CH1.

Introduction to the Internet of Things (IoT)- Understanding IoT

Fundamentals, IoT Layer
1.1 Architecture, IoT Platforms, Overview of IoT Components.
1.2 IoT Communication Technologies, Real-Time Examples (Applications) of
IoT, Challenges in IoT.

CH2. Sensor
2.1 Actuators and Protocols
Interfacing Protocols: I2C, SPI, and Serial.
Communication Protocol: RFID, NFC, Bluetooth, WIFI, ZigBee.

2.2 Sensors-Light Sensor, Temperature Sensor with Thermistor, Voltage Sensor,

ADC and DAC, Temperature and Humidity Sensor DHT11, Motion Detection
Sensors, Wireless Bluetooth Sensors, Level Sensors, USB Sensors, Embedded
Sensors, Distance Measurement with Ultrasound Sensors, RTC-DS3231.

2.3 Actuators - Connecting LED, Buzzer, Switching High Power Devices with
Transistors, Controlling AC
Power Devices with Relays, Controlling Servo Motor, Speed Control of DC
Motor, Unipolar and Bipolar
Stepper Motors.

CH3. Arduino

3.1 Arduino Development Board, Architecture, and Pin Diagram.

3.2 Writing Arduino Software, Arduino Libraries, Basics of Embedded C

Programming. CO3 02

3.3 Interfacing Arduino with Sensors, Actuators and

Peripheral Devices, Watchdog Timer.
CH1 & 2 IMP QUESTIONS =>

MODULE 1: -

Q1. COMPONENTS OF IOT

ANS: - all complete IoT systems are the same in that they represent the
integration of four distinct components: sensors/devices, connectivity, data
processing, and a user interface.

1) Sensors/Devices

First, sensors or devices collect data from their environment. This data could be
as simple as a temperature reading or as complex as a full video feed.

We use “sensors/devices,” because multiple sensors can be bundled together or

sensors can be part of a device that does more than just sense things. For
example, your phone is a device that has multiple sensors (camera,
accelerometer, GPS, etc), but your phone is not just a sensor since it can also
perform many actions.

However, whether it’s a standalone sensor or a full device, in this first step data
is being collected from the environment by something.

2) Connectivity

Next, that data is sent to the cloud, but it needs a way to get there!

The sensors/devices can be connected to the cloud through a variety of methods

including: cellular, satellite, WIFI, Bluetooth, low-power wide-area networks
(LPWAN), connecting via a gateway/router or connecting directly to the
internet via ethernet (don’t worry, we’ll explain more about what these all mean
in our connectivity section).

Each option has trade-offs between power consumption, range, and bandwidth.
Choosing which connectivity option is best comes down to the specific IoT
application, but they all accomplish the same task: getting data to the cloud.

3) Data Processing

Once the data gets to the cloud (we’ll cover what the cloud means in our data
processing section)), software performs some kind of processing on it.

This could be very simple, such as checking that the temperature reading is
within an acceptable range. Or it could also be very complex, such as using
computer vision on video to identify objects (such as intruders on a property).

But what happens when the temperature is too high or if there is an intruder on
property? That’s where the user comes in.

4) User Interface

Next, the information is made useful to the end-user in some way. This could be
via an alert to the user (email, text, notification, etc). For example, a text alert
when the temperature is too high in the company’s cold storage.

A user might have an interface that allows them to proactively check in on the
system. For example, a user might want to check the video feeds on various
properties via a phone app or a web browser.
However, it’s not always a one-way street. Depending on the IoT application,
the user may also be able to perform an action and affect the system. For
example, the user might remotely adjust the temperature in the cold storage via
an app on their phone.

And some actions are performed automatically. Rather than waiting for you to
adjust the temperature, the system could do it automatically via predefined
rules. Rather than just call you to alert you of an intruder, the IoT system could
also automatically notify security teams or relevant authorities.

Q2.IOT LAYER ARCHITECTURE

ANS: -

5 Layer Architecture of IoT:

When project work is done with various cutting-edge technologies and broad
application area, 5-layer architecture is considered as best. 5 Layer model can
be considered as an extension to the basic architecture of IoT because it has
two additional layers to the basic model.
5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things

Perception Layer:
This is the first layer of IoT architecture. In the perception layer, number of
sensors and actuators are used to gather useful information like temperature,
moisture content, intruder detection, sounds, etc. The main function of this
layer is to get information from surroundings and to pass data to another layer
so that some actions can be done based on that information.
Network Layer:
As the name suggests, it is the connecting layer between perception and
middleware layer. It gets data from perception layer and passes data to
middleware layer using networking technologies like 3G, 4G, UTMS, WIFI,
infrared, etc. This is also called communication layer because it is responsible
for communication between perception and middleware layer. All the transfer
of data done securely keeping the obtained data confidential.
Middleware Layer:
Middleware Layer has some advanced features like storage, computation,
processing, action taking capabilities. It stores all data-set and based on the
device address and name it gives appropriate data to that device. It can also
take decisions based on calculations done on data-set obtained from sensors.
Application Layer:
The application layer manages all application process based on information
obtained from middleware layer. This application involves sending emails,
activating alarm, security system, turn on or off a device, smartwatch, smart
agriculture, etc.
Business Layer:
The success of any device does not depend only on technologies used in it but
also how it is being delivered to its consumers. Business layer does these tasks
for the device. It involves making flowcharts, graphs, analysis of results, and
how device can be improved, etc.

Q3.IOT PLATFORM
Q4. REAL-TIME EXAMPLES IN IOT
IoT is a network of electronic devices that are interconnected in order to
exchange information. The main purpose of IoT is to access and operate
the gadgets from a distance with little or no human assistance. IoT-
equipped gadgets are connected to each other via the internet and are
designed to exchange data with each other to perform remote operations.
These interconnected devices or electronic gadgets are often referred to as
‘things. Most of the electronic devices consist of embedded sensors. These
sensors are used to emit data and talk about the status of the device.
Examples of IoT in Real Life
1. Home Automation
Home automation is one of the best examples of IoT. Smart homes or IoT-based
home automation systems are becoming popular day by day. In a smart home,
consumer electronic gadgets such as lights, fans, air-conditioners, etc. can be
connected to each other via the internet. This interconnection enables the user to
operate these devices from a distance. A smart home is capable of lighting
control, energy management, expansion, and remote access. Currently, this
application of IoT is not utilized at a large scale because the installation cost is
too high, which makes it difficult for a majority of people to afford it. However,
home automation holds quite a promising future.
2. Wearable Health Monitors
Wearable health monitors are both captivating and useful. They include smart
clothes, smart wristwear, and medical wearables that provide us with high-
quality health services. They are designed to track activities such as pulse rate,
step count, heart rate, etc. This data is recorded and can be sent to the doctors
for detailed fitness analysis. These IoT based smart wearable devices are
influencing our lifestyles a lot. Apart from performing these basic operations,
they can also raise an alarm and send an alert in case of a medical emergency
such as an asthma attack, seizures, etc.

