Genetic Code (IInd Sem) Dr.

Subhashini

The genetic code is the code which body uses to convert the instructions contained in DNA.
It is typically discussed using the “codons” found in mRNA, as mRNA is the messenger that
carries information from the DNA to the site of protein synthesis. Therefore, Genetic code is
the set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material
(DNA or mRNA sequence) into proteins. Translation is accomplished by the ribosome, which
links amino acids in an order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA), using transfer RNA
(tRNA) molecules to carry amino acids and to read the mRNA three nucleotides at a time.
The genetic code is highly similar among all organisms and can be expressed in a simple
table with 64 entries.

General features of genetic code:

1. Linear: Genetic code is always written in linear form using ribonucleotide bases that
compose mRNA molecules as letters. DNA is a linear polynucleotide chain and a
protein is a linear polypeptide chain. The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
chain corresponds to the sequence of nucleotide bases in the gene (DNA) that codes
for it. Change in a specific codon in DNA produces a change of amino acid in the
corresponding position in the polypeptide. The gene and the polypeptide it codes for
are said to be co-linear.

IInd Sem Page 1

 Genetic Code (IInd Sem) Dr. Subhashini

2. Triplet: The Crick, Brenner experiment first demonstrated that codons consist of
three DNA bases. Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich J. Matthaei was the first to
reveal the

3. nature of a codon in 1961. Each word within the mRNA contains three ribonucleotide
letters. Each group of three ribonucleotide called a codon specifies one amino acid
and hence the code is triplet. The code defines how sequences of nucleotide triplets,
called codons, specify which amino acid will be added next during protein synthesis.

4. Universal: The same code is used throughout all the life forms being universal in
nature. The universal genetic code is a common language for almost all organisms to
translate nucleotide sequences of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA) to amino acid sequences of proteins eg UUU codes phenylalanine in every
organisms.. However, the genetic code is still evolved. Nonuniversal genetic codes
are found in some organisms and organelle. Eg. In mitochondria UGA is not a stop
codon instead it codes for tryptophans, Methionine is coded by AUG and AUA, AGA
and AGG coding arginine universally codes as stop codon. In fruit fly AGA and AGG
codes for serine.

S.No. Organism or cell Codon Universal code Unusual code

IInd Sem Page 2

 Genetic Code (IInd Sem) Dr. Subhashini

organelle
1. UGA Stop Tryptophan

2. Mitochondria AUG and AUA AUG for AUA also coding

methionine methionine
3. AGA and AGG Arginine Stop codn

4. Drosophila AGA and AGG Arginine Serins

5. Mycoplasm, UGA Stop Tryptophan

Spiroplasm
6. Acetabularia UAA and UAG Stop Glutamate

7. E. Coli GUG and UUG Valine and Start coden

Leucine

5. Degenerate: Degeneracy is the redundancy of the genetic code which means given
amino acid can be specified by more than one triplet codon. Ex. codons GAA and
GAG both specify glutamic acid (redundancy). The codons encoding one amino acid
may differ in any of their three positions. For example, the amino acid leucine is
specified by YUR or CUN (UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, or CUG) codons while
the amino acid serine is specified by UCN or AGY (UCA, UCG, UCC, UCU, AGU,
or AGC) codons (difference in the first, second, or third position).

6. Nonoverlapping and commaless: The genetic code is composed of nucleotide triplets. In

other words, three nucleotides in mRNA (a codon) specify one amino acid in a protein. The
code is non-overlapping. This means that successive triplets are read in order. Each
nucleotide is part of only one triplet codon. A non-overlapping code means that a base in
a mRNA is not used for different codons and once read for a amino acid will not
participate for another amino acid. In Figure it has been shown nine bases code for not
more than three amino acids.

IInd Sem Page 3

 Genetic Code (IInd Sem) Dr. Subhashini

A comma less code means that no nucleotide or comma (or punctuation) is

present in between two codons. Therefore, code is continuous and comma less and no
letter is wasted between two words or codons.

6. Start and stop codon

Translation starts with a chain-initiation codon or start codon. The start codon alone is
not sufficient to begin the process. Nearby sequences such as the ShineDalgarno
sequence in E. coli and initiation factors are also required to start translation. The
most common start codon is AUG, which is read as methionine or, in bacteria, as
formylmethionine. Alternative start codons depending on the organism include
"GUG" or "UUG"; these codons normally represent valine and leucine, respectively,
but as start codons they are translated as methionine or formylmethionine.
The three stop codons have names: UAG is amber, UGA is opal (sometimes
also called umber), and UAA is ochre. Stop codons are also called "termination" or
"nonsense" codons as they encode no amino acid. They signal release of the nascent
polypeptide from the ribosome because no cognate tRNA has anticodons
complementary to these stop signals, allowing a release factor to bind to the ribosome
instead.

