9/16/2021

IV. NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The most highly organized system of the body.
 It is concerned with the reception of stimuli,
transmission of impulses, interpretation of
sensations and the integration of sensations
that arise from both the internal and the
external environment.
 The information received must be organized
and stored, as well as used in the initiation of
activity in effectors.
 Acts as a control system.

IV. NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Functions of nervous system

a. Initiate and/or regulate movement of body

parts
b. Regulate secretions from glands
c. Maintain an appropriate state of consciousness
d. Gather information about the external
environment and about the status of the
internal environment of the body
e. Stimulate body responses appropriate for
survival (thirst, hunger, fear, rage, and sexual
behaviors)

1
 9/16/2021

Basic unit of nervous system

Neuron

Basic unit of nervous system

Parts of a Neuron
Soma – cell body of neuron
Dendrite – a neuronal process that conducts nerve
impulse toward the soma
Axon – a neuronal process that conducts nerve
impulse away from the soma
Myelin sheath – insulating covering that surrounds an
axon that increases the speed at which a nerve
impulse can travel along an axon
Schwann cell – cell that secretes myelin
Node of Ranvier – a small gap in the myelin sheath

2
 9/16/2021

Soma – cell body of neuron

Dendrite – a neuronal process that conducts nerve
impulse toward the soma
Axon – a neuronal process that conducts nerve
impulse away from the soma
Myelin sheath – insulating covering that surrounds
an axon that increases the speed at which a
nerve impulse can travel along an axon
Schwann cell – cell that secretes myelin
Node of Ranvier – a small gap in the myelin sheath

3
 9/16/2021

Some terminologies

 Nuclei – group of nerve cell bodies within

the CNS
 Ganglia - group of nerve bodies outside the
CNS
 Fasciculi - bundles of nerve processes within
the CNS
 Nerves - bundles of nerve processes outside
the CNS

Divisions of the
Nervous System

4
 9/16/2021

Central Nervous System (CNS)

 composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
 The brain is enclosed in the skull while the spinal
cord is enclosed in the vertebral canal; brain is
subdivided into three parts.
a. forebrain is the largest part and fills most of the
cranial cavity
b. midbrain extends caudally from the forebrain.
c. hindbrain is beyond the midbrain.
 The spinal cord is the direct continuation of the
brain into the vertebral canal.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

 responsible for the integrative function in which
sensory information from both inside and outside
the body is processed and the appropriate
response is generated
 The CNS includes not only neurons but also blood
vessels, connective tissue, and supportive cells

5
 9/16/2021

Central Nervous System (CNS)

(forebrain)

(midbrain)

(hindbrain)

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain

6
 9/16/2021

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

 includes all the neurons outside the CNS.
 includes the spinal nerves that carry impulses to
and from the spinal cord and the cranial nerves
that carry impulses to and from the brain
 peripheral nerves consist of the neurons and
associated blood vessels and connective tissue
that lie outside of the CNS

7
 9/16/2021

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Cranial Nerves – supply (ventral view)

innervations to structures
to the head and neck;
carry information from
the general sensory
receptors in the body

Cranial Nerves

8
 9/16/2021

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Spinal Nerves - arise from the spinal cord and emerge
from the vertebrae, muscles and organs throughout the
body.

Peripheral Nervous System

 further divided into:
 Sensory (afferent) division consists of sensory
neurons located throughout the body that
project to the brain and spinal cord where
sensory input originated from receptors is
carried into
 Motor (efferent) division carries the motor
response generated via the integrative
function of the CNS to either a muscle or
endocrine gland; further divided into two
parts: somatic nervous system and autonomic
nervous system.

9
 9/16/2021

Somatic Nervous System

 part of the motor division of the PNS that is
associated with the voluntary control of the
body movements through the action of
skeletal muscles.
 an animal can consciously control the somatic
nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System

 portion of the PNS that works automatically
and without voluntary input.
 its parts include receptors within viscera
(internal organs).
 involves in the maintenance of relatively stable
internal body environment or a state of
homeokinesis or homeostasis.
 further divided into sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions which generally
have an antagonistic effect on various
functions

10
 9/16/2021

Autonomic Nervous System

 1. sympathetic nervous system – arises
from the thoracolumbar segment of the
spinal cord; activated in cases of
emergencies to mobilize energy

 2. parasympathetic nervous system – fibers

leave the CNS with several cranial and
sacral nerves; activated when organisms
are in a relaxed state.