8 Examples of Internet of Things in Daily Life

IoT is a network of electronic devices that are interconnected in order to

exchange information. The main purpose of IoT is to access and operate the
gadgets from a distance with little or no human assistance. IoT-equipped
gadgets are connected to each other via the internet and are designed to
exchange data with each other to perform remote operations. These
interconnected devices or electronic gadgets are often referred to as ‘things.
Most of the electronic devices consist of embedded sensors. These sensors are
used to emit data and talk about the status of the device. IoT establishes a
common site for all the devices to dump their data and provides a common
language for them to communicate with each other. This dumped data is then
analysed, and valuable information is extracted from it as per the need and
convenience. The result is shared by all the connected devices. The devices may
be connected to each other either by the wired method with the help of ethernet
or wirelessly through Bluetooth. The term IoT was first coined by Kevin Ashton
in 1999.

Index of Article (Click to Jump)

• Examples of IoT in Real Life

o 1. Home Automation
o 2. Wearable Health Monitors
o 3. Disaster Management
o 4. Biometric Security Systems
o 5. Smart Cars
o 6. Process Automation
o 7. Farming
o 8. shopping malls
Examples of IoT in Real Life
1. Home Automation
Home automation is one of the best examples of IoT. Smart homes or IoT-based
home automation systems are becoming popular day by day. In a smart home,
consumer electronic gadgets such as lights, fans, air-conditioners, etc. can be
connected to each other via the internet. This interconnection enables the user to
operate these devices from a distance. A smart home is capable of lighting
control, energy management, expansion, and remote access. Currently, this
application of IoT is not utilized at a large scale because the installation cost is
too high, which makes it difficult for a majority of people to afford it. However,
home automation holds quite a promising future.

2. Wearable Health Monitors

Wearable health monitors are both captivating and useful. They include smart
clothes, smart wristwear, and medical wearables that provide us with high-
quality health services. They are designed to track activities such as pulse rate,
step count, heart rate, etc. This data is recorded and can be sent to the doctors
for detailed fitness analysis. These IoT based smart wearable devices are
influencing our lifestyles a lot. Apart from performing these basic operations,
they can also raise an alarm and send an alert in case of a medical emergency
such as an asthma attack, seizures, etc.
3. Disaster Management
IoT helps in the prediction and management of natural disasters. For instance,
take the example of forest fires. To avoid the chaos and destruction caused by a
forest fire, various sensors can be installed around the boundaries of the forests.
These sensors continuously monitor the temperature and carbon content in the
region. A detailed report is regularly sent to a common monitoring hub. In case
of a forest fire, an alert is sent to the control room, police station, and fire
brigade. Therefore, IoT helps in staying prepared and respond swiftly in case of
emergency.

4. Biometric Security Systems

A lot of security agencies make use of biometric systems to mark daily
attendance, allow access to the authorized personnel only, and other related
services. Advanced security, data communication, and minimized human
intervention are some of the features of IoT being utilized in this sector.
Biometric technology makes use of fingerprint, voice, eye, and face recognition.
The reliability of IoT based security systems is higher than the manual or
automated approach. The devices used in biometric security systems are
interlinked to each other and possess the ability to dump the data after every
usage to the host computer. This scanned data is stored for future use, and the
useful information is retrieved as per requirement.
8 Examples of Internet of Things in Daily Life

IoT is a network of electronic devices that are interconnected in order to

exchange information. The main purpose of IoT is to access and operate the
gadgets from a distance with little or no human assistance. IoT-equipped
gadgets are connected to each other via the internet and are designed to
exchange data with each other to perform remote operations. These
interconnected devices or electronic gadgets are often referred to as ‘things.
Most of the electronic devices consist of embedded sensors. These sensors are
used to emit data and talk about the status of the device. IoT establishes a
common site for all the devices to dump their data and provides a common
language for them to communicate with each other. This dumped data is then
analysed, and valuable information is extracted from it as per the need and
convenience. The result is shared by all the connected devices. The devices may
be connected to each other either by the wired method with the help of ethernet
or wirelessly through Bluetooth. The term IoT was first coined by Kevin Ashton
in 1999.

Index of Article (Click to Jump)

• Examples of IoT in Real Life

o 1. Home Automation
o 2. Wearable Health Monitors
o 3. Disaster Management
o 4. Biometric Security Systems
o 5. Smart Cars
o 6. Process Automation
o 7. Farming
o 8. shopping malls
Examples of IoT in Real Life
1. Home Automation
Home automation is one of the best examples of IoT. Smart homes or IoT-based
home automation systems are becoming popular day by day. In a smart home,
consumer electronic gadgets such as lights, fans, air-conditioners, etc. can be
connected to each other via the internet. This interconnection enables the user to
operate these devices from a distance. A smart home is capable of lighting
control, energy management, expansion, and remote access. Currently, this
application of IoT is not utilized at a large scale because the installation cost is
too high, which makes it difficult for a majority of people to afford it. However,
home automation holds quite a promising future.
2. Wearable Health Monitors
Wearable health monitors are both captivating and useful. They include smart
clothes, smart wristwear, and medical wearables that provide us with high-
quality health services. They are designed to track activities such as pulse rate,
step count, heart rate, etc. This data is recorded and can be sent to the doctors
for detailed fitness analysis. These IoT based smart wearable devices are
influencing our lifestyles a lot. Apart from performing these basic operations,
they can also raise an alarm and send an alert in case of a medical emergency
such as an asthma attack, seizures, etc.

