsive buying
(Armstrong, 2011; Brown and Ryan, 2003; Rasmussen and Pidgeon,
2011; Peters et al., 2011; Papies et al., 2012; Park and Dhandra, 2017).
A prior study has examined and found that mindfulness relates
negatively to IBT through emotional intelligence (Park and Dhandra,
2017). It was suggested that mindful individuals have the ability to
control and use their emotions, and not get carried away by the feelings
of pleasure, anxiety that lead to impulsive buying tendencies. The
impact of impulse buying stresses on the characteristic features of the
individuals, which makes them more or less prone to engage in impul­
sive behavior. These comprise of one’s personality, one’s state of mood,
and various situational factors like proximity and reduction in resources
required for self-control (Baumeister, 2002; Darrat et al., 2016; Rook,
1987; Sharma et al., 2010; Verplanken and Herabadi, 2001; Verplanken
et al., 2005). Individuals having low self-control are more careless,
reckless, unstructured, impulsive and less likely to plan their activities. It
is suggested that individuals having low mental, emotional and atten­
tional self-control are more likely to engage in impulse buying (Vohs and
Faber, 2003). These individuals often pay little or no attention to the
possible negative outcomes that might arise due to their actions (Rook,
1987; O’Guinn and Faber, 1989). Fenton-O’Creevy et al. (2018) postu­
lated that impulsive buying is due to failure of self-regulation in relation
to one’s long-term goals and as an approach for mood regulation.
Mindfulness involves adoption of a particular orientation towards one’s
experiences and self-regulation of attention (Bishop et al., 2004). It in­
volves both the capability to attach one’s attention on what is happening
at the present and the capability to deliberately shift attention from one
side of the experience to other. In this vein, mindfulness helps in­
dividuals to consider the consequences of their consumption and make
deliberate-conscious choices and behave in a well-thought out manner
(Rosenberg, 2004). Armstrong (2011) examined the association be­
tween mindfulness and compulsive buying, and found that mindfulness
intervention generates awareness and restrains the factors that enhance
compulsive buying behavior. It was postulated that mindfulness in­
creases awareness, enables individuals to control the urge to engage in a
purchase decision, enhances self-regulation, and allows individuals to
choose their thoughts or behaviors consciously.
The cultivation of mindfulness precludes impulsive thoughts and
behavior through the maintenance of attention on present moment and
the qualities of acceptance, openness and curiosity. In a recent study, it
was found that mindfulness-based transformational learning in mar­
keting education showed a positive impact in terms of increasing stu­
dents’ mindfulness level and lessening their impulse-buying tendency
(Sermboonsang et al., 2019). It can be implied that individuals with
greater mindfulness have lower impulsive buying tendencies and ulti­
mately lower engagement in impulsive behaviors. In another study, it
was demonstrated that mindful attention results into a mindset that
reduces impulsive responses to food (Papies et al., 2012). Mindfulness
involves maintaining a non-judgmental attitude towards the
moment-to-moment unfolding of one’s experience. Adopting an attitude
of non-judgment and attending on purpose with openness allows an
individual to be less reactive and more acceptable of the present
T.K. Dhandra
experiences (Shapiro et al., 2006) thereby resulting in greater
self-control (Lakey et al., 2007) and lesser tendency to buy on impulse.
Previous studies have presented benefits of mindfulness on increased
awareness of individual’s moods and emotions, reduction in stress and
anxiety, therapeutic effect on depression and increase in individuals’
self-control (Baer et al., 2006; Bajaj et al., 2016; Brown and Ryan, 2003).
Instead of being absorbed by the events of one’s life, mindfulness en­
ables individuals to observe those events more objectively and can have
a controlling or inhibiting effect on impulsive tendency.
2.2. Self-esteem as a mediator
Self-esteem, which is characterized as one’s overall feeling of self-
worth (Rosenberg, 1965), is related to positive psychological out­
comes that include pro-social conduct, positive emotion, and psycho­
logical adjustment (Leary and MacDonald, 2003) and negative
constructs, including depression, and anxiety (Bajaj et al., 2016).
Accordingly, it is considered as an important construct that could be
improved by applying carefully designed interventions (Robins et al.,
2012). Self-esteem influences individual’s perceptions about different
events and situations as well as cognitive appraisals and responses under
a variety of circumstances that include stress to lesser or greater extent
(Cannella et al., 2007). It emerges as an important factor for psycho­
social well-being through the modulation of personal goals, aspirations,
motives and social exchanges (Lakey and Scoboria, 2005).
