STRUCTURAL NOTES

PROPERTIES OF FORCES INTERNAL FORCES TYPES

MAGNITUDE- the amount of force, N TENSION- pulls away from joint

DIRECTION- refers to the orientation of its path or
line of action. It is usually described by the angle
that the line of action makes with some reference.
SENSE- refers to the manner in which it acts
along its line of action
FORCE SYSTEM
COMPRESSION-pushes towards joint
SHEAR- for connections
ASTM- American Society for Testing and
Materials
ACI- American Concrete institute
According to ACI code, I the strain in concrete
reaches 0.003 (Єconc= 0.003), Є=3mm
It begins to crack 1000

COPLANAR
- all acting in a single plane of a vertical wall
AISC- American Institute for steel construction
PARALLEL If a grade 60 steel (fy= 60ksi= 414Mpa) reaches a
- all having the same direction strain 0.0021 it begins to yield of (2.1mm)

CONCURRENT
- all having their lines of action intersect at a
common point. FEATURES OF A STRAIN STRESS DIAGRAM:

MOMENT STRESS- STRAIN DIAGRAM - a graphic

- force x distance representation of the relationship between unit
- moment can be about any point called stress values and the corresponding unit strains
CENTER OF MOMENT for a specific material

MOMENT ARM 1. PROPORTINAL LIMIT- maximum stress which

- distance from center of moment to force
- shortest or perpendicular distance from the
center of moment to line of action of force.
KINDS OF LOADS
CONCENTRATED LOADS - example is a
beam supporting a column
UNIFORM LOADS- a series of uniform
concentrated loads, but for 5 or more
uniformly spaced concentrated loads.
OTHER LOADS- varying load, moment load
the material springs back to the original length
when the load is released
2. ELASTIC LIMIT- maximum stress below which
the material does not return to its original length
but has incurred a permanent deformation we call
permanent set
3.YIELD POINT- the stress wherein the
deformation increases without any increase in the
load. The material at some portion shows a
decrease in its cross section
4. ULTIMATE STRENGTH- the maximum stress
that can be attained immediately before actual
failure or rupture