3. Disaster Management
IoT helps in the prediction and management of natural disasters. For instance,
take the example of forest fires. To avoid the chaos and destruction caused by a
forest fire, various sensors can be installed around the boundaries of the forests.
These sensors continuously monitor the temperature and carbon content in the
region. A detailed report is regularly sent to a common monitoring hub. In case
of a forest fire, an alert is sent to the control room, police station, and fire
brigade. Therefore, IoT helps in staying prepared and respond swiftly in case of
emergency.

4. Biometric Security Systems

A lot of security agencies make use of biometric systems to mark daily
attendance, allow access to the authorized personnel only, and other related
services. Advanced security, data communication, and minimized human
intervention are some of the features of IoT being utilized in this sector.
Biometric technology makes use of fingerprint, voice, eye, and face recognition.
The reliability of IoT based security systems is higher than the manual or
automated approach. The devices used in biometric security systems are
interlinked to each other and possess the ability to dump the data after every
usage to the host computer. This scanned data is stored for future use, and the
useful information is retrieved as per requirement.
5. Smart Cars
IoT can be used to connect cars with each other in order to exchange
information like location, speed, and dynamics. An estimate shows that by
2020, there will be 24 billion connected cars in the world. We use IoT in our
daily life without even realizing its presence. For example, while finding the
shortest route, while driving semi-automatic smart cars, etc. IoT is also used in
vehicle repair and maintenance. It does not only remind the customer about the
regular servicing date but also assists the consumer in repair and maintenance
by providing proper guidance. On the basis of features provided, the
communication technique of connected vehicle technology is classified into two
broad categories:

6. Process Automation
In the manufacturing industry, performing reoccurring tasks, such as label
wrapping, packaging, etc., manually is difficult and is prone to human errors;
therefore, automation comes into play. For instance, take the example of a cold
drink manufacturing industry. Here, manufacturing machines and conveyor
belts are required to be interconnected in order to share information, status, and
data. This interconnection is IoT dependent. The status of the manufactured
product and the machine health report is sent to the manufacturer at regular
intervals in order to identify the faults in advance. An IoT equipped industry is
advantageous as it elevates the production speed and maintains the uniform
quality of the product throughout the production. It also helps to make the
workplace more efficient and safer by reducing human error.

7. Farming
Due to climate change and water crisis, farmers go through a lot of troubles
such as crop flattening, soil erosion, drought, etc. These problems can be easily
suppressed by using IoT based farming system. For example, the IoT based
irrigation system makes use of a number of sensors to monitor the moisture
content of the soil. If the moisture level drops below a certain range, it
automatically turns on the irrigation pump. Other than this, IoT also helps
farmers to examine soil health. Before planning to farm a new batch of crops, a
farmer needs to recover the soil nutrients. The IoT enriched software allows the
user or the farmer to select the best nutrient restoring crops. It also helps in
sensing the requirement of fertilizer and numerous other farming needs

8. shopping malls
IoT finds its major application in shopping malls. In most of the malls, a
barcode scanner is used to scan the barcode present on every product. After
scanning, it extracts the necessary information and sends the data to the host
computer. The computer is further connected to a billing machine that hands
over the bill to the customer after proper processing. All these devices are
connected together with the help of the Internet of Things.

Q5. CHALLENGES IN IOT

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/challenges-in-internet-of-things-iot/

Q6. PIN DIAGRAM OF IOT

MODULE 2-

Q1. EXPLAIN SCP & I2C PROTOCOL.

ANS: - A protocol is an agreement between two parties about how the two
parties should behave. A communication protocol is a protocol about how two
parties should speak to each other. There are different types of data transfer
available in digital electronics such as serial communication and parallel
communication. Similarly, the protocols are divided into two types Serial
Communication Protocol and Parallel Communication Protocols. Examples
of Parallel Communication Protocols are ISA, ATA, SCSI, PCI, and IEEE-488.
Similarly, there are several examples of Serial Communication Protocols such as
CAN, ETHERNET, I2C, SPI, RS232, USB, 1-Wire, SATA, etc.

=>Serial Communication is the simplest communication of all between a sender

and receiver. It became popular owing to its low-cost installation and fewer space
requirements. This post will discuss Serial Communication, its protocols, a
comparison of RS Standards, and the advantages of Serial Communication over
Parallel Communication.

What is Serial Communication?

Serial communication can be defined as the method of sending one bit of data at
one point of time in succession through a bus. Take an example of a Bow and
arrow. How does an arrow shoot from the bow? One at a time, isn’t it? The same
is the case with Serial Communication.

This is directly opposite to the function of parallel communication, where several

bits are sent together on a bus consisting of many wired lanes in parallel.

Serial communication takes place by using only a single wire or line. Hence, for
two-way digital communication, we will only need two wires between the
transmitter and receiver. As the cost of establishing a parallel communication is
very high and its configuration is lengthy and complex, Serial communication is
preferred for all major communication/computer networks.

At small distances, serial buses are becoming more common and popular because
the disadvantages of parallel buses prevail over their advantage of simplicity.
Improved technology to ensure the integrity of signal as well as increased
transmission and receiving speed of data per channel has made the serial ports a
close competitor to parallel ports.

The cost of integrated circuits is a lot because of the large number of pins. It is,
therefore, that many integrated circuits utilize serial buses when the importance
of speed does not exist. Examples of these low-cost serial buses are SPI, I²C, and
1-Wire.

A few examples of systems consisting of serial communication are Morse Code

Telegraphy, RS-232, RS 422, RS-423, RS-485, Universal Serial Bus, FireWire,
Serial Attached SCSI, Serial ATA, PCI Express, etc.
Fig. 2 – Devices Using Serial Communication

Serial Communication Protocols

Following is the Serial Communication Protocols:

• CAN Protocol
• I2C Protocol
• SPI Protocol
• USB Protocol
• eSPI Protocol

I2C stands for Inter-Integrated Circuit. It is a bus interface connection

protocol incorporated into devices for serial communication. It was originally
designed by Philips Semiconductor in 1982. Recently, it is a widely used
protocol for short-distance communication. It is also known as Two Wired
Interface (TWI).
Working on I2C Communication Protocol:
It uses only 2 bi-directional open-drain lines for data communication called SDA
and SCL. Both these lines are pulled high.
Serial Data (SDA) – Transfer of data takes place through this pin.
Serial Clock (SCL) – It carries the clock signal.
I2C operates in 2 modes –
Master mode
Slave mode
Each data bit transferred on SDA line is synchronized by a high to the low pulse
of each clock on the SCL line.