Previous researchers imply that impulse buying is a means to elate
unpleasant psychological conditions (Baumeister, 2002; Darrat et al.,
2016) and stress on the compulsive side of the impulsive consumption
(Dittmar and Drury, 2000; O’Guinn and Faber, 1989). Rook and Gardner
(1993) demonstrated the relationship between impulsive buying and
positive - negative mood states. Impulsive buying functions as a
self-regulatory mechanism with an intention to lessen the negative
feelings, specifically when those feelings have a basic structure for
example low self-esteem or inability to meet the valued standards
(Verplanken et al., 2005). O’Guinn and Faber (1989) showed that im­
pulse buying serves as an escape from negative psychological states like
low self-esteem. Thus, lower levels of self-esteem result into psycho­
logical stress among individuals, and with the intention to escape from
such negative feelings of low esteem individuals engage in impulse
buying of products valued by others. In such a situation, the product acts
as a stimulus and individual with low self-esteem feels an uncontrollable
urge to buy the product with compensatory properties. Such individuals
are weakened with a feeling of self-inadequacy that induces stress and
emotional vulnerability. Gifford (2002) suggested that individuals with
emotional vulnerability have lower self-control and are impulsive in
nature. Furthermore, Verplanken et al. (2005) assert that low
self-esteem is possibly an influential source among the different forms of
negative psychological states that leads to the usage of impulse buying
as a basis of psychological relief.
Self-esteem can also be described as an awareness and acknowl­
edgment of one’s intrinsic strengths and positive qualities. The aware­
ness and positive description of oneself can be enhanced through
mindfulness as it guides individuals to focus their attention on present
experiences instead of on the negative thoughts related to the self.
Previous studies have demonstrated the positive association between
mindfulness and self-esteem (Brown and Ryan, 2003; Pepping et al.,
2013; Rasmussen and Pidgeon, 2011; Randal et al., 2015; Thompson and
Waltz, 2008). Mindfulness allows an individual to surpass the negative
thoughts and beliefs that represent low self-esteem and focus the
attention on the immediate experiences with a non-judgmental attitude
(Pepping et al., 2013). Mindfulness involves a non-judgmental, non-re­
active and open attitude towards thoughts, emotions and experiences
(Baer et al., 2006) and this could result in lowering one’s judgmental
and critical attitude towards oneself. Mindfulness training increases
metacognitive awareness, which is the capability to re-perceive or de­
center from one’s own thoughts and emotions, and consider them as
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102135
transient mental events instead of identifying with those thoughts or
believing them to be exact representations of reality (Shapiro et al.,
2006). An increased metacognitive awareness leads to reduction in re­
petitive negative thinking, which has been regarded as a risk factor for
low self-esteem.
3. The present study
The previous literature and above rationale imply that mindfulness is
positively related to self-esteem (Brown and Ryan, 2003; Pepping et al.,
2013; Randal et al., 2015) and self-esteem has a negative relation with
impulsive buying (Verplanken et al., 2005). Therefore, basing on these
studies, it is expected that trait mindfulness will be related to IBT
through self-esteem. Specifically, it is hypothesized that higher levels of
dispositional mindfulness are related to lower IBT through greater
self-esteem. It is also expected that individuals scoring greater on trait
mindfulness report higher on levels of self-esteem and lower on levels of
IBT and impulsive buying behavior (IBB). This topic remains as a
moderately unexplored yet interesting aspect for academic research
with an ability to contribute extensively in the domain of personality
and consumer behavior. The present research offers a framework, using
a psychological factor namely mindfulness, that depicts that consumers
with high mindfulness may be less prone to impulse buying as the un­
inhibited urge to buy impulsively is controlled by mindfulness and
positive self-esteem.
Two studies were carried out to examine the proposed relationships.
In study 1, a survey is administered with a sample across educational
institutions to examine the association between dispositional mindful­
ness, self-esteem, and IBT. Once these relationships were established,
study 2 is devised to replicate the results of study 1 and check whether
the results extend to IBB. Thus, in study 2, relationship between trait
mindfulness and IBB is measured through self-esteem and IBT. More­
over, both the studies differ in the measurement of trait mindfulness.
Study 1 uses Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-
r) and study 2 utilizes the popular Mindful attention and awareness scale
(MAAS).
