FKA – UTM

JSB
Deterioration and Repair

1
CONCRETE DETERIORATION
&
REPAIR

PROFESSOR DR MOHAMMAD BIN ISMAIL

C09-313
 REFERENCES

1. Durable Concrete Structures, Comite Euro-

International du Beton, Thomas Telford, 1992
2. Advanced Concrete Technology, John Newman
& Ban Seng Choo, Elsevier, 2003
3. Corrosion of Steel in Concrete, Luca Bertolini,
Bernhard Elsener, Pietro Pedeferri, Rob Polder,
WILEY-VCH, 2004

Department of Structures and Materials, Faculty of Civil Engineering

3
UTM
 Causes of Failures

• Design deficiencies 40-60%

• Construction errors 25-30%
• Material defects 10-15%
• Maintenance deficiencies 5-10%

Department of Structures and Materials

4
 FACTORS INFLUENCE ABILITY TO RESIST
DETERIORATION
• Increase deterioration

Higher temperatures • Decrease deterioration

Increased fluid velocities √ Lower water-cement ratio

Poor compaction √ Proper cement type

Poor curing √ Lower absorption

Alternate wetting and drying √ Lower permeability

Corrosion of reinforcing steel

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CAUSES OF DETERIORATION

• Carbonation
• Sulphate attack
• Chloride attack
• Freeze and thaw
• Alkali silica reaction
• Acid attack

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CARBONATION

• Calcium hydroxide (CH) is produced during hydration

process.
• This CH in the pores provides alkalinity to the concrete.
• When concrete comes in contact with carbon dioxide, it
reacts first with CH.
• This process reduce alkalinity and is known as
carbonation.
• Reduce alkalinity lowering the pH.
• Carbonation can occur on the surface and through the
cracks.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CARBONATION
• Carbonation is a chemical process in which carbon dioxide diffuses to the
depth of concrete element and reacts with alkaline components in the
cement paste mainly calcium hydroxide. As a result of these reactions the
carbonation products are formed and phase composition and
consequently properties of concrete are changed. Likewise, the alkalinity
of related cement paste is decreasing.

• This fact is assessed by

phenolphtalein test. In this case violet
part represents part of concrete with
higher alkalinity (pH > 9.5).

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CARBONATION
• Carbonation induced-corrosion of edge beam

• Deterioration of reinforced concrete due to carbonation

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SULPHATE ATTACK

• Sulfate attack can be 'external' or 'internal'.

External: due to penetration of sulfates in solution,

in groundwater for example, into the concrete from
outside.
• Internal: due to a soluble source being incorporated
into the concrete at the time of mixing, gypsum in
the aggregate, for example.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

SULPHATE ATTACK

Department of Structures and Materials,

Faculty of Civil Engineering 11
UTM
 SULPHATE ATTACK

• External sulfate attack

– This is the more common type and typically occurs where water
containing dissolved sulfate penetrates the concrete. A fairly well-defined
reaction front can often be seen in polished sections; ahead of the front
the concrete is normal, or near normal. Behind the reaction front, the
composition and microstructure of the concrete will have changed. These
changes may vary in type or severity but commonly include:
– Extensive cracking
– Expansion
– Loss of bond between the cement paste and aggregate
– Alteration of paste composition, with monosulphate phase converting
to ettringite and, in later stages, gypsum formation The necessary
additional calcium is provided by the calcium hydroxide and calcium
silicate hydrate in the cement paste

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SULPHATE ATTACK

• The effect of these changes is an overall loss of concrete

strength.