TYPES OF SUPPORT
RUPTURE STRENGTH- stress at which material
HINGED specimen breaks
ROLLER
FIXED/ RESTRAINED ALLOWABLE STRESS- the maximum unit stress
permitted for a material in the design of a
structural member, usually a fraction of the
TYPES OF BEAMS material’s elastic limit, yield strength, or ultimate
strength. Also called allowable unit stress,
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM working stress.
SIMPLY SUPPORTED W/ OVER HANG
(OVERHANGING BEAM) ELASTIC RANGE- the range of unit stresses for
CANTILEVER BEAM which a material exhibits elastic deformation
PROPPED CANTILEVER BEAM
(indeterminate)
CONTINOUS BEAM
ELASTIC DEFORMATION- a temporary change
in the dimensions or shape of a body produced by
a stress less than the elastic limit of the material
BRITLENESS- the property of material that causes it
to rupture suddenly under stress with little evident
deformation. Since brittle materials lack the plastic
behavior of ductile materials, they can give no warning
of impending material
DUCTILITY- the property of a material that
enables it to undergo plastic deformation after
being stressed beyond the elastic limit and before
rupturing. Ductility is a desirable property of a
structural material since plastic behavior is an
indicator of reserve strength and can serve as a
visual warning of impending failure.
ELASTICITY- the property of a material that
enables it to deform in response to an applied
force and to recover its original size and shape
upon removal of the force
MALLEABILITY- the ability of a material to regain
and rebound to original shape when the load is
released
TOUGHNESS- the property of a material that
enables it to absorb energy before rupturing,
represented by the area under the stress- strain
curve derived from a tensile test of the material.
Ductile materials are tougher than brittle
materials.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY- a coefficient of
elasticity of a material expressing the ratio
between a unit stress aSd the corresponding unit
strain caused by the stress, as derived from
Hooke’s law and represented by the slope of he
straight line portion of the stress- strain line
diagram. Also called coefficient of elasticity,
elastic modulus
PERMANENT SET- the inelastic strain remaining
in a material after complete release of the stress
producing deformation
YIELD STRENGTH- the stress necessary to
produce a specific limiting permanent set in a
material, usually 0.2% of its original length when
tested in tension. Yield strength is used to
determine the limit of usefulness of a material
having a poorly defined yield point. Also called
poor stress.
STRAIN- RATE EFFECT- the behavior an
increased rate of load application can cause in
normally ductile material
TEMPERATURE EFFECT- the brittle behavior
low temperatures can cause in a normally ductile
material
STRESS RELAXATION- the time- dependent
decrease in stress in a constrained material under
a constant load
CREEP- the gradual permanent deformation of a body
produced by a continued application of stress or
prolonged exposure to heat. Creep deflection in a
concrete structure continues over time and can be
significantly grater than the initial elastic deflection
FATIGUE- the weakening or failure of a material
at a stress below the elastic limit when subjected
to a repeated series of stresses
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
OF A36 STEEL:
Maximum allowable stress (Fv) in shear is 14.5 ksi
Maximum allowable stress (Fb) for bending is 24 ksi
Modulus of elasticity (E) is 29,000 ksi
WEIGHT:
water= 1000 kg/ m3
steel= 7850 kg/ m3
concrete= 2400 kg/ m3
weight= density x volume
volume of cylinder= pi (diameter)2 x length
4
PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL
TENSION- the act of stretching or state of being
pulled apart, resulting in the elongation of an
elastic body
TENSILE FORCE- an applied force producing or
tending to produce tension in an elastic body
AXIAL FORCE- a tensile or compressive force
acting along the longitudinal axis of a structural
member and at the centroid of the cross section,
producing axial stress without bending, torsion or
shear, also called axial load
AXIAL STRESS- the tensile or compressive
stress that develops to resist axial force, assumed
to be normal to and uniformly distributed over the
area of the cross section. Also called direct stress,
normal stress
COMPRESSION- the act of shortening or state of
being pushed together, resulting in the reduction
in size or volume of an elastic body
COMPRESSIVE FORCE- an applied force
producing or tending to produce compression in
an elastic body
ECCENTRIC FORCE- a force applied parallel to
the longitudinal axis of a structural member but
not to the centroid of the cross section, producing
bending and uneven distribution of stresses in the
section. Also called eccentric load.
STRESS- the internal resistance or reaction of an
elastic body to external forces applied to it. Equal
to the ratio of force to area and expressed in units
of force per unit of cross- sectional area. Also
called unit stress.
TENSILE STRESS- the axial stress that develops
at the cross section of an elastic body to resist the
collinear tensile forces tending to elongate it.
TENSILE STRAIN- the elongation of a unit length
of material produces by a tensile stress
ELONGATION- a measure of ductility of a
material, expressed as the percentage increase in
length of a test specimen after failure in tensile
test
REDUCTION OF AREA- a measure of ductility of
a material, expressed as the percentage decrease
in cross- sectional area of a test specimen after
rupturing in a tensile test
TENSILE STRENGTH- the resistance of a
material to longitudinal stress, measured by the
minimum amount of longitudinal stress required to
rupture the material
STRAIN - the deformation of a body under the
action of an applied force. Strain is a
dimensionless quantity, equal to the ratio of the
change in size and shape to the original size and
shape of a stressed element.
STAIN GAUGE- an instrument for measuring
minute deformation in a test specimen caused by
tension, compression, bending or twisting. Also
called extensometer
YOUNG’S MODULUS- a coefficient of elasticity of
material expressing the ratio of longitudinal stress
to the corresponding longitudinal strain caused by
the strain.
POISSON’S RATIO- the ratio of lateral strain to
the corresponding longitudinal strain in an elastic
body under longitudinal stress
COMPRESSIVE STRESS- the axial stress that
develops at the cross section of an elastic body to
resist the collinear compressive forces tending to
shorten it.
COMPRESSIVE STRAIN - the shortening of a unit
length of material produced by a compressive stress
SHEAR - the lateral deformation produced in a body by
an external force that causes one part of the body to
slide relative to an adjacent part in a direction parallel to
their plane contact.
SHEAR FORCE - an applied force producing or
tending to produce shear in the body
SHEARING FORCE - an internal force tangenial to
the surface on which it acts, developed by a body in
response to shear, shearing in a vertical plane
necessarily involves shearing in a horizontal plane and
vise versa
SHEARING STRESS- the force per unit area
developed along a section of an elastic body to resist a
shear force. Also called shear stress, tangenial stress
SHEARING STRAIN - the lateral deformation
developed in a body in response to shearing stresses,
defined as the tangent of the skew angle of the
deformation.
SHEAR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - a
coefficient elasticity of a material, expressing the
ratio between shearing stress and the
corresponding shearing strain produced by the
strain. Also called modulus of rigidity, modulus of
torsion
BENDING- the bowing of an elastic body as an
external force is applied transversely to its length.
Bending is the structural mechanism that enables
a load to be mechanism that enables a load to be
channeled in a direction perpendicular to its
application.
TRANSVERSE FORCE- a force applied
perpendicular to the length of a structural
member, producing bending and shear
TORQUE- the moment of a force system that
causes or tends to cause rotation or torsion
TORSION- the twisting of an elastic body about
its longitudinal axis caused by two equal and
opposite torques, producing shearing stresses in
the body
REINFORCED CONCRETE
EFFECTIVE LENGTH- the depth of concrete
section measured from the compression face to
the centroid of the tension reinforcement
COVER- the amount of concrete required to
protect steel reinforcement from fire and
corrosion, measured from the surface of the
reinforcement to outer surface of the concrete
section
BOND STRESS- the adhesive for per unit area of
contact between reinforcing bar and the
surrounding concrete developed at any section of
a flexural member
HOOK- a bend or curve given to develop an
equivalent embedment length, used where there
is insufficient room to develop in adequate
embedment length
STANDARD HOOK- a 90º, 135º, 180º bend
made at the end of a reinforcing bar according to
standards
ANCHORAGE - any of various means, as embedment
length or hooked bars, for developing tension or
compression in a reinforcing bar on each side of critical
section in order to prevent bond failure or splitting
CRITICAL SECTION - the section of a flexural
concrete member at a point of maximum stress, a point
of inflection, or appoint within the span where tension
bars are no longer needed to resist stress
BALANCED SECTION - a concrete in which the
tension reinforcement theoretically reaches its specified
yield strength as the concrete in compression reaches
its assumed ultimate strain
OVERREINFORCED SECTION - a concrete section
in which the concrete in compression reaches its
assumed ultimate strain before the tension
reinforcement reaches its specified yield strength. This
is a dangerous condition since failure of the section
could occur instantaneously without warning
UNDERREINFORCED SECTION - a concrete
section in which the tension reinforcement reaches its
specified yield strength before the concrete in
compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain. This
is desirable condition since failure of the section would
be preceded by large deformations giving prior warning