Mindfulness has been considered as a single facet or multi-facet
construct that can be researched at different levels (i.e. training, prac­
tice, trait or dispositional, state) and the scale approach has certain
limitations and is far from being exhaustive. Nevertheless, it is believed
that the combination of two mindfulness scales can provide sufficient
support in the findings and is suitable for the purpose of the present
research. Furthermore, to extend the association between dispositional
mindfulness and impulsive buying, two different measures were used to
measure IBT and IBB: (a) a combination of IBT scales and (b) an impulse
buying situation where participants chose among different options. The
present study is formulated based on the following hypothesis:
(1) mindfulness will be negatively related to IBT and IBB;
(2) mindfulness will be positively related to self-esteem;
(3) self-esteem will be negatively related to IBT and IBB; and
(4) self-esteem will mediate the association between mindfulness and
IBT.
(5) IBT and self-esteem will mediate the association between mind­
fulness and IBB (Study 2)
Statistical Analysis: The data was analyzed using cluster analysis and
ANOVA to determine whether participants with higher trait mindfulness
report higher on self-esteem and lower on IBT and IBB. Next, to
comprehend the process underlying the relationships between the con­
structs studied in the research (i.e. mindfulness, self-esteem, IBT and
IBB) the PROCESS macro for SPSS was used to test the mediation hy­
pothesis (Hayes, 2017). In the study, a two-step clustering procedure
was adopted, where, first a hierarchical cluster analysis was performed
to classify the appropriate number of clusters, and then a K-means
cluster analysis was performed to provide more detailed information on
T.K. Dhandra
the cluster membership. When there is no proper criterion, it is recom­
mended to perform a trail process that computes a number of cluster
solutions (Hair et al., 1998). The decision regarding the clusters is then
centered on a priori criteria, theoretical foundations and practical
judgment (Hair et al., 1998).
4. Study 1
Study 1 provides initial support for the relation between mindfulness
and IBT through self-esteem. The study also aims to examine whether
individuals with greater mindfulness report higher levels of self-esteem
and lower levels of IBT than those with lower trait mindfulness.
4.1. Method
4.1.1. Participants and procedure
A total of three hundred and forty-four participants (females ¼
52.03% and males ¼ 47.97%), with the mean age of 27.75 (SD ¼ 11.19),
from different universities and educational institutions of India vol­
unteered to participate in this study. The participants completed the
survey questionnaires voluntarily and anonymously after reading an
explanatory statement that briefly summarized the aim of the study. No
benefits in terms of incentives or remuneration were provided to the
participants.
4.1.2. Measurement of constructs
Mindfulness: Dispositional mindfulness was assessed using Cognitive
and Affective Mindfulness Scale–Revised (CAMS–R) developed by
Feldman et al. (2007). The scale was used to measure dispositional
mindfulness as this scale adequately evaluates the four components of
mindfulness, namely, attention, awareness, present-focus, and non-
judgment. Participants rated the extent to which they (dis) agreed
with the different statements representing mindfulness, such as ‘It is
easy for me to concentrate on what I am doing’, ‘I can accept things I
cannot change’. The ratings were made on a 5-point scale with 1 ¼
strongly disagree and 5 ¼ strongly agree. CAMS–R has shown excellent
reliability in previous studies and has been used extensively (Park and
Dhandra, 2017; Feldman et al., 2007).
Self-Esteem: Self-esteem of the participants was measured using
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965). This scale as­
sesses overall self-worth by determining both negative and positive
feelings related to the self. The self-esteem scale consists of 10 items and
is regarded as an uni-dimensional construct. The participants indicated
their extent of (dis) agreement on a 5-point scale (1 ¼ strongly disagree;
5 ¼ strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater self-esteem.
The scale includes items like “I am able to do things as well as most
other people” and “I take a positive attitude toward myself.”
IBT: Tendency to buy on impulse was computed using a 4-item scale
by combining items from previous IBT scales developed by Rook and
Fisher (1995) and Verplanken and Herabadi (2001). Previously
Thompson and Prendergast (2015) combined two scales for the purpose
of their research. They claimed that the affective dimension of Ver­
planken and Herabadi (2001) impulsive buying scale only measures the
feelings of pleasure or excitement and guilt that are more likely to be the
consequences of impulse buying and less of internal factors. The four
items utilized to measure participant’s tendency to buy on impulse in­
cludes ‘I carefully plan most of my purchases, I usually only buy things
that I intend to buy, before I buy something I always carefully consider
whether I need it, I usually think carefully before I buy something’. The
participants indicated the extent to which they (dis) agree on a 5-point
scale, with higher scores showing higher levels of IBT.
4.2. Results
Table 1 summarizes means, SDs, intercorelations and reliabilities
among the measures. A review of the correlation matrix reveals that
4
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102135
mindfulness was positively correlated to self-esteem and negatively
correlated with IBT. Self-esteem was also negatively correlated with IBT.