• The above effects are typical of attack by solutions of

sodium sulfate or potassium sulfate.
•

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SULPHATE ATTACK

• Solutions containing magnesium sulfate are generally

more aggressive, for the same concentration.
• This is because magnesium also takes part in the
reactions, replacing calcium in the solid phases with the
formation of brucite (magnesium hydroxide) and
magnesium silicate hydrates.
• The displaced calcium precipitates mainly as gypsum.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SULPHATE ATTACK

• Other sources of sulfate which can cause sulfate attack

include:
– Seawater
– Oxidation of sulfide minerals in clay adjacent to the concrete - this
can produce sulfuric acid which reacts with the concrete
– Bacterial action in sewers - anaerobic bacterial produce sulfur
dioxide which dissolves in water and then oxidizes to form sulfuric
acid
– In masonry, sulfates present in bricks and can be gradually
released over a long period of time, causing sulfate attack of
mortar, especially where sulfates are concentrated due to
moisture movement.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SULPHATE ATTACK

• Internal sulfate attack

– Occurs where a source of sulfate is incorporated into
the concrete when mixed. Examples include the use of
sulfate-rich aggregate, excess of added gypsum in the
cement or contamination. Proper screening and testing
procedures should generally avoid internal sulfate
attack.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SULPHATE ATTACK

• Two chemical reactions involved:

1. Combination of sulphate with free calcium hydroxide
liberated during the hydration of cement, to form
calcium sulphate (gypsum).
2. Combination of gypsum and hydrated calcium
aluminate to form calcium sulphoaluminate
(ettringite).
• Both of these reactions result in an increase in
solid volume.
• The latter is generally blamed for most of the
expansion and disruption of concretes.
INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS
 SULPHATE ATTACK

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CHLORIDE ATTACK
• Chloride is the most common substances that
destroy the protective passivation of steel in
concrete.
• Chloride ions which may be present in the concrete
are from the additive used, aggregates or water.
• In service, chloride can migrate into the concrete in
the marine environment or from the exposure to de-
icing salts.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CHLORIDE ATTACK

• Calcium chloride breaks down in water to form a

strong electrolyte of which the consequence of
this reaction are the reduction of the concrete
alkalinity, increase in flow of corrosion current
and the final breakdown of the protective
passivating oxide film on the steel surface.
• Chlorides as free ions in solution within the pore
space are mainly responsible for increasing the
corrosion risk.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CHLORIDE ATTACK

• Total chloride (approximate) ion can be measured

by determining the acid soluble chloride content.
– Removed from sample by immersion in nitric acid
• Classification for assessing the risk of corrosion
(BRE, UK):
– Low risk - < 0.4%
– Medium risk - 0.4% to 1.0%
– High risk - > 1.0%

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CHLORIDE ATTACK

• The greatest cause of concrete deterioration in the US today is corrosion

induced by deicing or marine salts. Silica-fume concrete with a low water
content is highly resistant to penetration by chloride ions. More and more
transportation agencies are using silica fume in their concrete for
construction of new bridges or rehabilitation of existing structures.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CHLORIDE ATTACK

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

• Chloride attack due to salt is used for
deicing process

Chloride-induced corrosion damage

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 FREEZE THAW

• Concrete suffers thermal shock when the

temperature fluctuates suddenly above and
below 0oC.
• This type of exposure is known as freeze-thaw
cycle and causes concrete to deteriorate.
• Cracking and spalling of the surface occur when
water freezes in the pores.
• When de-icing salts are used, scaling occurs
– Concrete surface flakes or peels off

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 FREEZE THAW
• Typical example of concrete deteriorated from
freeze thaw actions.

• Surface parallel cracks in a Danish concrete

suffering from freeze thaw damage.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

Example of freeze/ thaw damage

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

Take 5

28
CONCRETE DETERIORATION
&
REPAIR 3

PROFESSOR DR MOHAMMAD BIN ISMAIL

C09-313
 ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTION
• A chemical reaction occur within the body of the
concrete between the alkali in the cement and
part of the aggregates which are reactive – Alkali-
Aggregate Reaction (AAR)
• Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) when the minerals are
derived from silica.
• For reaction to initiate and continue to cause
damage, there must be:
– Sufficient alkali in concrete
– A critical amount of the reactive aggregate
– Sufficient moisture
INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS
 ALKALI SILICA REACTION
• The reaction is expansive.
• It results in the formation of a gel.
• It expands and exerts internal pressure
 cracks
• ASR can start and stop.
– Continue until alkali or reactive aggregates are exhausted.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 Stage Stage
1: 2:
Gel Gel Filled
microcrack
. ...
...
........ Gel
Saturated Gel Filled
Paste microcrack
surrounded by
Gel saturated
paste