of impending collapse
BEAM
BEAM- a rigid structural member designed to
carry and transfer transverse loads across spaces
supporting elements
SPAN- the extent of space between two supports
of a structure
CLEAR SPAN- the distance between inner faces
of the support of a span
EFFECTIVE SPAN- the center to center distance
between the supports of a span
BENDING MOMENT- an external moment
tending to cause part a structure to rotate or bend,
equal to the algebraic sum of the moments about
the neutral axis of the section under consideration
RESISTING MOMENT- an internal moment equal
and opposite to a bending moment, generated by
a force couple to maintain equilibrium of the
section being considered
DEFLECTION - the perpendicular distance a spanning
member deviates from a true course under transverse
loading, increasing with load and span, and decreasing
with an increase in the moment of inertia of the section
of the modulus of elasticity of the material
NEUTRAL AXIS - an imaginary line passing through
the centroid of the cross section of a beam, other ember
subject to bending, along which no bending stresses
occur
BENDING STRESS - a combination of compressive
and tensile stresses developed at a cross section of
structural member to resist transverse force, having a
maximum value at the surface furthest from the neutral
axis
CAMBER - a slight convex curvature intentionally built
into beam, girder, or truss to compensate for an
anticipated deflection
How is camber treated in a steel truss 25 meters and
longer? Camber shall be approximately equal to the
dead load deflection
TRANSVERSE SHEAR- an external shear force
at a cross section of a beam or other member
subject to bending, equal to the algebraic sum of
transverse forces on one side of the section
VERTICAL SHEARING- the shearing stress
developed along cross section of a beam to resist
transverse shear, having a maximum value at the
neutral axis and decreasing nonlinearly toward
the outer faces
HORIZONTAL SHEARING- the shearing stress
developed to prevent slippage along longitudinal
planes of a beam under transverse loading, equal
to any point to the vertical shearing stress at that
point. Also called longitudinal shearing stress
FLEXURE FORMULA - a formula defining the
relationship between bending moment, bending
stress, and the cross sectional properties of a
beam. Bending stress is directly proportional to
bending moment and inversely proportional to the
moment of inertia of a beam section.
MOMENT OF INERTIA - the sum of the products
of each element of an area and the square of its
distance from a coplanar axis of rotation. Moment
of inertia is a geometric property that indicates
how the cross sectional area of structural member
is distributed and does not reflect the intrinsic
physical properties of a material
SECTION MODULUS- a geometric property of a
cross section, defined as the moment of inertia of
the section divided by the distance from the
neutral axis to the most remote surface.
LATERAL BUCKLING- the buckling of a
structural member induced by compressive
stresses acting on slender portion insufficiently
rigid in the lateral direction
STRESS TRAJECTORIES- lines depicting the
direction but not the magnitude of the principal
stresses in a beam
SHEAR DIAGRAM - a graphic representation of
the variation in magnitude of the external shears
present in a structure for a given set of transverse
loads and support conditions concentrated loads
produce external shears which are constant in
magnitude between the loads uniformly
distributed loads produce linearly varying shears
MOMENT DIAGRAM - a graphic representation
of the variation in magnitude of the bending
moment present in a structure for a given set of
transverse load and support conditions. The
overall deflected shape of a structure subject to
bending can often be inferred from the shape of
its moment diagram
CONCENTRATED LOADS- produce bending
moments which vary linearly between loads
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS produce
parabolically varying moments
POSITIVE SHEAR- a net resultant of shear forces
that acts vertically upward on the left part of the
structure being considered
NEGATIVE SHEAR- a net resultant of shear
forces that act vertically downward on the left part
of the structure being considered
POSITIVE MOMENT- a bending moment that
produces moment that produces a concave
curvature at a section of a structure
INFLECTION POINT- a point at which a structure
changes curvature from convex to concave or
vise versa as it deflects under a transverse load:
theoretically an internal hinge and therefore a
point of zero moment
NEGATIVE MOMENT- a bending moment that
produces a convex curvature at a section of a
structure
SIMPLE BEAM - a beam resisting on simple
supports at both ends which are free to rotate and
have no moment resistance. As with any
statistically determinate structure, the values of all
reactions, shears, and moments for a simple
beam are independent of its cross sectional
shape and material
CANTILEVER BEAM- a projecting beam
supported at only one fixed end
CANTILEVER- a beam or other rigid structural
member extending beyond a fulcrum and
supported by a balancing member or a downward
force behind the fulcrum
OVERHANGING BEAM - a simple beam
extending beyond one of its supports. The
overhanging reduces the positive moment at
midspan while developing a negative moment at
the base of the cantilever over the support
FIXED END BEAM- a beam having both ends
restrained against translation and rotation. The
fixed ends transfer bending stresses, increase the
rigidity of the beam and reduces its maximum
deflection
CONTINUOUS BEAM - a beam extending over
more than 2 supports in order to develop greater
rigidity and smaller moments than a series of
simple beams having similar spans and loading.
Both fixed end and continuous beams are
indeterminate structures for which the values of all
reactions, shears and moments are dependent
not only on span and loading but also on cross
sectional shape and material
HAUNCH - the part of a beam that is thickened or
deepened to develop greater moment resistance.
The efficiency of a beam can be increased by
shaping its length in response to the moment and
shear values which typically vary along its
longitudinal axis
SUSPENDED SPAN- a simple beam supported
by the cantilevers of two adjoining spans with
pinned construction joints at points of zero
moment. Also called hung span
EFFECTIVE LENGTH- the distance between
inflection points in the span of a fixed end or
continuous beam, equivalent in nature to the
actual length of simply supported beam
COLUMN
COLUMN - a relatively slender structural member
designed primarily to support axial, compressive
loads, applied at the member ends.
POST - a stiff vertical support especially a
wooden column in timber framing
BUCKLING - the sudden lateral or torsional instability
of a slender structural member induced by the action of
a compressive load. Buckling can occur well before the
yield stress of the material is reached
BUCKLING- the axial load at which a column
begins to deflect laterally and becomes
unsuitable.
CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD - the maximum axial
load that can theoretically be applied to a column
without causing it to buckle. The critical buckling load for
a column is inversely proportional to the square of its
effective length and directly proportional to the modulus
of elasticity of the material and to the moment of inertia
of the cross section. Also called Euler buckling load
BIFURCATION - the critical point at which a column
carrying its critical buckling load, may either buckle or
remain undeflected. The column is therefore in a state of
neutral equilibrium
CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS - the critical
buckling load for a column divided by the area of its
cross section
SLENDERNESS RATIO- the ratio of the effective
length of a column to its least ratio of gyration
The higher the slenderness ratio, the lower is the critical
stress that will cause buckling. A primary objective in the
design of a column is to reduce its slenderness ratio by
minimizing its effective length or maximizing its effective
length or maximizing the radius of gyration of its cross
section
RADIUS OF GYRATION - the radial distance from
any axis to a point at which the mass of a body could be
concentrated without altering the moment of inertia of
the body about that axis. For a structural section, the
radius of gyration is equal to the square root of the
quotient of the moment of inertia and the area
The higher the radius of gyration of a structural section,
the more resistant the section is to buckling. In
determining the cross- sectional shape of a column, the
objective is to provide the necessary radius of gyration
about the different axes. For an asymmetrical cross
section, buckling will tend to occur about the weaker
axis or in the direction of the least dimension
LONG COLUMN- a slender column subject to
failure by buckling rather than by crushing
SHORT COLUMN - a thick column subject to failure
by crushing rather than by buckling. Failure occurs when
the direct stress from an axial load exceeds the
compressive strength of the material available in the
cross section. An eccentric load, however, can produce
bending and result in uneven stress distribution in the
section
INTERMEDIATE COLUMN - a column having a
mode of failure between that a short column and a
long column, often party inelastic by crushing and
partly elastic by buckling
UNBRACED LENGTH – the distance between
the points at which a structural member is braced
against buckling in a direction normal to its length.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR – a coefficient for
modifying the actual length of a column according to its
end conditions in order to determine its effective length.
Fixing both ends of a long column reduces its effective
length by half and increases its load-carrying capacity
by a factor of 4.
TRUSS
METHOD OF SECTIONS – a method of
determining member forces in a truss by
considering the equilibrium of any portion of the
truss assembly.
METHOD OF JOINTS – a method for determining
member forces in a truss by considering the
equilibrium of the various joints idealized as points
in free body diagrams