An initial hierarchical cluster analysis, when applied to the data,
displayed the number of clusters varying from two to three. Based on the
results, a two-cluster configuration was considered appropriate because
the sample sizes were better than the three-cluster version and consid­
erably enough to indicate the possibility of differences in trait mind­
fulness. The mindfulness clusters formed by employing K-means cluster
analysis were found to be statistically different from each other, F (1,
344) ¼ 644.653, p < .001. The resulting clusters were named as (1)
“high mindfulness” (55.20% of total, n ¼ 191), and (2) “low mindful­
ness” (44.79% of total, n ¼ 155). The group with high mindfulness
scored higher on mindfulness (M ¼ 3.84, S.D. ¼ 0.40) as compared to the
group with low mindfulness which scored lower (M ¼ 2.71, S.D. ¼ 0.41)
on mindfulness.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to examine if there were
differences among individuals in their tendency to buy on impulse.
Interestingly, the results revealed significant differences among the two
levels of mindfulness on IBT, F (1, 345) ¼ 55.39, p < .001, η2 ¼ 0.139.
Those with higher trait mindfulness displayed lower tendency to buy on
impulse (M ¼ 2.03, S.D. ¼ 0.83) as compared to those with lower
mindfulness (M ¼ 2.73, S.D. ¼ 0.90). Further it was found that, given
their level of mindfulness, individuals differed in their self-esteem, F (1,
345) ¼ 119.76, p < .001, η2 ¼ 0.258. Individuals with greater mind­
fulness had stronger self-esteem (M ¼ 3.95, S.D. ¼ 0.61) and those with
lower mindfulness had lower self-esteem (M ¼ 3.21, S.D. ¼ 0.62).
Mediation analysis: The mediation analysis was conducted to obtain
the total and direct relationships of dispositional mindfulness with IBT,
along with the indirect association between mindfulness and IBT
through self-esteem. The indirect effect of dispositional mindfulness on
IBT was computed as the product of regression coefficient assessing self-
esteem from dispositional mindfulness (Fig. 1 ‘a’ path), and the regres­
sion coefficient assessing IBT from self-esteem, controlling for disposi­
tional mindfulness (Fig. 1 ‘b’ path). Paths “c” and “c’” represents the
direct relation between mindfulness and IBT, and indirect path mediated
by self-esteem, respectively. Next, the bootstrapping procedure was
adopted to examine the significance of the mediation model. In the
present study, bootstrapping analysis was performed with 5000 resam­
ples. The results showed that the direct effect of dispositional mindful­
ness on IBT was mediated by self-esteem at β ¼ 0.18 (95% CI: LL:
0.28; UL: 0.06). The CI did not include zero, depicting that disposi­
tional mindfulness has a significant indirect effect on IBT through self-
esteem (see Fig. 1). The discussion of the results from study 1 will be
done later with the results from study 2.
5. Study 2
Results from Study 1 showed that self-esteem significantly mediates
the mindfulness and IBT relationship. It was further found that in­
dividuals with higher levels of trait mindfulness have stronger self-
esteem and lower tendency to buy on impulse. Study 2 aims to
examine and validate the results of study 1 with a different mindfulness
Table 1
Correlation matrix, reliabilities and descriptive statistics of measurement con­
structs (Study1, n ¼ 344).
Constructs Mean S.D. α 1 2 3
IBT 2.35 0.93 0.75 1
SE 3.62 0.72 0.72 -.369a 1
MINDFUL 3.33 0.70 0.76 -.376a .586a 1
Note: Mindful: Dispositional Mindfulness (Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness
Scale–Revised; Feldman et al., 2007); IBT: Impulsive Buying Tendency (Rook
and Fisher, 1995; Verplanken and Herabadi, 2001); SE: Self-Esteem (Rosenberg.
1965); α ¼ Cronbach alpha.
a
Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level.
T.K. Dhandra
Fig. 1. Study 1: The mediation model showing the direct and indirect effects of
mindfulness on impulsive buying Tendency (IBT).
Note. Dotted line represents the direct effect of mindfulness on impulsive
buying tendency, c’ ¼ path when self-esteem is included as a mediator. ‘a’,‘b’,
and ‘c’ represent standardized regression coefficients, **p < .001.
scale. Moreover, in study 2 the entire impulsiveness scale of Rook and
Fisher (1995) is used. In addition, a measure of impulsive buying
behavior was added to extend the results of study 1 indicating that
mindfulness results in lower impulsive tendency and lower impulsive
buying behavior and higher self-esteem.
