Chapter 1

Engine Construction

The Cylinder Block and Crankcase

 The cylinder block forms the main casting of the engine body where other parts are
assembled in and on the cylinder block to form the complete engine.
 In addition to this structural function, the cylinder block provides smooth and cylindrical
bores which guide the motion of the pistons.
 The cylinders and the cylinder head form the combustion chambers in which the
burning of the fuel and expansion of the gases take place.
Construction and Design
The design and construction of cylinders and cylinder blocks are dependent upon:
 Number and arrangement of cylinders.
 Bore and stroke.
 Compression ratio.
 Valve arrangement.
 Method of cooling.
 Materials used in the construction of the block.
 Methods of casting and machining.

Cylinder Arrangement or Configuration

Configuration
-Inline

-Opposed

-Slant

-V

Materials
 Cast gray iron
 Cast aluminium

Advantages of Cast Iron

 Self lubricating as it contains free graphite.
 Cheaper.
 Rarely warps.
 Good wear rate.
 Good casting properties.
 Provides ready bores.
 Absorbs vibrations.
  Good corrosion resistance.
 Threaded holes less likely to strip.

Advantages of Cast Aluminium

 Lighter in weight.
 Good heat conductor.
 Soft, therefore, easy to machine.
 Attractive in appearance.
 Can be easily repaired.

Advantages of cast iron are disadvantages of aluminium and vice versa.

Casting Methods
The two basic casting methods of automotive engines are;
 En bloc casting, also called mono bloc.
 Individual cylinder castings.

En Bloc Castings
All water cooled auto engines are cast mono bloc, meaning the cylinder block and the upper
half of the crankcase are cast together in one single unit. In a few very large engines, such as
those used in trucks or buses, the cylinder block and the crankcase may be cast separately and
then bolted together. There are still some diesel engines with individually cast cylinders which
are bolted to the crankcase.

Advantages of En Bloc Casting

 Shorter and more compact engine is possible.
 More rigid form of construction.
 Cheaper to produce.
 Less labour during overhauls.
 Assembly is simplified making it easier to enclose valve operating mechanism.
 No risk of leakages.
Individual Cylinder Castings

These are found on air cooled engines so as to dissipate their heat to the air from fins. It would
be extremely complicated to form an engine with fins on each cylinder from a single casting.
Therefore, the cylinders are cast individually and bolted to the crankcase.

The cooling fins are cast integrally with the cylinders. Aluminium is used for these castings as it
dissipates heat better than iron. It is an expensive construction which demand much labour
when assembling.

Advantages of Individual Cylinder Castings

 Lighter in weight.
 Individual cylinder repair is possible.

Advantages of en bloc casting are disadvantages of separate casting and vice versa.

Cylinders
Cylinders are made in two ways: integral construction (cast in bore) and separate liners
(sleeves)
Cast in Bore
This is the simplest and cheapest
form of a cylinder used in the
engines of most cars and light
commercial vehicles. The cylinder
bore, water jackets and crankcase
are produced as a single iron
casting which is very rigid and
produces no problems in
positioning the cylinders on the
crankcase.

Separate Cylinder Liners

Cast iron alone does not provide a really long lasting surface for cylinder bores. Engine block
service life is increased by fitting special sleeves/liners into the bored holes of the cylinder
block. These liners are centrifugally cast from an alloy iron or steel and are either a press or
interference fit in the bore of the block.

Dry Liners

Interference Fit Slip fit

Dry liners are not in contact with the cooling water. They are fitted in accurately bored holes in
the cylinder block. These liners are made in two forms and differ in their fit into the bore.
 Interference fit.
 Slip fit.
Dry liners have no risk of water leaking into the sump, but the interference fit cannot be
replaced easily.

Wet Liners

Wet liners are always in direct contact with the cooling water. They are thick walled and rigid to
withstand cylinder pressures. These slip fit liners, are generally used in the construction of
larger engines. Rubber sealing rings or a shoulder and paper gasket is used to seal the lower
end. Their advantage is that of much more efficient cooling. Disadvantages are;
 Risk of water leaking into the crankcase in the event that seals are worn.
 The liners can easily become misaligned as they are not supported by block material.
 They are expensive

Advantages of Slip Fit liners (Dry and Wet)

 Easy to replace.
 Prefinished to correct size.
 Engine can be repaired while still on the chassis.

Core/Welch Plugs
Core plugs are usually dished, thin, steel discs, the edges of which are parallel to, and a close fit
in their recesses.

Function
When cylinder blocks and heads are cast, the shapes of the interior cavities are obtained by the
use of hard baked sand cores. Once the metal has cooled and solidified these sand cores must
be broken up and then removed through holes in the outer walls of the water jackets. After
machining these holes are then closed with core plugs, which must be watertight.

