Professional Documents
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Personal Development Reviewer
Personal Development Reviewer
Self-image
ᴥ the image of our actual self, because we
have no way of how others view us
Self-Concept
ᴥ refers to your awareness of yourself
Personal Effectiveness
ᴥ means making use of personal resources to
enable you to achieve your goals
SPIRITUAL SELF
ᴥ description of your about your reactions on
religions, beliefs, history
ᴥ your inner peace and joy, your spiritual
regimen or routine
In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity,
masters, new challenges. Each stage builds upon the and dependable affection, the infant's view of the
successful completion of earlier stages. The world will be one of trust.
challenges of stages not successfully completed
may be expected to reappear as problems in the Should the parents fail to provide a secure
future. environment and to meet the child's basic needs; a
sense of mistrust will result. Development of
However, mastery of a stage is not required to mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration,
advance to the next stage. The outcome of one stage suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence.
is not permanent and can be modified by later
experiences. According to Erik Erikson, the major
developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or
Erikson's stage theory characterizes an individual not other people, especially primary caregivers,
advancing through the eight life stages as a function regularly satisfy basic needs.
of negotiating his or her biological forces and
sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized by If caregivers are consistent sources of food,
a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust—that
(as shown in the table below). others are dependable and reliable.
If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the
these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute infant instead learns mistrust—that the world is an
in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a
the corresponding virtue. dangerous place.
For example, if an infant enters into the toddler While negative, having some experience with
stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more mistrust allows the infant to gain an understanding
trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life;
hope into the remaining life stages. yet being at the stage of infant or toddler; it is a
good idea not to put them in situations of mistrust:
the child's number one needs are to feel safe, Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt
comforted, and well cared for. (locomotors-genital, preschool, 4–5 years)
Existential Question:
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act?
(early childhood, 2–4 years)
Existential Question: Is It Okay to Be Me? Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of
undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the
As the child gains control over eliminative sake of just being active and on the move.
functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore
their surroundings. The child is learning to master the world around
them, learning basic skills and principles of physics.
The parents still provide a strong base of security Things fall down, not up. Round things roll. They
from which the child can venture out to assert their learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease.
will.
At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete
The parents' patience and encouragement helps their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing
foster autonomy in the child. new emotion. They may feel guilty over things that
logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt
Children at this age like to explore the world around when this initiative does not produce desired results.
them and they are constantly learning about their
environment. The development of courage and independence are
what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age,
Caution must be taken at this age while children apart from other age groups.
may explore things that are dangerous to their
health and safety. Young children in this category face the challenge
of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and
At this age children develop their first interests. For Boyd (2004), the child during this stage faces the
example, a child who enjoys music may like to play complexities of planning and developing a sense of
with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors judgment.
may be interested in animals and plants.
During this stage, the child learns to take initiative
Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely and prepare for leadership and goal achievement
to instill in the child a sense of doubt, and roles. Activities sought out by a child in this stage
reluctance to attempt new challenges. may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing
a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both
As they gain increased muscular coordination and these examples involve self-limits.
mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying
some of their own needs. They begin to feed Within instances requiring initiative, the child may
themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors
bathroom. are a result of the child developing a sense of
frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as
If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, planned and may engage in behaviors that seem
toddlers develop a sense of autonomy—a sense of aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents.
being able to handle many problems on their own. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects,
But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable
to let children perform tasks of which they are behaviors during this stage.
capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-
sufficiency; children may instead develop shame Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish
and doubt about their ability to handle problems. tasks on their own, and can start new things. With
this growing independence comes many choices
about activities to be pursued.
Sometimes children take on projects they can At this stage, children are eager to learn and
readily accomplish, but at other times they accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing,
undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities telling time. They also get to form moral values,
or that interfere with other people's plans and recognize cultural and individual differences and
activities. are able to manage most of their personal needs and
grooming with minimal assistance.
If parents and preschool teachers encourage and
support children's efforts, while also helping them At this stage, children might express their
make realistic and appropriate choices, children independence by talking back and being disobedient
develop initiative—independence in planning and and rebellious.
undertaking activities.
Erikson viewed the elementary school years as
But if, instead, adults discourage the pursuit of critical for the development of self-confidence.
independent activities or dismiss them as silly and Ideally, elementary school provides many
bothersome, children develop guilt about their opportunities to achieve the recognition of teachers,
needs and desires. parents and peers by producing things—drawing
pictures, solving addition problems, writing
Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority sentences, and so on.
(latency, school age, 5–12 years)
Existential Question: Can I make it in the World If children are encouraged to make and do things
of People and Things? and are then praised for their accomplishments, they
begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent,
The aim to bring a productive situation to persevering at tasks until completed, and putting
completion gradually supersedes the whims and work before pleasure.
wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are
developed. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their
efforts or if they find they are incapable of meeting
The failure to master trust, autonomy, and their teachers' and parents' expectations, they
industrious skills may cause the child to doubt his develop feelings of inferiority about their
or her future, leading to shame, guilt, and the capabilities.
experience of defeat and inferiority.
At this age, children start recognizing their special
The child must deal with demands to learn new talents and continue to discover interests as their
skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and education improves. They may begin to choose to
incompetence. do more activities to pursue that interest, such as
joining a sport if they know they have athletic
"Children at this age are becoming more aware of ability, or joining the band if they are good at
themselves as individuals." They work hard at music.
"being responsible, being good and doing it right."
They are now more reasonable to share and If not allowed to discover their own talents in their
cooperate. own time, they will develop a sense of lack of
motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy. They
Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual may become "couch potatoes" if they are not
cognitive developmental traits specific for this age allowed to develop interests.
group. Children grasp the concepts of space and
time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a
better understanding of cause and effect, and of
calendar time.