ECCENTRICITY - The amount by which an axis

deviates from another parallel axis.

P-DELTA EFFECT – An additional moment

developed in a structural member as its longitudinal axis
deviates from the line of action of a compressive force
equal to the product of the load and the member
deflection at any point.

MIDDLE THIRD RULE – The proposition that a

compressive load should be located within the middle
third of a horizontal section of a column or wall to
prevent tensile stresses from developing in the section.

EFFECTIVE LENGTH – The distance between

inflection points in a column subject to buckling
load. When this portion of a column buckles the
entire column falls.

COMBINED STRESSES – A set of tensile and

compressive stresses resulting from the
superposition of axial and bending stresses at a
cross section of a structural member, acting in the
same direction and equal at any point to their
algebraic sum.

KERN – The central area of any horizontal

section of a column or wall within which the
resultant of all compressive loads must pass if
only compressive stresses are to be applied
beyond this area will cause tensile stresses to
develop in the section. Also called kern area.

KERN POINT – A point on either side of the

centroidal axis of a horizontal column or wall
section defining the limits of the kern area.

LATERAL BRACING – the bracing of a column

or other compression member to reduce its
effective length. Lateral bracing is most effective
when the bracing pattern occurs in more than one
plane.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE - a soil pressure
acting on any structure that will tend to push the
structure wherein the structure or a wall tends to move
away from the soil
ACCELEROGRAPH- is an instrument which
measures the velocity and acceleration of an
earthquake in the ground
ANCHOR BOLTS - a round, steel bolt embedded in
concrete or masonry used to hold down machinery,
steel columns or beam casting, shock beam plates and
engine heads
BALANCED DESIGN - is one which both the
concrete and the steel are so proportioned as to work to
their full working stresses when the member carries its
full allowable load
BATTER PILES - are piles at an inclination to resist
forces that are not critical. This is also known as brace
pile or spur pile
BEARING WALL SYSTEM- a structural system
without a complete vertical load carrying space
frame
BENDING MOMENT - is the algebraic sum of the
moments of the forces acting on either side of the
section of a beam about an axis through the center of
the gravity of the section
BORED PILE (bearing pile)- a concrete pile which
concreted either with a casing or without a casing
at its permanent location. This is a cast in place
pile
CAISSON - a watertight, cylindrical or rectangular
chamber used to in under water construction to protect
workers from water pressure and soil collapse
CEMENT GUN - is an ejector operated by
compressed air to force gunite into cavities or
cracks in rocks or cement works
CHUTE - is an open-top through which bulk
materials are conveyed and by gravity
COFFER DAM - a temporary dam- like structure
constructed which excludes water from the site of
the foundation during its excavation and
construction
CONSTRUCTION JOINT - the vertical or
horizontal face in a concrete structure where
concreting has been stopped and continued later
COLD JOINT- formed when a concrete surface
hardens before the next batch o f concrete is
placed
CREEP- the tendency of most material to move or
deform over time under a constant load The amount of
movement varies enormously depending upon the
material. The area that is highly stressed will move the
most. The movement causes stresses to be
redistributed.
COUNTER (inner in retaining wall)- a cantilever
wall that is reinforced with a masonry structure
extending upward from the foundation or from the
inner face of the retaining wall to provide
additional resistance to thrust and are placed at
regular intervals. (buttress if outer)
COFFER DAM- a temporary watertight enclosure
around an area of water or water bearing soil, in
which construction is to take place, bearing on a
stable statum at or above the foundation level of
new construction. The water is pumped from
within to permit free access to the area
DIAPHRAGM- a horizontal or nearly horizontal
system including horizontal bracing system, that
act to transmit lateral forces to the vertical
resisting elements
DIAPHRAGM STRUT - a structural member of a
horizontal bracing system that takes axial tension
or compression. It is parallel to the applied load
that collects and transfers shear to the vertical
resisting elements or distributive loads within the
horizontal bracing system
DIVING BELL- a watertight bell- shaped steel
chamber which can be lowered to or raised from a
fresh or seawater bed crane. It is opened at the
bottom and filled with compressed air so that men
can prepare foundations and undertake similar
construction work under water.
DOWEL - a short steel bar extending from one
concrete element to another as for instance a
concrete foundation to a concrete column. It may
or may not transfer direct stress
DRIFT BOLT- is a long pin of steel or wood,
made with or without the head, driven through the
timber and into an adjacent timber to hold them
together and to transmit stresses
EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION - a joint
designed to take expansion and contraction
EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION - the designed
break in a structure to allow for the drying and
temperature shrinkage of concrete, brickwork of
similar material, thereby preventing the formation
of harmful cracks
FATIGUE - is a phenomenon of failure under
repeated stresses. A fact, based experience and
experiments, is well known that stresses which
are applied to a body a few times without causing
apparent structure injury may, if applied
repeatedly or causing a great number of times,
causes failure
GUNITE - is a rich cement mortar which is applied
by spraying under high air pressure
GRADE BEAM - a concrete beam placed directly
on the ground to provide foundation for the
superstructure
GRANOLITHIC FINISH - a surface layer or
granolithic concrete which maybe laid on a base
of either fresh or hardened concrete
GRILLAGE - is a footing which consist of steel
beams arranged to distribute a concentrated load
to the supporting masonry or soil
DISTRIBUTION OF HORIZONTAL SHEAR -
design analysis requirement, considered as the basis for
the structural design of structures where the total lateral
forces are distributed to the various vertical elements of
the lateral force resisting system in proportion to their
rigidities considering the rigidity of the horizontal bracing
system or diaphragm
HYBRID STEEL GIRDER - is a fabricated metal
beam composed of flanges with a material of a
specified minimum yield strength different from
that of the web plate
INTENSITY - the measure of the damage level of
an earthquake (subjective to visual assessment)
INFLECTION POINT- a point in the moment
diagram where it changes from positive to
negative moment of vise versa and the value of
the moment at this point is zero
JETTING - a method of driving piles or well points
into the sand in the situations where a pile
hammer might not be suitable owing to the risk of
damage by vibration to the piles of adjacent
buildings
LINTEL BEAM - a beam especially provided over
an opening for a door, window, to carry the wall
over the opening