5.1. Method
5.1.1. Participants and procedure
A total of three hundred and twenty-eight participants (females ¼
69.51% and males ¼ 30.49%), with the mean age of 19.99 (SD ¼ 2.95)
participated in the study. The sample was gathered from a university in
India. The participation was solely on voluntary basis and participants
were informed of the anonymous nature of the study. The procedure was
similar to that of study 1.
5.1.2. Measurement of constructs
Self-esteem was measured using the same scale used in study 1 (α ¼
0.74).
Mindfulness: Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS;
Brown and Ryan, 2003) was used to assess mindfulness. The participants
were requested to indicate the extent to which they experience the
different items (15) displayed on a 7-point scale ranging from ‘1 ¼
Almost Always’ to ‘7 ¼ Never’. Higher scores implied higher levels of
dispositional mindfulness. The scale consists of items like; “I find it
difficult to stay focused on what’s happening in the present” and “I find
myself doing things without paying attention”. MAAS helps to deter­
mine individual differences in mindfulness and is a highly utilized
mindfulness scale. The scale showed good internal reliability (α ¼ 0.84).
IBT and Impulsive buying behavior (IBB): The impulsive buying
tendency was measured using 9-item nine trait-buying-impulsiveness-
scale (Rook and Fisher, 1995) on a 7 point scale with ‘1 ¼ Strongly
disagree’ and ‘7 ¼ Strongly agree’. IBT scale achieved satisfactory levels
of reliability, that is α ¼ 0.78. IBB was measured using a single item
developed by Rook and Fisher (1995). The respondents read a shopping
situation “Mary is a 21-year-old college student with a part-time job. It is
two days before Mary gets her next paycheck and she has only $25 left
for necessities. In addition to food, Mary needs to buy a pair of warm
socks for an outdoor party this weekend. After work, she goes with her
friend Susan to the mall to purchase the socks. As they are walking
through Bullock’s, Mary sees a great looking sweater on sale for $75.”
After reading the scenario, the respondents selected one of five purchase
decision options which represented different levels of buying on im­
pulse. Depicting low to high impulsive buying, these options were: “(1)
buying the socks only, (2) wanting the sweater but not buying it, (3)
deciding not to buy the socks, (4) buying both the socks and sweater
with a credit card, and (5) buying these plus matching slacks and a shirt,
also with a credit card.” It was asssumed that the individuals with
greater tendency to buy on impulse are more likely to select an option on
the impulsive side.
5
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102135
5.2. Results
The means, SDs, intercorelations and reliabilities for the measures
employed in this study are summarized in Table 2. An inspection of the
correlation matrix reveals that mindfulness was positively correlated to
self-esteem and negatively correlated with IBT and IBB. Self-esteem was
also negatively correlated with IBT and IBB.
As in study 1, cluster analysis was conducted to examine and validate
that individuals differed in their tendency to buy on impulse, impulsive
buying behavior and self-esteem on levels of mindfulness. Using K-
means clustering analysis, two-clusters were considered suitable.
Resulting clusters were found to be statistically different from one
another, F (1,326) ¼ 503.834, p < .001. Similar to study 1, the resulting
clusters were named as high mindfulness (46.95%, n ¼ 154) and low
mindfulness (53.05%, n ¼ 174). The individuals under high mindfulness
cluster scored more on mindfulness M ¼ 5.12 (S.D. ¼ 0.60), while in­
dividuals under low mindfulness score lower on mindfulness M ¼ 3.58
(S.D. ¼ 0.63).
Next, similar to Study1 ANOVA was performed to examine whether
individuals differ in IBT, IBB and self-esteem on their levels of mind­
fulness. The results of ANOVA analysis indicated that individuals differ
on all the attributes based on their levels of mindfulness. Respondents
with high mindfulness differed significantly from their other counter­
parts in IBT [F (1,326) ¼ 7.001, p < .001, η2 ¼ 0.021], and self-esteem [F
(1,326) ¼ 35.398, p < .001, η2 ¼ 0.098]. Interestingly, respondents
differed marginally on IBB [F (1,326) ¼ 3.383, p ¼ .06, η2 ¼ 0.010] with
individuals with greater mindfulness scoring lower on IBB (M ¼ 5.44, S.
D. ¼ 1.25) as compared to those with lower trait mindfulness (M ¼ 5.69,
S.D. ¼ 1.17). Similar to the results of study 1, individuals with higher
mindfulness showed stronger self-esteem (M ¼ 5.00, S.D. ¼ 1.12) and
lower IBT (M ¼ 3.73, S.D. ¼ 1.38).