According to I2C protocols, the data line cannot change when the clock line is
high, it can change only when the clock line is low. The 2 lines are open drain;
hence a pull-up resistor is required so that the lines are high since the devices
on the I2C bus are active low. The data is transmitted in the form of packets
which comprises 9 bits. The sequence of these bits is –
Start Condition – 1 bit
Slave Address – 8 bits
Acknowledge – 1 bit
Start and Stop Conditions:
START and STOP can be generated by keeping the SCL line high and changing
the level of SDA. To generate START condition the SDA is changed from high
to low while keeping the SCL high. To generate STOP condition SDA goes
from low to high while keeping the SCL high, as shown in the figure below.

Start and Stop Condition

Repeated Start Condition:
Between each start and stop condition pair, the bus is considered as busy and no
master can take control of the bus. If the master tries to initiate a new transfer
and does not want to release the bus before starting the new transfer, it issues a
new START condition. It is called a REPEATED START condition.
Read/Write Bit:
A high Read/Write bit indicates that the master is sending the data to the slave,
whereas a low Read/Write bit indicates that the master is receiving data from
the slave.
ACK/NACK Bit:
After every data frame, follows an ACK/NACK bit. If the data frame is received
successfully then ACK bit is sent to the sender by the receiver.
Addressing:
The address frame is the first frame after the start bit. The address of the slave
with which the master wants to communicate is sent by the master to every slave
connected with it. The slave then compares its own address with this address
and sends ACK.
I2C Packet Format:
In the I2C communication protocol, the data is transmitted in the form of
packets. These packets are 9 bits long, out of which the first 8 bits are put in
SDA line and the 9th bit is reserved for ACK/NACK i.e., Acknowledge or Not
Acknowledge by the receiver.
START condition plus address packet plus one more data
packet plus STOP condition collectively form a complete Data transfer.
Features of I2C Communication Protocol:
Half-duplex Communication Protocol –
Bi-directional communication is possible but not simultaneously.
Synchronous Communication –
The data is transferred in the form of frames or blocks.
Can be configured in a multi-master configuration.
Clock Stretching –
The clock is stretched when the slave device is not ready to accept more data by
holding the SCL line low, hence disabling the master to raise the clock line.
Master will not be able to raise the clock line because the wires are AND wired
and wait until the slave releases the SCL line to show it is ready to transfer next
bit.
Arbitration –
I2C protocol supports multi-master bus system but more than one bus cannot be
used simultaneously. The SDA and SCL are monitored by the masters. If the
SDA is found high when it was supposed to be low it will be inferred that
another master is active and hence it stops the transfer of data.
Serial-transmission –
I2C uses serial transmission for transmission of data.
Used for low-speed communication.
Advantages:
Can be configured in multi-master mode.
Complexity is reduced because it uses only 2 bi-directional lines (unlike SPI
Communication).
Cost-efficient.
It uses ACK/NACK feature due to which it has improved error handling
capabilities.
Limitations:
Slower speed.
Half-duplex communication is used in the I2C communication protocol.

Q2. LIST & EXPLAIN DIFFERENT INTERFACING PROTOCOLS.

ANS: - Interfacing Protocols: I2C, SPI, and Serial.

REFER Q1. FOR I2C AND SERIAL

FOR SPI: -

SPI stands for the Serial Peripheral Interface. It is a serial communication

protocol that is used to connect low-speed devices. It was developed
by Motorola in the mid-1980 for inter-chip communication. It is commonly used
for communication with flash memory, sensors, real-time clock (RTC), analogy-
to-digital converters, and more. It is a full-duplex synchronous serial
communication, which means that data can be simultaneously transmitted from
both directions.

The main advantage of the SPI is to transfer the data without any interruption.
Many bits can be sent or received at a time in this protocol.

In this protocol, devices are communicated in the master-slave relationship. The

master device controls the slave device, and the slave device takes the instruction
from the master device. The simplest configuration of the Serial Peripheral
Interface (SPI) is a combination of a single slave and a single master. But, one
master device can control multiple slave devices.

SPI Interface

The SPI protocol uses the four wires for the communication. There are shown in
the figure.

1. MOSI: MOSI stands for Master Output Slave Input. It is used to send data
from the master to the slave.
2. MISO: MISO stands for Master Input Slave Output. It is used to send data
from the slave to the master.
3. SCK or SCLK (Serial Clock): It is used to the clock signal.
4. SS/CS (Slave Select / Chip Select): It is used by the master to send data
by selecting a slave.

Note: If the single slave is present in the communication, that required only
three wires. The SS (slave select) is not required in it.

Advantages of SPI
 1. The main advantage of the SPI is to transfer the data without any
interruption.
2. It is simple hardware.
3. It provides full-duplex communication.
4. There is no need for a unique address of the slave in this protocol.
5. This protocol does not require precise oscillation of slave devices because
it uses the master's clock.
6. In this, software implementation is very simple.
7. It provides high transfer speed.
8. Signals are unidirectional.
9. It has separate lines of MISO and MOSI, so the data can be sent and
received at the same time.

Disadvantages of SPI

1. Usually, it supports only one master.

2. It does not check the error like the UART.
3. It uses more pins than the other protocol.
4. It can be used only from a short distance.
5. It does not give any acknowledgment that the data is received or not.

Applications of SPI

o Memory: SD Card, MMC, EEPROM, and Flash.

o Sensors: Temperature and Pressure.
o Control Devices: ADC, DAC, digital POTS, and Audio Codec.
o Others: Camera Lens Mount, Touchscreen, LCD, RTC, video game
controller, etc.
Q3. COMPARE BLUETOOTH WIFI AND ZIGBEE.

ANS: -
Q4. EXPLAIN WORKING OF ZIGBEE?

ANS: -
What is ZigBee Protocol?