MAGNITUDE - the measure of the energy
released by an earthquake (measured by
instrument)
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - is the constant which,
within the proportional limit, express ratio between the
unit stress to the unit strain. It is the measure of the
relative abilities of the different materials of construction
to resist deformation under stress within proportional
limit
MODULUS OF RESILIENCE - is a measure of
the capacity of the material to absorb energy
without danger of being permanently deformed
MOMENT OF RESITANCE- is the internal
resisting moment of a beam. It is opposite in
sense to the bending moment but of the same
magnitude
MORTAR- is a mixture, composed of one part of
Portland cement and one part of clean sand, used
as a filter
MULLION- is a vertical member between two portions
of window sash usually designed to resist wind load and
not vertical load. It is different from muntin, which is
smaller member which separates the panels of glass
within the whole sash.
NON- BEARING WALL - is wall that carries no
load other than its own weight
ORTHOGONAL EFFECT - the effect on the
structure due to extreme lateral (earthquake)
motions acting in directions other than parallel to
the direction to the direction of resistance under
consideration
PARTY WALL- is a wall used or adopted for joint
service between two buildings
PLASTER CEMENT FINISH- a mixture of
Portland cement, with water and sand applied to
surfaces such as walls ceilings in a plastic state,
later it sets to form a hard surface
POINTING - in masonry, the final treatment of
joints by the troweling of mortar or putty like filler
into joints
PORTAL METHOD - method of analyzing
indeterminate modular building frames by
assuming hinges at the center of beam spans and
column heights or the interior column carries twice
as much shear as the exterior column
PORTLAND CEMENT - is the product obtained
by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining
to incipient fusion an intimate and properly
proportioned mixture of argillaceous and
calcareous materials with no additions
subsequent to calcinations except water and
calcined or uncalcined gypsum
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT - is the highest unit
stress for which the deformation of a body is
proportional to the stress. Beyond this point,
permanent deformation occurs
REDUNDANT MEMBER - is any framed structure
or truss, is one which maybe omitted in the
structure without affect in the possibility of
analyzing the frame or truss by ordinary static
method of computations such as the counter
diagonal truss
RIP-RAP - consist of rough stones of various
placed compactly or irregularly to prevent scour
by water and protect material which maybe
washed out by the water
SAGROD- structural member in the steel truss
framing that counteracts forces in compression
because of high probability of the purlins to deflect
and bend down during purlin installation.
SAND DRAIN- it is provided to help in the
compaction of natural soil which provide channels
through which water can escape much more
rapidly then through the clay itself. The weight of
the drain itself helps in the compaction.
SHEAR WALL- a wall designed to resist lateral
forces parallel to the plane of a wall
SOFFIT- is the concave surface of an arch
SPANDREL BEAM- is a beam from column to
column, carrying an exterior wall in a skeleton
building
STIFFNESS RATIO (K) in moment distribution
method- (as used in analysis of indeterminate
structures) is the ratio of moment of inertia of the
cross section of its length
STRESS- is the cohesive force in a body, which
resists the tendency of an external force to
change the shape of the body
STRAIN OR DEFORMATION- is the change in
the shape of any material when subjected to the
action force
TIE BAR- a deformed bar, embedded in a
concrete construction at a joint and designed to
hold a butting edges together, not designed for
direct load transfer
TORSION OR MOMENT OF INERTIA- is a
quality which measures the resistance of the
mass to being revolved about a line
TRANSFORMED SECTION- is one in which the
flexural steel is conceived to be replaced by large
area of imaginary concrete which can take
tension. This gives a homogeneous section of
concrete to which ordinary beam analysis may be
applied
TREMIE- is a watertight pipe 300 mm to 600 mm
in diameter with a flared top used in depositing
concrete under water
UNDERPINNING- is an art of placing new
foundation under old foundation
VIBRATOR- is an oscillating power operated
machine used to agitate fresh concrete so as to
eliminate gross voids including entrapped air and
to produce intimate contact with form surfaces
and embedded materials
VOID- CEMENT RATIO- is the ratio of volume of
air plus water to the volume cement
WALL FOOTING- a continuous type of spread
footing the supports vertical load, the weight of
the wall itself and the weight of the footing
WATER CEMENT RATIO- the ration of the
amount of water, to the amount of cement in a
concrete or mortar mixture
WEB CRIPPLING- local failure of a thin web plate
of a steel beam or girder in the immediate vicinity
of a concentrated load
ASD- allowable stress design
LRFD- load resistance factor design
SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISION
ARTIFICIAL RIGIDITY- will cause torsion
(twisting)
BASE- is the level at which the earthquake
motions are considered to be imparted to the
structure
BASE SHEAR- is the total designed lateral force
or shear at the base of the structure
BEARING WALL SYSTEM (shear type)- is a
structural system without a complete vertical load
carrying space frame
BOUNDARY ELEMENT- is an element at edges
of opening or at the perimeters of shear walls or
diaphragm
BRACED FRAME- is an essentially vertical truss
system of the concentric or eccentric type which is
provided to resist lateral forces
BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM- is an essentially
complete space frame which provides supports
for gravity loads
CONCENTRIC BRACED FRAME- is a braced
frame in which the members are subjected
primarily to axial forces
COLLECTOR- is a member or an element
provided to transfer lateral forces from a portion of
a structure to the vertical elements of the lateral
force resisting system
DIAPHRAGM- is a horizontal or nearly horizontal
system (including horizontal bracing system)
acting to transmit lateral forces to the vertical
resisting elements
DIAPHRAGM STRUT - also known as tie or collector,
is the element of a diaphragm parallel to the applied
load which collects and transfer diaphragm shear to the
vertical resisting elements or distribute loads within the
diaphragm. Such members may also take axial tension
or compression.
DIAPHRAGM CHORD- is the boundary element
of a diaphragm or a shear wall which is assumed
to take axial stresses analogous to the flanges of
the beam
DUAL SYSTEM- is a combination of a Special or
Intermediate Moment Resisting Space Frame and
Shear walls or Braced Frame
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES- are those structures
which are necessary for emergency post-
earthquake operations
FLEXIBLE ELEMENT- an element or system is
one whose deformation under lateral load
significantly larger than adjoining parts of the
system
HARMONIC MOTION- the coincidence of the STOREY SHEAR- is the summation of design
natural period of structural with the dominant lateral forces above the storey under
frequency in the ground consideration