Mediation Analysis: Given the mediation effect in study 1, a serial
mediation analysis was conducted to examine if mindfulness has an
indirect effect on IBB via self-esteem and IBT. The indirect effect was
tested using Hayes (2012; 2017) PROCESS macro for SPSS (model 6).
The results showed that the total effect (c ¼ 0.20, SE ¼ 0.067, t ¼
3.020, p < .05) of mindfulness on IBB was significant (Fig. 2; Step 1).
Additionally, the direct effect of dispositional mindfulness on self-
esteem (β ¼ 0.42, SE ¼ 0.052, t ¼ 8.14, p < .001) and IBT (β ¼
0.25, SE ¼ 0.067, t ¼ 4.74, p < .001) was found to be significant.
Next, as step 2, the direct effect of self-esteem (first mediating variable)
on IBT (second mediating variable) was also significant with β ¼ 0.52,
SE ¼ 0.065, t ¼ 8.11, p < .001. For step 3, the direct effects of the
mediating variables (i.e. self-esteem and IBT) on IBB were checked. The
results revealed a significant effect of self-esteem (β ¼ 0.16, SE ¼
0.071, t ¼ 2.69, p < .05) and IBT (β ¼ 0.20, SE ¼ 0.059, t ¼ 3.42, p <
.001) on the outcome variable IBB. The relationship between disposi­
tional mindfulness and IBB became non-significant (compared to direct
effect) after including both the mediating variables simultaneously into
the equation (c’ ¼ .07, SE ¼ 0.071, t ¼ 0.98, p ¼ .3256). Table 3
summarizes the comparison of the indirect effects of mindfulness on IBB
through self-esteem and IBT. A bootstrap analysis with 5000 repeated
Table 2
Correlation matrix and descriptive statistics of the measurement constructs
(Study 2, n ¼ 328).
Constructs Mean S.D. 1 2 3 4
IBT 3.93 1.24 1
IBB 5.58 1.22 .279a 1
MAAS 4.30 0.99 -.254a -.165a 1
SE 4.66 1.02 -.467a -.256a .411a 1
Note: MAAS: Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (Brown and Ryan, 2003).
IBT: Impulsive Buying Tendency; IBB: Impulsive Buying Behavior (Rook and
Fisher, 1995); SE: Self-Esteem (Rosenberg, 1965).
a
Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level.
T.K. Dhandra Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102135

2 reveals that self -esteem is an important mediator between mindful­

ness and IBB. The fact that the mediation model deems significant with
IBT and self-esteem as well as different mindfulness scales increases
confidence in the belief that the findings of this research corroborate a
broader model that could be highly generalizable to impulsive buying
and compulsive buying behavior. Consistent to previous studies this
research validates that IBT positively affects impulsive buying behavior
(Bellini et al., 2017; Ozer and Gultekin, 2015). The strength of the
Fig. 2. Study 2: Serial mediation model depicting the direct and indirect effects
present study lies in the fact that the results were empirically reproduced
of Mindfulness on Impulsive buying behavior through self-esteem and Impul­
with two different scales of mindfulness that provide evidence of the
sive buying tendency (IBT). The model is assessed using PROCESS macro
(Model 6).|
robustness and generalizability of the findings.
Note. Dotted line represents the direct effect of mindfulness on Impulsive A novel contribution of the present study is related to the significant
buying behavior, c’ ¼ path when self-esteem and IBT are included as mediators. effect of self-esteem between dispositional mindfulness and impulse
‘β’ represent standardized regression coefficients. **p < .001, *p < .05; ns ¼ buying, which, to the best of author’s knowledge, is accounted for the
non-significant. first time in this research. In addition to it, the findings are also
important for describing the process through which dispositional
samples was conducted to test the indirect effect of mindfulness on IBB. mindfulness influences numerous variables, particularly those linked to
The bias corrected 95% bootstrap confidence interval excluded the value unconscious and unplanned buying behavior. The results of the study
zero, indicating that mindfulness was only indirectly associated with provide a process that can assist individuals to control their sudden urge
lower IBB through both self-esteem and IBT, (95% CI: [LL ¼ 0.0822; to make unplanned purchases. Individuals with greater mindfulness
UL ¼ 0.0188], b ¼ 0.04). Specifically, mindfulness was linked score high on self-esteem, which in turn can contribute to decreased
positively to self-esteem, thus to lower IBT which in turn was related to tendency to buy on impulse. Low self-esteem makes an individual more
greater IBB. Based on Table 3, mindfulness was associated with IBB engrossed in thoughts and feelings that are frequently negative, which
through both self-esteem and IBT, meaning that both self-esteem and prompts more impulsive responses. The findings of this study as well as
IBT indeed functioned as mediators (Model 2). However, there was a that of Verplanken et al. (2005) confirm that IBT can be regarded as an
significant indirect effect of mindfulness on IBB through self-esteem outcome of low self-esteem. This implies that the general proclivity of
without IBT (Model 1); instead, although mindfulness was signifi­ mindful individuals to be non-judgmental, present focused and attentive
cantly associated with IBT and IBT was significantly associated with IBB, enables them to understand their thoughts and feelings, which makes
there was no evidence that IBT was a mediator between mindfulness and them capable to regulate their feelings that stimulates unreflective
IBB (Model 3). Thus, IBT alone was not a significant mediator, but for buying or the urge to make purchases at the spur-of the moment.