Source: ZigBee Alliance

ZigBee protocol provides low-cost, low power solution for remotely controlling
and monitoring smart equipment’s, fleet applications, home automation systems,
medical devices and other compliant systems. It is used by leading manufacturers
of semiconductor devices, technology firms, wireless communication devices as
the de-facto communication protocol.
In this article, we’re going to share some basics about what exactly is ZigBee
protocol, what are its applications and why is it the favourite communication
standard of smart home manufacturers around the world.
What is ZigBee Protocol?
The ZigBee wireless technology is basically an openly available global standard
to address the unique needs of low-power, low-cost wireless M2M(machine-to-
machine) networks and also Internet-of-Things (IoT). It operates on IEEE
802.15.4 physical radio specification and operates even in unlicensed band
including 2.4 GHz, 900 MHz and 868 MHz
In 2003, the 802.15.4 specification on which the ZigBee stack operates got an
official approval and recognition from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE). This specification is a packet-based radio protocol that is
intended for the low-cost, battery-operated devices. This protocol offers devices
to have battery life lasting for years and also allows them to communicate in a
variety of network topologies.
ZigBee Protocol: Basics
The ZigBee protocol is robust in a way to be used in various hostile RF, Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth based environments, which are common in various industrial
applications. ZigBee protocol features a unique channel agility mechanism and
takes full advantage of the IEEE 802.15.4 proven interference avoidance
techniques. Some of the technical details for the ZigBee protocol are listed below:
• The ZigBee protocol operates globally on a single frequency of 2.4 GHz.
• ZigBee offers wireless range of 70m indoors and and 400m outdoors.
• It offers networking flexibility to covers homes of all size by offering
support for multiple networks like point-to-point, point-to-multipoint
mesh-networks.
• Low latency and Low Duty cycle leads to lower power consumption giving
sensors the long-lasting battery life for up to 7 years.
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) helps to offer higher data rate
for quicker responses.
• Caters to thousands of devices for spread networks.
• ZigBee uses AES 128 encryption (government, commercial and military
grade encryption used across the Internet) thus protecting your information
over the air transfers.
• ZigBee can easily integrate monitoring and control of lights systems,
security systems, convenience and motion detection.
 • The mesh-network operability of ZigBee reduces the chances of failure at
nodes and the ad-hoc routing offers greater stability.
Applications of ZigBee Technology
Because of its three major USPs of being low-cost, low-power consumption and
having faster wireless connectivity, the ZigBee protocol caters to a lot of
applications like industrial automation, home automation, smart metering, smart
grids etc. Also, with it low-power requirements, it ensures seamless operation of
various sensor equipment’s offering years of battery-life. Here are some of the
areas where ZigBee is widely used.
• Industrial Automation: ZigBee offers a faster and low-cost
communication that can communicate with almost all devices in factories
and centralise them at one place making it easy for you to monitor every
process and thereby optimise the control process. ZigBee protocol also
finds its presence in many medical and scientific equipment’s such as
personal chronic monitoring, sports and fitness trackers, and can even be
used for remote patient monitoring.
• Smart Metering and Smart Grid Monitoring: In case of smart metering,
ZigBee is used for better energy consumption response, security over
power theft, pricing support etc. Additionally in case of smart grids,
ZigBee is even used for reactive power management, fault locations,
remote temperature monitoring, etc.
• Home Automation: ZigBee is one of the most widely used protocol in
most of the home automation equipment’s. Right from offering lighting
system solutions, sensor responsive solutions to security solutions and
surveillance, ZigBee has its presence everywhere.
ZigBee for Home Automation
Source: ZigBee Alliance
ZigBee protocol is widely used for home automation solutions and caters to
complete holistic solutions of lighting control, security control, comfort control
and even energy management.
There are several well-known global brands in home automation that use ZigBee
for their devices. Since Zigbee is cross-compatible and interoperable, it makes
managing multi-vendor devices easy and simple. If a device is ZigBee Home
Automation (HA 2.1) compliant, you can be rest assured that it will work with
your automation system, irrespective of the vendor.
The mesh-routing network of ZigBee wherein one device can talk to multiple
device and data packets travel on no fixed routes, offers better flexibility and
faster communication across devices.
Some of the features of ZigBee for Home Automation include:
• Simplified setup and maintenance
• Ideal for new construction and remodelling
• ZigBee gives access to devices anywhere from the world just from your
smartphone
• Monitors power use and allows you to turn on/off devices from remote
locations
• Built in security with interference avoidance techniques ensures
better/enhanced security and worry-free operations.
• Help you customise lighting scenes based on daily schedules, events and
activities.
• Due to low-power consumption of the ZigBee protocol, your security
sensors can work for a period of 7 years.
ZigBee standards and ZigBee Alliance
The ZigBee Alliance is a group of companies that looks after maintaining and
publishing the ZigBee standard and the word “ZigBee” is a trademark of this
company. Based on the different application profiles published by the ZigBee
standard, multiple OEM vendors can create several interoperable devices. Some
of the application profiles that are published are:
• Smart Energies 1.1b
• ZigBee Home Automation 1.2
• Healthcare 1.0
• Telecommunication services 1.0
• RF4CE – Remote Control 1.0
• RF4CE – Input Device 1.0
• IP 1.0
• Light Link 1.0
 • Remote Control 2.0
• Building Automation 1.0
• Gateway 1.0
The use of ZigBee is free for to the general public i.e., for non-commercial
purposes is absolutely free.
Technical Details
• Hardware
ZigBee devices are categorised into following three kinds:
1. ZigBee Co-ordinator (ZC): This is the most important device as it forms
the root of the network tree and helps to bridge to other networks. This
means that you will find one ZigBee coordinator in each network as this is
the device responsible for the start of the network. This device contains all
the information of the network and functions as a Trust Centre & repository
for the security keys.
2. ZigBee Router (ZR): In addition to running an application function, it is
used to route the data from other devices and help it reach the destination.
• ZigBee End-Device (ZED): The end device contains just enough
functionality to talk to either the co-ordinator or the router. Note that it
cannot rely data from other devices. This causes the node to stay asleep for
a significant time thereby increasing battery life to a considerable extent.
A ZED device requires least amount of energy as compared to the ZC or
ZR.
Supported Brands
Some of the very famous brands in home automation that has its line of products
working on the ZigBee protocol are Samsung, Philips, OSRAM, Sonos, Belkin
and a lot more.
When You Should Pick ZigBee
Let us take a look at some of the advantages you get while selecting ZigBee
products.
• Wireless technology helps eliminate the hassle of dangling cords.
• One standard protocol spread across multiple products helps reduce the
cost of products because of large number of players and competition. This
also gives customers the ease to select between variety of products.
• Easy installation and maintenance reduce operation costs giving affordable
solutions.
• Higher interoperability and cross compatibility among devices.
• Device Authentication and AES 128 ensures secured data transfers.
 • Internet connection for greater control and access.
• Receive instant notifications upon detection of any unusual events.
• Caters to all sectors like lightings, security, appliances and home access.
• Better dispersal of data transfer reducing load at single point.
• Short time delay, typically 15 ms for standby to activation,15 ms for
channel access of active devices and 30 ms for device searching.