Autonomic Nervous System

11
 9/16/2021

Site of information
processing
Reflexes
Cranial Spinal
reflex reflex
 are rapid,
Development
automatic
responses to Innate Acquired
stimuli reflex reflex
designed to
protect the Complexity
body and
Monosynaptic Polysynaptic
maintain reflex reflex
homeostasis
Resulting motor
response

Somatic Visceral
reflex reflex

Reflexes
 The neural path controlling a reflex is called a reflex arch
which is composed of:
1) a receptor – detects a change either in the external
environment or within the body itself
2) a sensory or afferent neuron – transmits action potential
(nerve impulse) from sensory receptor to brainstem or spinal
cord
3) an interneuron – neuron inside the CNS that integrates the
incoming sensory impulse with other impulses from other
sensory neurons; absent in monosynaptic reflexes
4) a motor or efferent neuron – sends out integrated response of
the reflex from the spinal cord or brainstem to the target
organ
5) an effector organ – organ that elicits the response
(contraction of muscle or secretion of gland) in order to
establish homeostasis

12
 9/16/2021

Classifications of Reflex
 Cranial reflex – processing of information in the
brain (e.g. pupillary light replex)
 Spinal reflex - sensory information is processed in
the spinal cord; does not require input or
processing from the brain (e.g. withdrawal reflex)
 Innate reflex - involves genetically programmed
responses to specific stimuli (e.g. suckling reflex of
a newborn calf)
 Acquired reflex - developed later in life as a result
of experience (e.g. salivation in response to the
sound of a bell)

Classifications of Reflex
 Monosynaptic reflex – involves only one synapse
that joins two neurons (afferent and efferent) (e.g.
stretch reflex)
 Polysynaptic reflex – involves two or more
synapses (e.g. withdrawal reflex)
 Somatic reflex - involves the contraction of skeletal
muscle; although the contraction of skeletal
muscle is generally under conscious, voluntary
control, somatic reflexes involve the involuntary
contraction or relaxation of skeletal muscle
 Visceral reflex – involves the contraction of smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, or secretion of glands

13
 9/16/2021

Withdrawal
reflex

Steps in Withdrawal Reflex

- an example of polysynaptic, spinal reflex

1. Painful heat stimulus activates thermal pain receptors

(as sensory receptor) in the skin
2. Action potential is generated in the afferent pathway
(involves the afferent or sensory neuron) which
propagates the nerve impulse to the spinal cord
3. Stimulation of the excitatory interneuron (as interneuron
within the spinal cord)
4. Stimulation of the efferent pathway (involves the
efferent or motor neuron) supplying the biceps
5. Contraction of the biceps (as effector organ) causing
flexion of the elbow joint pulling the hand away from
the painful stimulus.

14
 9/16/2021

Patellar reflex
(knee jerk)

Steps in Patellar Reflex

- an example of monosynaptic, spinal reflex

1. Striking of the patellar tendon with a reflex hammer just

below the patella stretches the quadriceps muscle
causing stimulation of the muscle spindle (as sensory
receptor).
2. Action potential is generated in the afferent or sensory
neuron which propagates the nerve impulse to the
spinal cord; no interneuron, the sensory neuron
synapses directly on a motor neuron in the spinal cord
3. Stimulation of the efferent or motor neuron supplying
the quadriceps
4. Contraction of the quadriceps (as effector organ)
causing extension of the knee joint and kicking of the
leg

15
 9/16/2021

Steps in Patellar Reflex

- an example of monosynaptic, spinal reflex

Note: the afferent neuron in the reflex arc also

synapses with the inhibitory interneuron in the
spinal cord which in turn synapses with the
efferent neuron supplying the antagonist
hamstring muscle causing this muscle to
relax.

V. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
 system to meet the needs of distant cells for
nutrition and excretion
 The system consists of a network of joined
vessels (blood vessels: arteries, veins and
capillaries) for circulating the nutrient fluid
(blood) and a pump (heart) to propel the
fluid through the vessels

16
 9/16/2021

V. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
 Functions of cardiovascular system

a. Transport the nutrients absorbed from the digestive

tract to the tissues
b. Carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and
carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs
c. Transport hormones from one part of the body to
another
d. Help maintain the water equilibrium of the body
e. Assist in keeping the normal temperature of the
body
f. Assist in overcoming diseases

The HEART

 Cone-shaped
 Hollow, muscular
structure located in the
thorax
 The opposite end of the
cone is known as the
apex
 It is contained in a
serous sac called the
pericardium.

17
 9/16/2021

Pulse Rate
 determines the rate, rhythm, and amplitude of
the heart and can be taken using our ears
and fingers or stethoscope or
electrocardiogram (ECG)

Pulse Rate
Submandibular Artery (horse)

18
 9/16/2021

Pulse Rate
Coccygeal Artery
Facial Artery (Cattle) (cattle, pig)

Pulse Rate
Femoral Artery
(pig, goat, sheep, dog, cat)

19
 9/16/2021

Some Terminologies…
 Bradycardia – slowness of heartbeat
 Tachycardia – rapid or increased heartbeat
 Arrhythmia – abnormal rhythm of heartbeat
 Asystole – absence of heartbeat (cardiac
arrest)

Resting Heart Rate

Species bpm (range)

Chick 350-450

Chicken (adult) 250-300

Goat 70-80

Dairy cow 48-84

Horse 28-40

Ox 36-60

Pig 70-120

Sheep 70-80

20
 9/16/2021

The BLOOD VESSELS

Arteries – blood vessels that carry blood away
from the heart; with thick and elastic walls;
have terminal twigs that end in capillaries
called arterioles