The Lower Cylinder Block

Also called the crankcase,

 It supports the crankshaft and camshaft bearings,
 Acts as a support of the oil pump, oil lines, starting motor and numerous other engine
parts.
 Forms an enclosure for the revolving crankshaft.
 Chapter 2

The Crankshaft

The crankshaft is probably the most highly stressed part of the vehicle and it must be made
very stiff and tough to resist very large bending and twisting forces imposed upon it. The
maximum speed of the crankshaft is usually between 4000 and 6000 revolutions per minute.
Each power stroke may produce a load on the crankshaft of about two tonnes.

Motor vehicle crankshafts are mostly a one-piece construction which extends the whole length
of the engine. The length of the crankshaft dictates the length of the cylinder block.
It is supported in the crankcase by a series of bearings, known as the engine main bearings.
Each main bearing is divided into two half-liners, similar to the big end bearings to allow for
fitting on to the block.
Purpose
The crankshaft causes the piston(s) to move up and down in the cylinder(s)

Functions
The functions of the crankshaft are that it;
 Converts the downward thrust of the piston into a rotary motion.
 Drives the camshaft.
 Supports the flywheel.
 Drives the fan, water pump, generator, power steering pump, etc through the fan belt.
 May be used to drive the oil pump and the distributor.

Materials
Crankshafts may be forgings of high-grade alloy steel, or castings of a special form of cast iron.
In both cases the wearing surfaces must be hardened to resist wear.

The crankshaft of an engine is formed of a number of ‘sections’ such as those illustrated on the
diagram.
 The main journals (a part of a shaft which rotates in a bearing is called a journal), which
are located through the centre line of the crankshaft, rotate in the main bearings.
 The crankpin or crank journal, to which the connecting rod is fitted, is offset from the
main journals by a distance called the crank radius.
 The webs of the crankshaft connect the main journals to the crankpin. Where the
journals join the webs a fillet or radius is formed to avoid a sharp corner, which would
be a source of weakness. This is of vital importance in crankshafts that are subjected to
particularly heavy loads.

Crank Throw
Old technology on steam engines defines throw as the diameter of the crankpin circle, i.e. the
throw was equal to stroke of the piston. Today, throw is defined as the distance between the
centre of the crankshaft and the centre of the crankpin same as crank radius. Crank throw is
equal to half the stroke of the piston.
The same word ‘throw’ is also used in a slightly different sense: it is the name given to a
crankpin together with its adjacent webs and main journals. From this definition, two
crankshafts are available; two throw and single throw.

Two Throw Single Throw

Crankshaft Balancing
Crankpins are arranged on the crankshaft to provide the smoothest possible power flows and to
match the engine firing order. Crankshaft balance is achieved by having counterweights
extended opposite each crankpin to balance the weight of the crankpin and part of the
connecting rod. Holes may be drilled into the counterweights to remove more metal for more
precise balancing. Crankshafts are balanced both statically and dynamically.

Engine Balance
Counterweights cannot completely balance the inertia forces generated by the acceleration and
deceleration of the pistons. The movement of the pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft
creates inertia forces which tend to vibrate the engine vertically and horizontally. In some
engines these forces and couples are completely self cancelling.
Some large four cylinder engines use a
Lanchester balancer, consisting of a pair of
counter-rotating eccentric weights that rotate
at twice crankshaft speed, to provide
smoother operation.

The balancer is properly timed to the

crankshaft when the eccentric weights are at
bottom dead center and any pair of pistons is
at top dead center.

Torsional Vibration Damper

Power impulses from the pistons produce cyclic twisting of the crankshaft which may become
large enough to cause failure of the crankshaft. Thus, a torsional vibration damper is used on
some engines. It consists of a small flywheel connected to the front pulley by a rubber ring.
Torsional vibration of the crankshaft is transmitted to the small flywheel through the rubber
ring which dissipates the vibration energy to dampen vibration.
Crankpin Arrangement - (Firing Intervals and Firing Orders)
Firing interval refers to the number of degrees of crankshaft rotation between successive power
strokes. It can be calculated by using the following formula:

Firing interval = 720o/no. of cylinders

The cylinders of a multi-cylinder engine are arranged to have their power strokes in succession,
and the order in which the cylinders work is called the firing order of the engine.

 A single cylinder four stroke cycle engine has only one crankpin and will have a power
stroke in every two revolutions (720o) of the crankshaft. This engine employs a large fly
wheel to keep the engine running through its idle strokes.
 A two cylinder engine has crankpins arranged at 180o and its firing interval will be
360o(720o/2). However, the firing intervals are not evenly spaced. As shown below, a
two cylinder engine produces two power strokes in one revolution of the crankshaft and
no power strokes in the next revolution; thus, the firing interval is not uniform.