Q5. DEFINE SENSORS &ACTUATORS.

ANS: -
• Sensors: -
They perform some input functions by sensing or feeling the physical changes
in the characteristics of a system in response to stimuli.
For example, heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor, or
atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer.

Sensor Features: -
It is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., A temperature sensor senses
the ambient temperature of a room.)
It is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application
(e.g., A temperature sensor does not bother about light or pressure while sensing
the temperature.)
It does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring the temperature
does not reduce or increase the temperature).
Analog Sensors

Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is

generally proportional to the quantity being measured.
Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain
etc. are all analogy quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature.
For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer
or thermocouple (e.g., in geysers) which continuously responds to temperature
changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.

Digital Sensors

Digital Sensors produce discrete digital output signals or voltages that are a
digital representation of the quantity being measured.
Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a logic
“1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or “OFF”).
Digital signal only produces discrete (non‐continuous) values, which may be
output as a single “bit” (serial transmission), or by combining the bits to produce
a single “byte” output (parallel transmission).

Scalar Sensors

Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally proportional

to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.
Physical quantities such as temperature, colour, pressure, strain, etc. are all
scalar quantities as only their magnitude is sufficient to convey information.
For example, the temperature of a room can be measured using a thermometer
or thermocouple, which responds to temperature changes irrespective of the
orientation of the sensor or its direction.

Vector Sensors

Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally

proportional to the magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation of the quantity
being measured.
 Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration, orientation,
etc. are all vector quantities, as only their magnitude is not sufficient to convey
the complete information.
For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an
accelerometer, which gives the components of acceleration of the body with
respect to the x, y, z coordinate axes.

• Actuators: -

An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the

mechanism or the system.
 A transducer is any physical device that converts one form of energy into
another.
So, in the case of a sensor, the transducer converts some physical phenomenon
into an electrical
impulse that determines the reading.
an actuator operates in the reverse direction of a sensor. It takes an electrical
input and turns it into
physical action.
The actuators can be classified into three categories Electric motor, A
hydraulic system, and a pneumatic system

An actuator is a device, which can affect a change in the environment by

converting electrical energy into some form of useful energy. Some examples
are heating or cooling elements speakers, lights, displays, and motors. The
actuators can be classified into three categories. electrical, hydraulic, and
pneumatic actuators depending on their operation. Hydraulic actuators simplify
mechanical motion using fluid or hydraulic power. Pneumatic actuators use the
pressure of compressed air and electrical use electrical energy.

For example, a smart home system consists of many sensors and actuators. The
actuators are used to lock/unlock the doors, switch on/off the lights or other
electrical appliances, alert users of any threats through alarms or notifications,
and control the temperature of a home (via a thermostat). A sophisticated example
of an actuator used in lot is a digital finger, which is used to turn on/off the
switches (or anything that requires small motion) and is controlled wirelessly.
The function of the actuator is opposite of the sensor. It behaves like a tool. By
interpreting the electrical impulses sent from the control system and converting
them into mechanical motion, it actually introduces changes to its physical
surroundings by means of a variety of simple actions, including but not limited
to opening and closing valves, changing other devices' position or angle,
activating them or emitting sounds or light. In simple words, the actuator work
like a 'mover'. This consists of a digital-to-analogy converter, an output filter, and
some sort of amplifier. Increasingly, digital techniques like digital signal
processors (DSPs) and class-D amplifiers are being employed in actuators to
make them more accurate, responsive, and energy-efficient.

Sensors and actuators are omnipresent in modern industrial applications, and

the emergence of the Internet of Things has opened up completely new
possibilities for IoT sensor and actuator applications not only within the industrial
sector but also in the field of commercial and domestic use. The Internet of Things
has put sensors to work for powerful, cloud-based analytical software to develop
intelligent solutions for machines, people, and the environment alike.

For example, car breaks convert mechanical energy to heat energy. For systems,
nearly all sensors take some physical parameters and turn them into electrical
signals. Similarly, nearly all actuators in IoT systems take electrical signals and
convert them into some sort of physical output. Physical parameters include
electrical (voltage, current, power, resistance, capacitance, inductance,
frequency, phase, etc.), mechanical (position, speed, acceleration, weight,
compass heading, gravity, force, tension, pressure, flow, torque, magnetic field,
etc.), acoustic (sound, vibration, seismic, etc.), image (light intensity, cameras,
displays, infrared (IR), Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR, etc.), chemical
(potential hydrogen (pH)concentrations, composition, purity, etc.), medical (heart
rate, respiration, blood pressure, temperature, electroencephalogram (EEG), etc.)
and many more.

Types of Actuators
Actuators are small and rarely visible during operation, but the effects of their
work can be felt in vehicles, industrial machines, or any other electronic
equipment involving automation technologies. They can be separated into four
main categories based on their construction pattern and the role they play in a
specific IoT environment:

Linear Actuators: These sensors are used to enable motion of objects or

elements in a straight line.
Motors: This type of actuator helps in the rotational movements of device
components or whole objects.
Relays: This type of actuator defines electromagnet-based actuators to operate
power switches in lamps, heaters or even smart vehicles.
Solenoids: These are mostly used in home appliances like locking or triggering
mechanic they also help as controllers in IoT-based gas and water leak monitoring
systems

Fig. Types of Actuators

Q6. EXPLAIN THE PROPERTIES OF TEMPERATURE SENSOR,
MOTION SENSOR, LEVEL SENSOR

ANS: - Temperature sensors are a simple instrument that measures the degree of
hotness or coolness and converts it into a readable unit. But, have you ever
wondered how the temperature of the soil, boreholes, huge concrete dams or
buildings is measured? Well, this is accomplished through some of the specialised
temperature sensors.