Veins – blood vessels that carry blood

towards the heart; larger in diameter than
arteries; minute veins connecting the
capillaries with larger veins are called
venules

Capillaries – minute blood vessels connecting

the arterioles and venules

The BLOOD VESSELS

21
 9/16/2021

Direction of Blood Flow

Lungs

valve
 pulmonary artery

Blood Circulations
 Cardiac circulation – involves the
heart
 Pulmonary circulation – involves the
lungs
 Systemiccirculation – involves the
general body area/tissues
 Portal
circulation – involves the
gastrointestinal tract and the liver

22
 9/16/2021

Cardiac Circulation

Pulmonary Circulation

23
 9/16/2021

Systemic Circulation

Portal Circulation

24
 9/16/2021

The BLOOD
 The fluid carried by the arteries and veins
 Somewhat sticky and viscous
 Five times the viscosity of water
 Specific gravity of 1.06 and pH of 7.4 Bright
red (oxygenated) to dark red
(unoxygenated)
 Has a distinctive odor and salty taste
 Makes up 6-10% of the total body weight
 Made up of cellular and fluid elements

Cellular Elements of Blood

1. Red blood cells or RBC
(erythrocytes)
- Non-nucleated biconcave disc-
shaped cells
- Specialized in the transportation
of O2 and CO2 mammal
- Contains hemoglobin (iron
containing pigment as principal
oxygen transport medium

avian

25
 9/16/2021

Cellular Elements of Blood

2. White blood cells or WBC (leucocytes)

- Nucleated cells capable of ameboid
movement
- Two groups:
a. Granulocytes – neutrophils, basophils,
eosinophils
b. Agranulocytes – monocytes, lymphocytes

Cellular Elements of Blood

2.a. Granulocytes
- Leucocytes that contain granular material
in their cytoplasm

2.a.1. Neutrophils
- Highly phagocytic
- Increase in number during
acute bacterial infection

26
 9/16/2021

Cellular Elements of Blood

2.a. Granulocytes

- 2.a.2. Eosinophils
- Become numerous during
parasitism and allergic
reactions

Cellular Elements of Blood

2.a. Granulocytes

- 2.a.3. Basophils
- Mediate during allergic
reaction

27
 9/16/2021

Cellular Elements of Blood

2.b. Agranulocytes
- Leucocytes that contain very little granular
material in their cytoplasm

2.b.1. Monocytes
- largest leucocytes,
phagocytic, and
increase in number
during chronic
infection

Cellular Elements of Blood

2.b. Agranulocytes

2.b.2. Lymphocytes
- involved in immune
responses

28
 9/16/2021

Cellular Elements of Blood

3. Thrombocytes (platelets)
- Involved in blood clotting

Fluid Elements of Blood

Plasma – fluid part of the
blood; provides the medium
of exchange between the
blood vessels and the cells
of the body; major
component is water (92%).

Serum – clear, straw colored

liquid portion of plasma; is
the plasma minus the
clotting factor (fibrinogen)

29
 9/16/2021

Blood abnormalities
 Anemia – red blood cells are
reduced in number and or the
hemoglobin level is below normal
 Polycythemia – excessive number of
RBC in the blood circulation
 Leucopenia – number WBC is below
normal
 Leucocytosis – number of WBC is
above normal

Blood abnormalities
 Thrombus – a clot that remained fixed
in the lumen of the blood vessel
 Embolus– a clot that floats freely in
the blood stream

30
 9/16/2021

VI. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 Includes the lymphoid tissues and the
lymphatic vessels distributed throughout the
body
 Drains the tissue fluid (lymph) flowing
through a network of vessels (lymphatic
vessels)
 a framework for the production and
maturation of immune cells.

VI. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 Lymphoid tissue consists of accumulations of
lymphocytes trapped in the spaces
between fibers of reticular connective tissue
 Examples of lymphoid organs are lymph
nodes, spleen, thymus and tonsils

31
 9/16/2021

VI. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Functions of the lymphatic system

 Returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream from the

extracellular spaces
 Filters out and phagocytize bacteria and other
foreign material
 Helps maintain homeostasis and tissue health
 Produces antibody and lymphocytes
 Absorbs and transports fat from the intestine to the
bloodstream

Lymph nodes
 discrete knots of
lymphoid tissue
scattered along
the course of
lymph vessels.
 filter the lymph
 harbor
lymphocytes,
plasma cells,
and
macrophages.

32
 9/16/2021

Spleen
 Largest
lymphoid organ
 Acts as blood
reservoir
 Acts as blood
forming organ in
young animals
 Acts as
graveyard for
old RBC
 Site of antibody
production

Thymus
 A lympho-
epithelial
organ that
serves as
source of
lymphocytes

33
 9/16/2021

Tonsils
 A lymphoid
tissues found
in the throat

Payer’s patches
 A lymphoid organ found in the wall of
small intestine

34