Note: The firing intervals could be even by setting both crankpins in line so that both pistons
are at T.D.C. at the same time. However, such a crankshaft would produce excessive vibration.

 The crankpins of a four cylinder engine are set at 180o, meaning the firing interval is
180o(720o/4). The firing intervals are uniform (a power stroke begins every 180 o of the
crankshaft rotation).

There are two possible firing orders for this engine:

1 – 2 – 4 - 3 or 1 – 3 – 4 – 2
A firing order tree provides a convenient way
of finding all possible firing orders for a given
crankshaft.

Note: The firing order of an engine is determined by the design of the camshaft and cannot be
changed without changing the camshaft. The spark plug wires on a spark ignition engine or
injector pipes on compression ignition engine would also have to be rerouted when changing
firing orders.

 A six cylinder engine has a firing interval of 120o (720o/6). The crankpins of a six cylinder
crankshaft are arranged at 120o to match the firing interval. The firing intervals are
uniform and are less than 180o needed to complete a power stroke. Thus, a six cylinder
engine has power overlap. The crankpins can be arranged as shown below and two
possible firing orders are obtainable:

The most common firing order for six cylinder engines is:

1–5–3–6–2-4

 A three cylinder engine is similar to the six cylinder engine in that the crankpins are
spaced at 120o. The firing interval for a three cylinder engine is 240o (720o/3). The firing
order of a three cylinder engine is:

1–2-3

 The firing interval of a four cylinder horizontally opposed engine cylinders is 180 o
(720o/4) and its firing order is 1 – 4 – 3 – 2.
Oil Ways
Some large crankshafts have their crankpins
and journal bored out to reduce weight and
therefore reduce the forces created when the
crankshaft is rotating. The ends of these
hollow pins and journals are usually closed by
caps or plugs held in place by bolts to prevent
the escape of oil.

A hole is drilled through the crankshaft as above running from the main journal, through the
web to the surface of the crankpin. The main journal end of the drilled hole is positioned so that
it ends at the groove in the main bearing; therefore, as the shaft rotates, a continuous supply of
oil is able to pass from the groove through the drilled hole and along to the crankpin.

Oil Retainers
The crankshaft projects from the rear end of the crankcase, and some of the oil which is
pumped into the rear bearing to lubricate it will escape from the rear end of the bearing to the
outside of the crankcase. The oil, besides making a mess of the engine, will invariably
contaminate other components (e.g. the clutch plate) which would be undesirable.

There are two common types of oil retainers:

Lip-Type Oil Seal Scroll-Type Oil Retainer

Fly Wheel
 The flywheel retains some of the energy given to the crankshaft during power stroke
and releases this energy to keep the crankshaft turning during the idle (non-working)
strokes.
 The flywheel helps to keep the crankshaft turning smoothly.
 Forms one driving face of the clutch assembly.
 Acts as a gear for the engagement of the starter motor.
Flywheel Attachment

The flywheel is usually attached to the rear end of the crankshaft. The attachment must be
perfectly secure, and it should be possible to assemble the flywheel in one position only. This is
because the crankshaft and flywheel, besides being balanced separately, are also balanced as
an assembly, and if the flywheel is not fitted in the same position as that in which the assembly
was balanced, some imperfection of balance may arise that can cause vibration.

Front End or Nose of the Crankshaft

For most engines, the front of the crankshaft is used to drive other components and
mechanisms through gears and pulleys.

A common method for locating the sprocket

and pulleys on the crankshaft is with a
‘Woodruff key’. The key locates in a slot in the
crankshaft nose and also in a slot in the gear
or pulleys. The key transfers the drive from
the crankshaft to the sprocket and pulleys.
The sprocket and pulleys are then secured by
a nut or screw threaded into the end of the
shaft.
 Chapter 3

Engine Bearings
Bearings perform three functions:
 They support the weight of a revolving shaft.
 They reduce friction and wear.
 They align a rotating shaft.

All modern main and big end bearings are split shell bearings to enable them to be fitted on to
the crankshaft. The two halves of the bearing are held together by bolts, screws or studs and
nuts.

Unlike other bearings, these split shell bearings offers the following advantages:
 Cheaper, for only a small amount of expensive bearing material is used.
 They are pre-finished to the correct size.
 Fitting and removing is easy.