MOMENT RESISTING FRAME- is a space frame
in which the members and joints are capable of
resisting forces primarily by flexure
ORTHOGONAL EFFECT- is the effect of the
structure due to earthquake motions acting in
directions other than parallel to the direction of
resistance under consideration
P- DELTA EFFECT- is the secondary effect on
shears and moments of frame members induced
by the vertical loads acting on the laterally
displaced building frame
PERT-CPM (Program Evaluation Review
Technique- Critical Path Method) - it is a
presentation of project plan by a schematic
diagram or network that depicts the sequence and
interrelation of all the component parts of the
project, and the logically analysis and
manipulation of this network in determining the
best overall program of operation.
PLATFORM- is the lower rigid portion of a
structure having vertical combination of structural
system
PNEUMATIC MORTAR- mortar applied to a
surface with a cement gun in the same manner as
gunite, with such mortar has a cube crushing
strength of 20.68 Mpa at 28 days with water/
cement ratio of 0.45
STOREY DRIFT- is the displacement of one level
relative to the level above or below
STOREY DRIFT RATIO- is the storey drift divided
by the storey height
STRUCTURE- is an assemblage of framing
members designed to support gravity loads and
resist lateral forces. They maybe categorized as
building or non- building.
RAINWATER LEADER- it is another term of a
downspout. It is a vertical pipe, often of sheet
metal, used to conduct water from a roof drain or
gutter to the ground.
TORSION RIGIDITY- (s used in seismic design)
refers to the relative stiffness of the structure to
resist torsional stress
TOWER- is the upper flexible portion of a
structure having a vertical combination of
structural system
VERTICAL LOAD CARRYING SPACE FRAME-
is a space frame designed to carry all vertical
(gravity) loads
WEAK STOREY- is a storey whose strength is
less than 80% of the strength of the storey

SHEAR WALL- is a wall designed to resist lateral

forces parallel to the plane of the wall (sometimes
referred to or a structural wall)

SOFT STOREY- is a storey whose lateral

stiffness is less than 70% of the stiffness of the
storey above

SOIL- STRUCTURE RESONANCE- is the

coincidence of the natural period of structure
which dominant frequency in the ground motion

STRENGTH is the usable capacity of a structure

or its members to carry loads within the
deformation limits prescribed in the code

SOIL STABILIZATION- is the process of

improving the properties of a soil to make it more
suitable for a particular purpose

SPACE FRAME- is a three dimensional structural

system without bearing walls composed of
members interconnected so as to function as a
complete self contained unit with or without the
aid of horizontal diaphragms or bracing systems

STOREY- is the space between levels. Storey x is

the storey below level x
SEISMIC REQUIREMENT FOR
TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
1. maximum spacing of hoops shall not
exceed 24 times the diameter of the
hoop bars
2. maximum spacing of hoops shall not be
8 times the diameter of the smallest
longitudinal bars
3. maximum spacing of hoops shall not be
more than d/4
4. the first hoop shall be located not more
than 50 mm from the face of the
supporting member
GRADING AND EARTHWORK
AS GRADED- is the extent of surface conditions
on completion of grading
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
ADMIXTURE- a material used as ingredient of
concrete and added to concrete before or during
its mixing to modify its properties
AGGREGATE- granular material such as sand
gravel stone and iron blast furnace slag used with
a cementing medium to form a hydraulic cement
concrete or mortar
AGGREGATE LIGHTWEIGHT- aggregate with a
dry, loose weight of 100 kg/m or less
ANCHORAGE- in post tensioning, a device used
to anchor tendon to concrete member, in pre-
tensioning, a device used to anchor a tendon
during hardening of concrete
BONDED TENDON- pre-stressing tendon that is
bonded to concrete either directly or through
grouting