Stage Stage
3: 4:

32
MAB 1033
 ALKALI SILICA REACTION
• Alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) is an important part of the deterioration
process

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

ALKALI SILICA REACTION

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 ACID ATTACK

• Deterioration of concrete by acid is the result of a reaction

between the acid and the calcium hydroxide of the
hydrated cement.
• The chemical reaction results in the formation of water-
soluble calcium compounds which are then leached away
by the aqueous solution.
• Exception for oxalic and phosphoric acid.
• For sulphuric acid, accelerated due to calcium sulphate
form sulphate attack
• Causes cracking and spalling of concrete due to corrosion
of steel.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 ACID ATTACK

Sulphide Generation
Mechanism in
Sewer Networks

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

ACID ATTACK

Department of Structures and Materials,

Faculty of Civil Engineering 37
UTM
 ACID ATTACK

Corrosion of floodgate due to acidic water

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 RESULTS OF DETERIORATION

• Carbonation crackscontinuous
• Sulphate attack cracksisolated
• Chloride attack cracksisolated
• Freeze and thawspalling spot
• Alkali silica reaction cracksweb like or longitudinal
• Acid attack loose throughout surface

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CORROSION OF REBAR
• As a result of the hydration reactions of cement, the pore
solution of concrete tends to be alkaline, with pH values
typically in the range 12.5-13.6.
• Under such alkaline conditions, reinforcing steel tends to
passivate and display negligible corrosion rates.
• However, due to the porous nature of concrete, corrosive
species and chemical species supporting corrosion
reactions can enter the concrete and lead to corrosion
problems.
• Furthermore, corrosive species can enter the mix if
"contaminated" mix ingredients are used (water,
aggregates, additives).

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

• Corrosion damage to the reinforcing steel results in the build-up
of voluminous corrosion products, generating internal stresses
and subsequent cracking and spalling of the concrete as shown
schematically in the diagram below:

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 RESULTS OF CORROSION
• Parking Deck Delaminations

• Ramp Delaminations

• Concrete can delaminate in layers which are most commonly

caused by the expansion created by corrosion of internal
reinforcement.

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

CONCRETE DETERIORATION

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

DETERIORATION OF A ROOF BEAM

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 CONCRETE LIFE CYCLE
CEMENT WATER

CONCRETE
AGGREGATES

REINFORCEMENT
CRACKS
AGGRESSIVE ENIRONMENTS

REPAIR
CORROSION
DIAGNOSE
TECHNIQUES
MATERIALS DEMOLISH

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

TAKE 5
 CONCRETE REPAIR

• Diagnosis process in determining the repair

works

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 EVALUATION OF DAMAGE

• Determine what cause the damage?

– Result of poor design
– Faulty workmanship
– Mechanical abrasive action
– Cavitation of erosion from hydraulic action
– Leaching
– Chemical attack
– Chemical reaction inherent in the concrete mixture
– Corrosion of embedded metal
– Lengthy exposure to an unfavourable environment

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 EVALUATION OF DAMAGE

• Establish the extent of damage

• Determine if the major portion of the structure is of
suitable quality on which to build a sound repair
Based on this information
 The type
 The extent of repair
chosen

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 EVALUATION OF DAMAGE

 The most difficult step of which require a thorough

knowledge of the subject and mature judgment by
the engineer.
– If damage was an inferior concrete, replacement by good
quality concrete should assure lasting results
– But if good quality concrete was destroyed, a very superior
concrete is required

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

• Repair of a concrete structure

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 REPAIR PROCESS

• Evaluation of causes, extend and

consequences of deterioration
• Selection of suitable repair materials
• Surface preparation
• Application of repair materials
• Application of protective coating

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

CAUSES, EXTEND & CONSEQUENCES
• Determine the cause of deterioration
• Mark out on drawings the location and extend of
deterioration
• Is in the position to assess the need and urgency for repair
• Assess the options available
• Need to consider whether the damage will impair the
structural performance

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SELECTION OF MATERIALS
• Many types available from cement mortar, polymer
modified mortar to polymer mortar
• Factors to consider in selecting:
– Strength and environment
– Compatibility
– Appearance
– Cost