IBT to have a significant mediating role, self-esteem matters. Mindful individuals are less concerned about their outward image and
more concerned about their inner rewards (Ruedy and Schweitzer,
6. Discussion 2010) and hence are less likely to engage in impulsive buying, which is
basically an outcome of concern for self-image. The metacognitive
The present research comprises of two studies devised to attain two awareness of mindfulness enables individuals to view their emotions,
main objectives. First, it aims to support and replicate the relationship feelings and thoughts as transient mental events, thus permitting in­
between dispositional mindfulness and IBT. Study 2 also includes a dividuals to change them to positive reappraisals from negative ap­
measure of impulsive buying behavior. Consistent with prior research praisals (Garland et al., 2009), which again results into greater
(Park and Dhandra, 2017; Armstrong, 2011), it was found that mind­ self-esteem. Papies et al. (2012) demonstrated that having a mindful
fulness and IBT were negatively related. A similar pattern was visible in attention helps an individual to observe his/her thoughts as transient
Study 2 when taking impulsive buying behavior as outcome variable. mental events, hence reducing their reactions to appetitive foods.
Finally, the present research aimed to identify whether the relation Mindful individuals are able to make a distinction between thoughts and
between dispositional mindfulness and IBT was mediated by self-esteem facts, as a result it enables them to identify that those negative thoughts
(Study 1), and whether self-esteem and IBT significantly mediate the are merely thoughts and not facts. The awareness and describing char­
relationship between mindfulness and IBB. That is, it was hypothesized acteristics of mindfulness might encourage individuals to maintain
and found that greater mindfulness is linked to IBT directly and indi­ attention on the immediate experiences, which reduces their attention
rectly through greater self-esteem. In study 2, the direct relationship of towards negative thoughts and hence improves self-esteem and lowers
mindfulness with IBB becomes non-significant after the inclusion of the the tendency to buy impulsively.
serial indirect path through both self-esteem and IBT. Results from study Apparently, there are other explanations of the relationship between
dispositional mindfulness and IBT. For example, in a previous study,
Park and Dhandra (2017) advanced the idea that trait mindfulness
Table 3
positively influences an individual’s ability to use their emotions (i.e.
Comparison of the indirect effects of mindfulness on IBB through self-esteem and
IBT (study 2).
emotional intelligence) and subsequent tendency to buy on impulse. The
theoretical explanation behind this study is that “individuals with
Effect Estimate SE 95% Bias Corrected
greater mindfulness can utilize their emotions to identify and prevent
Confidence Intervals
the unpleasant and negative emotional states that induce impulsive
Lower Upper buying by directing their attention on constructive activities and per­
Total Indirect Effect 0.13 0.038 0.2173 0.0642 sonal performance” (Park and Dhandra, 2017, p.211). In this vein, the
Model 1: MAAS - > SE- > IBB 0.07 0.034 0.1451 0.0092 nonjudgmental, present focus attention and awareness makes in­
Model 2: MAAS - > SE- > IBT - > IBB 0.04 0.016 0.0822 0.0188
dividuals vigilant so that their intentions are focused in the right di­
Model 3: MAAS - > IBT - > IBB 0.02 0.016 0.0614 0.006
C1 0.03 0.039 0.1063 0.051 rection, and shapes their motivation on a daily basis which takes them
C2 0.05 0.039 0.1324 0.0255 beyond themselves and they are just not limited by a lack of confidence
C3 0.03 0.019 0.0763 0.0042 or low self-esteem. Thus, this might reduce their tendency to engage in a
Note: MAAS: Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale; SE: Self-Esteem; IBT: purchase decision that fosters their self-worth. Future research shedding
Impulsive Buying Tendency; IBB: Impulsive Buying Behavior. C1: Model 1- light on this process is required.