BEDROCK- is in-place solid rock
BENCH- is a relatively level step excavated into
earth material on which fill is to be placed
BURROW- is earth material acquired from an off
site location for use in grading on a site
COMPACTION- is the densification of a fill by
mechanical means
EARTH MATERIAL- is any rock, natural soil or fill
or any combination
EROSION- is the wearing away of the ground
surface as a result of the movement of the wind,
water or ice
EXCAVATION- is the mechanical removal of the
earth material
COLUMN- member with a ratio to least lateral
dimension of 3 or greater used primarily to
support axial compressive load
COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS -
concrete flexural members of pre-cast and/or cast
in place concrete elements but so interconnected
that all elements respond to loads as a unit
CONCRETE - mixture of Portland cement or any
other hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate, and water, with or without admixtures
SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
CONCRETE (f’) - compressive strength of
concrete used in design expressed in
megapascals (Mpa). Whenever the quantity F”c is
under a radical sign, square root of numerical
value only is intended, and result has units of
megapascals (Mpa).

FILL- is a deposit of earth material placed by CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL LIGHT WEIGHT-

artificial means concrete containing lightweight aggregate and
has an air-dry unit weight not exceeding 1900
GRADE- is the vertical location of the ground kg/m3. lightweight concrete without natural sand
surface is termed all- light weight concrete and lightweight
concrete in which of the fine aggregate consists of
EXISTING GRADE- is the grade prior to the normal weight sand is termed sand- lightweight
grading concrete.
FINISH GRADE- is the final grade of the site that CURVATURE FRICTION- friction resulting from
conforms to the approved plan bends or curves in the specified pre-stressing
tendon profile
GRADING- is any excavating or filling or
combination thereof DEFORMED REINFORCEMENT - deformed
reinforcing bars, bar mats, deformed wire fabric
KEY- is a designed compacted fill placed in a and welded deformed fabric.
trench excavated material beneath the toe of a
proposed fill slope DEVELOPMENT LENGTH - length of embedded
reinforcement required to develop the design
strength of reinforcement at a critical section
EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION (d) - distance
measure from extreme compression fiber to
centroid of tension reinforcement
EFFECTIVE PRESTRESS- stress remaining in
prestressing tendons after all losses has
occurred, excluding effects of dead load and
super imposed load
EMBEDMENT LENGTH- length of embedded
reinforcement provided beyond a critical section
JACKING FORCE- in prestressed concrete,
temporary force exerted into prestressing tendons
DEAD LOAD (DL) - dead weight supported by a
member. Loads of constant magnitude that
remains in one position.
LIVE LOAD (LL) – loads that may change in
magnitude and position
FACTORED LOAD- load multiplied by
appropriate load factors, used to proportion a
members by the strength design method.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY- ratio of normal
stress to corresponding strain for tensile or
compressive stresses below proportional limit of
material
MODULUS, APARENT (concrete)- also known as
long term modulus, is determined by using the
stress and strain obtained after the load has been
applied for a certain length of time
MODULUS, INITIAL (concrete)- the slope of the
stress strain diagram at the origin of the curve
MODULUS, SECANT (concrete)- the slope of the
line drawn from the origin to appoint on the curve
somewhere between 25% and 50% of its ultimate
compressive strength
MODULUS, TENGENT (concrete)- the slope of
tangent to the curve to some point along the curve
PEDESTAL- an upright compression member
with a ratio of unsupported height to average least
lateral dimensions of less than 3
PLAIN CONCRETE- concrete that does not
conform to the definition of reinforced concrete
PLAIN REINFORCEMENT- reinforcement that
does not conform to the definition of deformed
reinforcement
POST TENSIONING- method of prestressing in
which the tendons are tensioned after concrete
has hardened
PRECAST CONCRETE- plain or reinforced
concrete element cast elsewhere than its final
position in the structure
POSTENSIONING- method of prestressing
concrete which the tendons are tensioned before
concrete is placed
REINFORCED CONCRETE- designed on the
assumption that two materials act together in
resisting forces
SPIRAL REINFORCEMNT- continuously wound
reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix
STIRRUP - reinforcement used to resist shear and
torsion stresses in a structural member: typically bars,
wires or welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed) either
single leg or bent into L, U or rectangular shapes and
located perpendicularly to or at angle to longitudinal
reinforcement (The term stirrups is usually applied to
lateral reinforcement in flexural members and the term
ties to those in compression members.)
DEIGN STRENGTH- nominal strength reduction
factor, Ø
NOMINAL STRENGTH- strength of a member or
cross- section before application of any strength
reduction factors
REQUIRED STRENGTH - strength of a member or
cross section required to resist factored loads or related
internal moments and forces in such combinations
TENDON- steel element such as wire, cable, bar,
rods or strand, or a bundle of such elements used
to impart prestress to concrete
TIE- loop or reinforcing bar or wire enclosing
longitudinal reinforcement
TRANSFER - act of transferring stress in
prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning
bed to concrete member
WALL - member, usually vertical, used to enclose
or separate spaces
WOBBLE FRICTION - in prestressed concrete,
friction caused by unintended deviation of prstressing
sheath or duct from its specified profile
YIELD STRENGTH - specified minimum yield
strength or yield point or reinforcing in Mpa
BALANCED DESIGN - a design so proportioned that
the maximum stress in concrete (with strain of 0.003)
and steel (with strain of Fy/Es) are reached
simultaneously once the ultimate load is reached,
causing them to fall simultaneously
UNDERREINFORCED DESIGN - a design in which
the steel reinforcement is lesser than what is required
for balanced conditioned. Failure under this condition is
ductile and will give warning to the user of thee structure
to decrease the load
OVERREINFORCED DESIGN- a design in which
the steel reinforcement is more than what is
required for balanced condition
AGGREGATES STANDARD HOOKS
Fine aggregates- sand A. 180º bend plus 4db extension but not
are those that passes through a No.4 less than 65 mm at free end
sieve (about 6mm in size)
B. 90º bend plus 12db extension, at free
Coarse aggregate -gravel or crushed stone
Coarse aggregate shall not be less than: end of bar
 1/5 the narrowest dimension
between sides of forms C. for stirrups and tie hooks:
 1/3 the depth of slabs  16 mm bar and smaller, 90º bend plus
6db extension at free end of bar or
¾ minimum clear spacing between individual  20 mm and 25 mm bar, 90º bend plus
reinforcing bars or wires, bundle of bars or 6db extension at free end of bar or
prestressing tendons or ducts  25 mm bar and smaller, 135º bend
plus 6db extension at free end of bar
CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR
REINFORCEMENT MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER
75 mm -for concrete cast and The diameter of bend measured on the inside of
permanently exposed to earth the bar shall not be less than the following:
such as footings
(a.) 6db for 10 mm to 25 mm bar
40-50 mm for concrete members exposed (b.) 8db for 10 mm to 28 mm bar
to weather
(c.) 10db for 10 mm to 36 mm bar
40 mm concrete cover of pipes,
conduits or fittings and exposed 4db minimum inside diameter of bend of
to weather stirrups and ties for 16 mm bar and
smaller in diameter
40 mm for beams and columns