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 STRENGTH & ENVIRONMENT
• Strength and strength development important when
interruptions as a result of repairs need to be minimised
• The environment, eg. temperature and moisture can affect
the curing time, thus influence the strength development

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

COMPATIBILITY, APPEARANCE & COST
• The physical properties should be compatible as far as
possible to the parent concrete being repaired
– Volume change due to shrinkage or expansion
• If it is different significantly
– Loss of bond
– Cracks may develop
• Should match with the existing concrete both colour and
texture
• Maximum cost benefit - cheapest

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SURFACE PREPARATION
• Important as it determine the successfulness in achieving an
effective concrete repair
• Lack of adequate surface repair preparation have been
identified as the most reason for poor repairs
• Surface preparation entail preparing both the concrete and
the steel reinforcement
• The concrete must be sound, free from loose or segregated
materials, voids and substance which could decrease the
bond between the old and new concrete

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 PREPARATION METHODS

• Hammer and chiselling method mainly for small localised

areas
• Sand blasting used for cleaning large areas where thin layers
of materials like paint, coatings and surface contaminants
need to be removed
• High pressure water jets also used for large areas, cleaning
and removing surface skin
• Apply suitable bonding aid to improve bond
– Acrylic based, polymer based and epoxy based

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 PREPARATION METHODS
• The steel reinforcement need to be treated by removing all
rust or stabilised the surface by some special treatment
• Two types of system available for proptecting the steel
– Reactive resin
– Polymer modified cement
• Derusting can be achieved by:
– Normal wire brushing for smaller areas
– Sand or grid blasting for large areas

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

APPLICATION OF REPAIR MATERIALS

• Patching and resurfacing

• Pressure grouting
• Sprayed concrete
• Crack repairs
– Structural
– Non-structural

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 PATCHING & RESURFACING
• Patching refer to repairing small areas of localised damage
using mortar
• Resurfacing or reinstatement refer to the application of
mortars to large surface areas
• The damaged area is restored to the profile ot the
surrounding undamaged concrete

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 PRESSURE GROUTING
• The cement grout which are of pumpable consistency are
injected to the area enclosed in tight formwork under
pressure using a hand operated grout pump or motorised
grout pump
• The grout may consist of neat cement with an admixture or
may be preblended in bags.
• For large voids to be grouted, it is advisable to include suitable
size aggregates in order to achieve better compressive
strength and also reduce shrinkage of the grout – prepacked
grouting

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 SPRAYED CONCRETE
• Also known as shotcreting or guniting
• Most economical and fast method for large and vertical areas
– Walls, aches and soffit of slabs or decks
• Most sprayed concrete are by the dry mix process
• For good guniting works, skilled nozzleman, proper type of
equipment and suitable material grading play an important
role

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 STRUCTURAL CRACK REPAIRS

• Have the capacity to function as was originally intended

• The repair must provide a medium of stress transfer
across the crack section
• Pressure injection of epoxy resin is generally accepted for
repairing structural cracks
– Sealing along the cracks leaving injection ports at centres equal to
the depth of crack
– Injecting the liquid epoxy so that air, water vapour and water are
displaced
– Curing
– Removing the surface seal where aesthetics require

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 NON-STRUCTURAL CRACK
• Can permit ingress of contaminants that may accelerate
deterioration of steel reinforcement and concrete
• Non-structural crack may eventually become structural if not
repair
• Repair is to install a barrier to corrosive element
• An effective repair is to chisel a ‘V’ groove along the crack and
seal with repair mortar or grouting

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 PROTECTIVE COATING

• Objectives:
– To give the whole structure a uniform appearance
– To reduce the permeability of the remaining sound
concrete to ingress of:
• Oxygen
• Water and aqueous solution
• Carbon dioxide

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

 IDEAL COATING PROPERTIES

• Good penetration and adhesion

• Good resistance to UV radiation
• Good resistance to atmospheric attack
• Low permeability to water
• High permeability to vapour
• Low permeability to CO2

INSPIRING CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE MINDS

Terima Kasih