Main Bearing Shell Big End Bearing Shell

The shells are prevented from turning in the housing by an interference fit. This is achievable by
NIP - a small amount that the bearing shells stand proudly above the joint surface of the cap
when the bolts or nuts are finger tight only. When the bolts or nuts are drawn tight, the shells
become an interference fit in the housing.
 It should be emphasized that the shells must
be prevented from moving in the housing and
cap by their interference fit alone. The dowels
or lugs are purely for correct location during
assembly and they must not be solely relied
upon to prevent rotation of the shells, though
they may contribute to it.

Location Devices
These are provided to ensure correct positioning of the shells during assembly.
There are two common types of location device; dowel and lug. A dowel is a short peg, one end
of which is made a tight fit in a hole in the housing, the other (protruding) end being a
clearance fit in a hole in the shell.

Lugs are commonly used on engine crankshaft and camshaft bearings. The lugs are pressed out
at one joint face of each shell and engage with corresponding notches cut in the housing and
cap. One lug per shell is used, and the lugs of both shells of a pair are normally arranged at
opposite ends of the same joint face.

Bearing Oil Clearance

In order for the oil to lubricate the bearing, there must be a small clearance between the shaft
and the bearing. In this clearance a film of oil forms which prevents the rubbing of metal
surfaces. The clearance is generally 0.02 – 0.07 mm.

Bearing Materials
The bearings have a steel backing to which bearing material is applied. Typical bearing lining
materials are:
 Aluminium-Based Alloys - A popular alloy of tin and aluminium used for car crankshaft
and big-end bearings.
 White Metal or Babbitt Alloys - this is an alloy of tin and small amounts of copper and
antimony used for light duty.
 Copper-Lead- this is for heavy duty application
 Lead- Bronze- also for heavy duty.
Properties of Bearing Materials
An ideal material for big-ends and main bearings should have the following properties:
 High mechanical strength- to withstand heavy loads and resist fatigue.
 High melting point - to resist damage due to high oil temperature.
 Resistance to corrosion. Resist corrosion that may be caused by acidic products of
combustion entering the crankcase.
 Conformability- to yield easily when slight misalignment occurs.
 Good surface properties- to prevent seizure or pickup if the oil film breaks down
momentarily (this property is also called ‘compatibility’).
 Embedability - must be soft enough to embed small dirt particles and small pieces of
metal.

Thrust Washers
Shafts usually need to be located endways, usually against a certain amount of end thrust.
Thrust washers control end float of the crankshaft in its assembly. There are two types of
washer; integral (flanged bearing) and separate pieces.
 Chapter 4

The Connecting Rod

Construction
The connecting rod is usually about twice as long as the stroke of the engine and is subjected to
forces which try to bend, stretch and compress it.

It is usually H- cross section to resist these forces.

Materials
 Alloy steel forging
 Aluminium alloy forging of equivalent strength but lighter in weight.
Big End
The large, big end, bearing is split to allow it to be fitted to the crankpin, thin-wall white metal
or copper-lead bearing shells being used. In some engines the split of the bearing is oblique to
make withdrawal of the rod from the cylinder bore possible.

Plain Connecting Rod and Big End Split Obliquely

Small End
The small end of the rod carries the gudgeon pin which is classed as either fully floating or semi-
floating.

Fully-Floating Semi-Floating
Fully-Floating Small End
The small end is fitted with a phosphor bronze bush.

The gudgeon pin bears in the piston bosses

and also in the connecting rod eye. In order to
prevent it from escaping sideways and
contacting the cylinder wall, the fully-floating
gudgeon pin must be located axially in the
piston bosses.

Security is usually provided by spring retaining rings or circlips, which are expanded into
grooves near the outer end of each boss and thus act as removable shoulders.

In some older designs, the lateral movement

of the gudgeon pin was prevented by fitting
mushroomed end pads of phosphor bronze or
aluminium.

Semi-Floating Small End

The gudgeon pin is held rigidly in the connecting rod eye and bears only in the piston bosses.
Current practice is for the gudgeon pin to be retained by an interference fit, rather than by
clamping it in a split eye with a pinch-bolt as in earlier designs.

Clamp type Interference fit

The clamp type connecting rod has been discontinued as the small end was a source of
weakness.

Majority of semi-floating small ends now use an interference fit type gudgeon pin.

Two advantages of the semi-floating arrangement are that:

 There is less length of gudgeon pin subject to bending loads,
 It eliminates one potential source of noise that can otherwise develop in the small-end
bearing of a fully-floating arrangement.

The gudgeon pin in the piston and connecting rod assembly is a cylindrical piece of case
hardened or fully hardened alloy steel which is made hollow to reduce weight. Its functions are
that it:
 Connects the piston to the small end of the connecting rod.
 Supports the small end of the connecting rod allowing it to pivot in relation to the
piston.
 Transfers the force of the expanding gases from the piston to the connecting rod.