20 mm for concrete not exposed to

weather or in contact with ONE- WAY SLAB
ground, such as slabs, walls
and joists A one-way slab is considered as wide shallow
rectangular beam. The reinforcing steel is usually
FOR BUNDLED BARS spaced uniformly over its width. The flexural
reinforcement of a one-way slab extends in one
direction only.
a. groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in
contact as a unit shall be limited to 4 in any Maximum flexural reinforcement spacing:
one bundle 3 times the slab thickness or 450 mm
b. bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups Minimum thickness of one-way slab:
or ties Solid one-way slab
L/20 - simply supported
c. bars larger than 32mm shall not be bundled L/24 - one end continuous
in beams L/28 - both end continuous
L/10 - cantilever
d. individual bars within a bundle terminated * Span length L is in millimeter
within the span of flexural members
should terminate at a different points at least Ribbed one-way slab
40db stagger L/16 - simply supported
L/18.5 - one end continuous
The minimum concrete cover for bundled bars L/21 - both end continuous
shall be: L/8 - cantilever
 Equal to the equivalent diameter of the bundle
but not exceeding 50 mm

 75 mm- for concrete cast against and

permanently exposed to earth
LOAD FACTORS MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMNT
dead load, DL…………………. 1.40
live load, LL……….…………… 1.70 1. not less than 12 db
wind load, WL………...……….. 1.70 2. not less than 1/16 clear span
earthquake, E…………………. 1.87 3. not less than d
earth or water pressure, H…… 1.70 whichever is greater

CRITERION FOR CONDUITS AND

STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR Ø PIPES EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE
Flexure w/o axial load 0.90 a. Conduits and pipes embedded in slab,
Axial tension & axial tension w/ flexure 0.90 the wall or beam shall not be larger in
Shear and torsion 0.85 outside dimension than 1/3 the overall
Axial compression & axial compression w/ flexure thickness of slab, wall or beam
a. spiral reinforcement 0.75
b. tie reinforcement 0.70 b. Reinforcement with an area not less than
Bearing on concrete 0.70 0.002 times the area of cross- section
shall be provided normal to piping
REQUIRED STRENGTH, U or Pu
c. Conduits and pipes with their fittings,
Required strength U to resist dead load DL and embedded within a column shall not
live load LL is displace more than 4% of the area of the
U= 1.4DL + 1.7LL cross section on which strength is
calculated
Wind load W are included in design
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7W) d. Concrete cover for pipes, conduits and
fittings shall not be less than 40 mm for
Earthquake loads or forces are included in design concrete exposed to earth or weather
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.87E)

Where structural effect T of differential settlement,

creep, shrinkage or temperature change are
significant in design
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH
U= 0.75 (1.4DL + 1.4T + 1.7LL) BOLTED CONNECTION

but required strength U shall not be less than 1. high-strength bolted parts shall fit solidly
U= 1.4 (DL + T) together when assembled and shall not
be separated by gaskets or any other
interposed compressive material.
SIZES AND SPACING OF
MAIN BARS AND TIES 2. Bolts tightened by means of a calibrated
wrench shall be installed with a
hardened washer under the nut or bolt
1. Clear distance between longitudinal bars head whichever is the element turned in
shall be not less than 1.5 db nor 40 mm tightening.
2. Use 10 mm diameter ties for 32 mm bars
or smaller and at least 12 mm in size for 3. When assembled, all joint surfaces,
36 mm and bundled longitudinal bars including those adjacent to the washer,
3. Vertical spacing of ties shall be the shall be free of scale, except tight mill
smallest of the following: scales, dirts and burns.
a. 16 x db (db = longitudinal bar
diameter) 4. Surface in contact with the bolt head and
b. 48 x tie diameter nut head shall have slope of not more
c. least dimension of columns than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal
4. Ties shall be arrange such that every to the bolt axis.
corner and alternate longitudinal bar
shall have lateral support provided by the
corner of the tie with an included angle of
not more than 135º and no bar shall be
farther than 150 mm clear on each side
along the tie from such a laterally
supported bar. Where longitudinal bars
are located around the perimeter of a
circle tie is allowed.