7. Unambiguous: There is no ambiguity in the genetic code. A given codon always codes
for a particular amino acid, wherever it is present. Each codon specifies one amino
acid only. For instance UAU codes for only Tyrosine and none other amino acid.

IInd Sem Page 4

 Genetic Code (IInd Sem) Dr. Subhashini

Wobble hypothesis

It was first proposed that a specific tRNA anticodon would exist for every codon and hence
61 tRNA (excluding stop codon) would be present but 30-50 were found to be present. The
wobble hypothesis discovered by Frances Crick states that rules of base pairing are relaxed
at the third position. It states that the base at the 5’ end of the anticodon also shows non
standard base pairing with any of several bases located at the 3’end of a codon. So, first base
of anticodon and third base of codon is the wobble position. so that The base at the 5’ end of
the anticodon and third base of codon

Transfer RNA
Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that helps decode a messenger RNA
(mRNA) sequence into a protein. tRNAs function at specific sites in the ribosome during translation,
which is a process that synthesizes a protein from an mRNA molecule. Proteins are built from smaller
units called amino acids, which are specified by three-nucleotide mRNA sequences called codons.
Each codon represents a particular amino acid, and each codon is recognized by a specific tRNA. The
tRNA molecule has a distinctive folded structure with three hairpin loops that form the shape of a
three-leafed clover. One of these hairpin loops contains a sequence called the anticodon, which can
recognize and decode an mRNA codon. Each tRNA has its corresponding amino acid attached to its
end. When a tRNA recognizes and binds to its corresponding codon in the ribosome, the tRNA

IInd Sem Page 5

 Genetic Code (IInd Sem) Dr. Subhashini

transfers the appropriate amino acid to the end of the growing amino acid chain. Then the tRNAs and
ribosome continue to decode the mRNA molecule until the entire sequence is translated into a protein.

Function of tRNA. The job of tRNA is to read the message of nucleic acids, or nucleotides, and
translate it into proteins, or amino acids. The process of making a protein from an mRNA template is
called translation. Each individual codon corresponds to an amino acid.

Ribosome
The ribosome is a complex cellular and molecular machine, found within all living cells, that
serves as the site of biological protein synthesis (translation). Ribosomes link amino acids
together in the order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. It is largely made up
of specialized RNA known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as well as dozens of distinct proteins
(the exact number varies slightly between species).Ribosomes consist of two major
components: the small ribosomal subunit which binds to a larger subunit and the mRNA
pattern and reads the RNA, and the large subunit which binds to the tRNA the amino acids,
and the smaller subunit and hence joins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each
subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and a variety of
ribosomal proteins (r-protein or rProtein. A ribosome is made from complexes of RNAs and
proteins and is therefore a ribonucleoprotein. Ribosomes and associated molecules are also

IInd Sem Page 6

 Genetic Code (IInd Sem) Dr. Subhashini

known as the translational apparatus. When a ribosome finishes reading an mRNA

molecule, these two subunits split apart. Ribosomes are ribozymes, because the catalytic
peptidyl transferase activity that links amino acids together is performed by the ribosomal
RNA. Ribosomes are often associated with the intracellular membranes that make up the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.
The ribosomal proteins and rRNAs are arranged into two distinct ribosomal pieces of
different size, known generally as the large and small subunit of the ribosome. Ribosomes
consist of two subunits that fit together and work as one to translate the mRNA into a
polypeptide chain during protein synthesis. Prokaryotic ribosomes are around 20 nm (200 Å)
in diameter and are composed of 65% rRNA and 35% ribosomal proteins. Prokaryotes have
70S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (30S) and a large (50S) subunit. Their small subunit
has a 16SRNA subunit (consisting of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The large
subunit is composed of a 5SRNA subunit (120 nucleotides), a 23S RNA subunit (2900
nucleotides) and 31 protein

Ribosomesare composed of two subunits, one

small and one large. Four binding sitesare located
on theribosome , one for mRNA and three for tRNA.
The three tRNA sitesare labeledP, A, and E.TheP
site, called the peptidyl site, binds to the tRNA
holding the growing polypeptide chain of amino
acids.

Reference Book

1. Lehninger principles of biochemistry

2. Satyanarayana Biochemistry

IInd Sem Page 7