Temperature sensors are designed to keep a regular check on concrete structures,

bridges, railway tracks, soil, etc.

What are the temperature sensors?

A temperature sensor is a device, typically, a thermocouple or resistance
temperature detector, that provides temperature measurement in a readable form
through an electrical signal.

A thermometer is the most basic form of a temperature meter that is used to

measure the degree of hotness and coolness.

Temperature meters are used in the geotechnical field to monitor concrete,

structures, soil, water, bridges etc. for structural changes in them due to seasonal
variations.

A thermocouple (T/C) is made from two dissimilar metals that generate an

electrical voltage in direct proportion with the change in temperature. An RTD
(Resistance Temperature Detector) is a variable resistor that changes its electrical
resistance in direct proportion with the change in the temperature in a precise,
repeatable and nearly linear manner.

What do temperature sensors do?

A temperature sensor is a device that is designed to measure the degree of hotness
or coolness in an object. The working of a temperature meter depends upon the
voltage across the diode. The temperature change is directly proportional to the
diode’s resistance. The cooler the temperature, lesser will be the resistance, and
vice-versa.

The resistance across the diode is measured and converted into readable units of
temperature (Fahrenheit, Celsius, Centigrade, etc.) and, displayed in numeric
form over readout units. In geotechnical monitoring field, these temperature
sensors are used to measure the internal temperature of structures like bridges,
dams, buildings, power plants, etc.
What is a temperature sensor used for? | What are the functions of a
temperature sensor?
Well, there are many types of temperature sensors, but, the most common way to
categorise them is based upon the mode of connection which includes, contact
and non-contact temperature sensors.

Contact sensors include thermocouples and thermistors because they are in direct
contact with the object they are to measure. Whereas, the non-contact temperature
sensors measure the thermal radiation released by the heat source. Such
temperature meters are often used in hazardous environments like nuclear power
plants or thermal power plants.

In geotechnical monitoring, temperature sensors measure the heat of hydration in

mass concrete structures. They can also be used to monitor the migration of
groundwater or seepage. One of the most common areas where they are used is
while curing the concrete because it has to be relatively warm in order to set and
cure properly. The seasonal variations cause structural expansion or contraction
thereby, changing its overall volume.

How does temperature sensor work?

The basic principle of working of the temperature sensors is the voltage across
the diode terminals. If the voltage increases, the temperature also rises, followed
by a voltage drop between the transistor terminals of base and emitter in a diode.

MOTION SENSOR: -
There are two types of motion sensors: active motion sensors and passive motion
sensors. (Getty Images)
A motion sensor (or motion detector) is an electronic device that is designed to
detect and measure movement. Motion sensors are used primarily in home and
business security systems, but they can also be found in phones, paper towel
dispensers, game consoles, and virtual reality systems. Unlike many other types
of sensors (which can be handheld and isolated), motion sensors are typically
embedded systems with three major components: a sensor unit, an embedded
computer, and hardware (or the mechanical component). These three parts vary
in size and configuration, as motion sensors can be customized to perform highly
specific functions. For example, motion sensors can be used to activate
floodlights, trigger audible alarms, activate switches, and even alert the police.

There are two types of motion sensors: active motion sensors and passive motion
sensors. Active sensors have both a transmitter and a receiver. This type of sensor
detects motion by measuring changes in the amount of sound or radiation
reflecting back into the receiver. When an object interrupts or alters the sensor’s
field, an electric pulse is sent to the embedded computer, which in turn interacts
with the mechanical component. The most common type of active motion
detector uses ultrasonic sensor technology; these motion sensors emit sound
waves to detect the presence of objects. There are also microwave sensors (which
emit microwave radiation), and tomographic sensors (which transmit and receive
radio waves).

LEVEL SENSOR: -

A level sensor is a device that is designed to monitor, maintain, and measure

liquid (and sometimes solid) levels (Getty Images)
A level sensor is a device that is designed to monitor, maintain, and measure
liquid (and sometimes solid) levels. Once the liquid level is detected, the sensor
converts the perceived data into an electric signal. Level sensors are used
primarily in the manufacturing and automotive industries, but they can be found
in many household appliances as well, such as ice makers in refrigerators.

There are two main classifications for level sensors: point level
sensors and continuous level sensors. Point level sensors are designed to indicate
whether a liquid has reached a specific point in a container. Continuous level
sensors, on the other hand, are used to render precise liquid level measurements.
Level sensors can be divided further into invasive and non-contact
sensors. Invasive sensors make direct contact with the substance they are
measuring, while non-contact sensors use sound or microwaves.
Optical level sensor. (SMD Fluid Controls)
There are many different types of point level sensors, but they are all
invasive. One of the most basic point level sensors is the “float switch.” When a
liquid level rises or falls in a container, it forces the switch to open or close a
circuit. Optical level sensors are comprised of an infrared (IR) emitter and a
photodiode. As photoelectric proximity sensors, they detect the presence of liquid
by measuring the amount of infrared light that is reflected back into the
photodiode. Capacitance level sensors measure change in capacitance (the ability
to store electric charge) to determine liquid levels in tanks. “Tuning fork” sensors
use differences in pressure and vibration to measure liquid level.

Unlike point level sensors, the two main types of continuous level sensors
(ultrasonic and microwave) are non-contact. Ultrasonic level sensors emit sound
waves, while “radar” sensors emit microwaves. The time interval between wave
emission and reflection is directly proportional to the liquid level.

Q7. LIST THE APPLICATION OF ULTRASONIC SENSOR, VOLTAGE

SENSOR,

RTC-DS3231

ANS: - Ultrasonic sensors are used around the world, indoors and outdoors in the
harshest conditions, for a variety of applications.

APPLICATIONS FOR ULTRASONIC SENSOR: -

• Loop control
• Roll diameter, tension control, winding and unwind
• Liquid level control
• Thru beam detection for high-speed counting
• Full detection
• Thread or wire break detection
• Robotic sensing
• Stacking height control
• 45° Deflection; inkwell level detection; hard to get at places
• People detection for counting
• Contouring or profiling using ultrasonic systems
• Vehicle detection for car wash and automotive assembly
• Irregular parts detection for hoppers and feeder bowls
• Presence detection
• Box sorting using multi-transducer ultrasonic monitoring system

APPLICATIONS FOR VOLTAGE SENSOR: -

• Detection of power failure

• Detecting of load
• Safety switching
• Controlling temperature
• Controlling of power demand
• Detection of fault
• Variation of load measurement of Temperature

Thus, this is all about voltage sensor which can be used to detect the range of
voltage in any device. It decides the electrical charge within any device. The
working principle of this sensor mainly depends on the principle of either
capacitive or resistive.