Model 2; C2: Model 1-Model 3; C3: Model 2-Model 3. The present research has practical implications. Mindfulness-based

6
T.K. Dhandra
programs are gaining a lot of popularity as beneficial interventions in
schools, aiming everyone including students and teachers, to reduce
deep-rooted stress, calm the mind, become kinder, and find true
happiness (e.g., Shapiro and Shapiro, 2019). There are mindfulness in­
terventions that have been developed for students to be incorporated in
the classroom as well as outside and showed changes in awareness,
reduction in impulse buying (Sermboonsang et al., 2019). Mindfulness
could have beneficial effects if incorporated within educational pro­
grams. Pepping et al. (2013) found that brief mindfulness training to
undergraduate students led to an increase in state self-esteem. For
practitioners, the findings of this research will help recognize that im­
pulse buying occurs as a response to psychological variables and most
importantly leads towards low self-esteem. Thus, a mindfulness training
session for a shorter duration could act in a collective manner, with
self-appreciation and motivational concepts, to foster a calmer state of
mind. Mindfulness enables individuals to pay attention to whatever is
happening in the present and in one’s life, and thus brings more control
over one’s thoughts. This further enables individuals to make conscious
and deliberate choices and feel more confident with those choices. Farb
et al. (2007) carried out a series of fMRI studies and found that in­
dividuals who practiced mindfulness showed less inactivity in the brain
region linked to self-evaluation and analysis. Additionally, there was an
increase in activity in brain regions linked to moment-by-moment ex­
periences. Showing that trait mindfulness is positively related to
self-esteem it is expected that mindfulness training, for individuals who
desire to control their buying behavior that arise due to negative emo­
tions and feelings, might be helpful because this training will foster
self-esteem. Mindfulness is a way of being aware of the present moment,
with an attitude of openness, curiosity and non-judgment. Being mindful
is to observe one’s moment-to-moment experiences, thoughts, feelings
and sensations. It enables individual’s thoughts and emotions to arrive
and pass through their mind, without being carried away by those
thoughts. Therefore, this allows individuals to stay focused and not
make a purchasing decision without considering its consequences. This
is promising with regards to the applicability of the findings of the
present research. Evidently, future research is needed in this direction.
The results of the present study and future research could help managers
in making strategies and investing in successful marketing campaigns.
Understanding how mindful individuals behave can aid ethical mar­
keters to create a stimulus that enables unplanned purchases but restrain
from purely uninhibited, impulsive purchases that result in
post-purchase regret and dissatisfaction among consumers. Further
research is needed to understand how mindful skepticism aroused by
marketing strategies might inhibit impulse buying tendencies.
The study has few limitations that could be dealt with in future work.
Data for the study was gathered using self-report measures. Using self-
report measures exposes the results to social desirability bias. Since
the purpose of the present study was to examine the associations be­
tween traits and not states, thus these are best attained through survey
approach. A future research work comprising of longitudinal and
experimental studies with mindfulness interventions or momentarily
induced mindfulness may further verify the relationships between
mindfulness, self-esteem, and impulse buying. Another limitation is that
the study did not assess variables that have been associated with
impulsive buying and are worthy to be controlled for in analyses, like
buying motives such as utilitarian vs hedonic (Park et al., 2012) and
resources (time, money). Future research could also consider assessing
mindfulness as specifically related to buying, as it has been done, for
example, for mindfulness eating. Finally, the studies conducted in this
research used sample from India, which limits the generalizability of its
findings. Considering the cultural differences between Eastern and
Western societies that have an influence on impulsive buying behavior
(Kacen and Lee, 2002), self-esteem and mindfulness, a future research
including participants from different countries or cultures can be an
important research endeavor.
7
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 55 (2020) 102135
7. Conclusion
This study adds to the academic literature by presenting a framework
through which a crucial psychological factor, that is mindfulness, might
foster self-esteem and consequently individual’s tendency to buy
impulsively. Collecting data with Indian participants provides signifi­
cant evidence related to external validity for mindfulness as the pre­
dictor of self-esteem and impulsive buying. In general, the results of the
present research promise novel insight into the above relationships
within different areas including consumer research and social psychol­
ogy. By becoming mindful of one’s thoughts and behavior, individuals
may be able to avoid or eliminate self-defeating thoughts from arising
and eventually able to control purchasing decisions that arise due to
those thoughts. In this sense, mindfulness may be a key player of self-
esteem, solving the basic human problem to flourish in life without
engaging in unconscious and unplanned buying behavior. The present
research adds important insights to the theoretical understanding of the
development of self-esteem to reduce IBT.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102135.
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