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion This emerging sense of self will be established by
(adolescence, 13–19 years) 'forging' past experiences with anticipations of the
Existential Question: future. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole,
Who Am I and What Can I Be? the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads:
ᴥ What is unique about the stage of Identity is
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier
appear to others. stages and a special sort of anticipation of
later ones. Youth has a certain unique
Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the quality in a person's life; it is a bridge
outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future between childhood and adulthood. Youth is
are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's a time of radical change—the great body
meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of changes accompanying puberty, the ability
a career. of the mind to search one's own intentions
and the intentions of others, the suddenly
The ability to settle on a school or occupational sharpened awareness of the roles society has
identity is pleasant. In later stages of adolescence, offered for later life.
the child develops a sense of sexual identity. As
they make the transition from childhood to Adolescents "are confronted by the need to re-
adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do this
play in the adult world. in the face of an often potentially hostile world"
This is often challenging since commitments are
Initially, they are apt to experience some role being asked for before particular identity roles have
confusion—mixed ideas and feelings about the formed. At this point, one is in a state of 'identity
specific ways in which they will fit into society— confusion', but society normally makes allowances
and may experiment with a variety of behaviors and for youth to "find themselves” and this state is
activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for called 'the moratorium':
neighbors, affiliating with certain political or ᴥ The problem of adolescence is one of role
religious groups). confusion—a reluctance to commit which
may haunt a person into his mature years.
Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents Given the right conditions—and Erikson
achieve a sense of identity regarding whom they are believes these are essentially having enough
and where their lives are headed. space and time, a psychosocial moratorium,
when a person can freely experiment and
The teenager must achieve identity in occupation, explore—what may emerge is a firm sense
gender roles, politics, and, in some cultures, of identity, an emotional and deep
religion. awareness of who he or she is.
Erikson is credited with coining the term "identity As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at
crisis". Each stage that came before and that follows work. No matter how one has been raised, one's
has its own 'crisis', but even more so now, for this personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself.
marks the transition from childhood to adulthood.
This passage is necessary because "Throughout Often, this leads to conflict with adults over
infancy and childhood, a person forms much religious and political orientations. Another area
identification. But the need for identity in youth is where teenagers are deciding for themselves is their
not met by these." career choice, and often parents want to have a
decisive say in that role.
This turning point in human development seems to
be the reconciliation between 'the person one has If society is too insistent, the teenager will
come to be' and 'the person society expects one to acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing
become'. him or her to ‘foreclose' on experimentation and,
therefore, true self-discovery.
Once someone settles on a worldview and vocation, Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation
will he or she be able to integrate this aspect of self- (early adulthood, 20-39 years)
definition into a diverse society? Existential Question: Can I Love?
According to Erikson, when an adolescent has The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized
balanced both perspectives of "What have I got?" around the age of 30. At the start of this stage,
and "What am I going to do with it?" he or she has identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end,
established their identity: though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage
(Erikson, 1950).
Dependent on this stage is the ego quality
of fidelity—the ability to sustain loyalties freely
pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and
confusions of value systems. (Italics in original) Young adults are still eager to blend their identities
with friends. They want to fit in.
Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often
characterized by marriage, many are tempted to cap Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to
off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being
age ranges are actually quite fluid, especially for the turned down or our partners breaking up with us.
achievement of identity, since it may take many We are familiar with pain and to some of us
years to become grounded, to identify the object of rejection is so painful that our egos cannot bear it.
one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age".
Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a
In the biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate
Truth, Erikson determined that their crises ended at and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people
ages 25 and 30, respectively: whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and
ᴥ Erikson does note that the time of Identity whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of
crisis for persons of genius is frequently one's intimate relations" (1950).
prolonged. He further notes that in our
industrial society, identity formation tends to Once people have established their identities, they
be long, because it takes us so long to gain are ready to make long-term commitments to others.
the skills needed for adulthood's tasks in our They become capable of forming intimate,
technological world. So… we do not have reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close
an exact time span in which to find friendships or marriage) and willingly make the
ourselves. It doesn't happen automatically at sacrifices and compromises that such relationships
eighteen or at twenty-one. require.
A very approximate rule of thumb for our
society would put the end somewhere in If people cannot form these intimate relationships—
one's twenties. perhaps because of their own needs—a sense of
isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness
and angst.
Generativity is the concern of guiding the next As we grow older and become senior citizens we
generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are tend to slow down our productivity and explore life
expressions of generativity. as a retired person. It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments and are able to
The adult stage of generativity has broad develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
application to family, relationships, work, and successful life.
society.
If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we
"Generativity, then is primarily the concern in did not accomplish our life goals, we become
establishing and guiding the next generation... the dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often
concept is meant to include... productivity and leading to depression and hopelessness.
creativity.
The final developmental task is retrospection:
During middle age the primary developmental task people look back on their lives and
is one of contributing to society and helping to accomplishments. They develop feelings of
guide future generations. contentment and integrity if they believe that they
have led a happy, productive life. They may instead
When a person makes a contribution during this develop a sense of despair if they look back on a
period, perhaps by raising a family or working life of disappointments and unachieved goals.
toward the betterment of society, a sense of
generativity—a sense of productivity and This stage can occur out of the sequence when an
accomplishment—results. individual feels they are near the end of their life
(such as when receiving a terminal disease
In contrast, a person who is self-centered and diagnosis).
unable or unwilling to help society move forward
develops a feeling of stagnation—a dissatisfaction
with the relative lack of productivity.