APPLICATIONS FOR RTC-DS3231 SENSOR: -

• Highly Accurate RTC Completely Manages All Timekeeping Functions

• Real-Time Clock Counts Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Date of the Month,
Month,
Day of the Week, and Year, with Leap-Year Compensation Valid Up to 2100
• Accuracy ±2ppm from 0°C to +40°C
• Accuracy ±3.5ppm from -40°C to +85°C
• Digital Temp Sensor Output: ±3°C Accuracy
• Register for Aging Trim
• Active-Low RST Output/Pushbutton Reset Debounce Input
• Two Time-of-Day Alarms
• Programmable Square-Wave Output Signal
• Simple Serial Interface Connects to Most Microcontrollers
• Fast (400kHz) I2C Interface
• Battery-Backup Input for Continuous Timekeeping
• Low Power Operation Extends Battery-Backup Run Time
• 3.3V Operation
• Operating Temperature Ranges: Commercial (0°C to +70°C) and Industrial (-
40°C to +85°C)

Q8. SHORT NOTE ON:

ANS: -

➢ LED: -

IoT smart lighting uses wireless switches, eliminating the need to wire light
switches directly to fixtures. Those bulbs are then connected to a network,
allowing them to be monitored and controlled from the cloud. Via the web or a
mobile app, you can manage individual lights or groups of lights based on things
like occupancy, external light levels, and times of day; you can also control
dimming and colour-changing. And smart fixtures like these can also convey
information about broken and burnt-out lighting, all in real-time.

And since lights are ubiquitous in buildings, these connected bulbs are also an
excellent conduit for gathering additional data about a building. Sensors can be
embedded into the fixtures for the purpose of accumulating and transmitting
information about a facility, including room occupancy, air quality, and
temperature, among other things. The more information you have about how your
building is used, the better equipped you are to manage it more efficiently.

Some interesting potential uses for IoT lighting in commercial facilities are:

• A lighting-based indoor positioning system: In late 2017, Target

implemented indoor positioning using Bluetooth chips embedded in LED
ceiling lights. Shoppers’ phones get access to an interactive store map that
guides them around the aisles to products they’re looking for. And Dubai’s
Hamdan Bin Mohammed Smart University uses IoT lighting controls to guide
students to classrooms.

• Asset tracking: For critical assets tagged with sensors, IoT lighting can be
used to locate them based on the signals they give off.

• Monitor conditions for perishable goods: Goods that require certain

environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity levels can benefit
from smart lighting solutions that are constantly monitoring the storage room
or area. Alerts can be set to detect anomalies and prevent spoilage.
• Space utilization: IoT lighting can gather occupancy data, which can then be
analysed to optimize building usage. Analysis of this data helps you better
manage your space, and respond to under- or overutilization.
➢ BUZZER: -

Buzzer is a kind of voice device that converts audio model into sound signal. It is
mainly used to prompt or alarm. According to different design and application, it
can produce music sound, flute sound, buzzer, alarm sound, electric bell and other
different sounds.
Typical applications include siren, alarm device, fire alarm, air defence alarm,
burglar alarm, timer, etc. It is widely used in household appliances, alarm system,
automatic production line, low-voltage electrical equipment, electronic toys,
game machines and other products and industries.
An audio signalling device like a beeper or buzzer may electromechanically
or piezoelectric or mechanical type

Buzzer Pin Configuration

The pin configuration of the buzzer is shown below. It includes two pins
namely positive and negative. The positive terminal of this is represented with
the ‘+’ symbol or a longer terminal. This terminal is powered through 6Volts
whereas the negative terminal is represented with the ‘- ‘symbol or short terminal
and it is connected to the GND terminal.
Working Principle

The working principle of a buzzer depends on the theory that, once the voltage
is given across a piezoelectric material, then a pressure difference is produced.
A piezo type includes piezo crystals among two conductors.

Once a potential disparity is given across these crystals, then they thrust
one conductor & drag the additional conductor through their internal property.
So, this continuous action will produce a sharp sound signal.
➢ SERVO MOTOR: -

A servo motor, or simply, a servo, is a device that is used to rotate or push parts
of a machine to which it is connected with precision. Unlike DC motors, they
generally rotate to a particular angle and then stop.

If you pull apart a servo motor, you’ll find the following inside it:

1. A DC Motor
2. A Potentiometer
3. A gear train i.e., a series of gears that are connected such that their
teeth are engaged/interconnected.
4. A control circuit: This circuit is the actual brain behind the precise
working of the servo. It controls how much the servo should move
or rotate depending upon the input it receives.
.
Also, we will know, why they are one of the basic devices in robotics and
industrial sectors that require highly precise motions.

Servo motor is a rotary actuator or linear actuator . It allows for precise control of
angular or linear position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a suitable
motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also requires a relatively
sophisticated controller. Often a dedicated module designed specifically for use
with servo motors.

It is an electrical device which can push or rotate an object with great precision. If
you want to rotate an object at some specific angles or distance, then you have to
use servo motor. It is just a simple motor which run through servo mechanism.

If the motor uses the DC power as supply, then it is the DC servo motor. If the
motor uses an AC power as supply, then it is an AC servo motor. We can get a
very high torque servo motor in a small and light weight package. Due to these
features, they use in many applications like toy car, RC helicopters and planes,
Robotics, Machines etc

Construction of Servo Motor

This motor is a closed-loop mechanism that incorporates positional feedback in

order to control the rotational or linear speed and position.

This motor is actually an assembly of four things:

• Normal DC motor- That is in charge of generating the motion through its

shaft.
• Gear reduction unit/gear box
• Potentiometer
• Control circuit
The DC motor connects with a gear mechanism which provides feedback to a
position sensor which is mostly a potentiometer.

It is connected to the central shaft, and informs at all times the angle in which the
motor’s shaft is available

From the gear box or gear reduction unit, the output of the motor delivers via
servo spline to the servo arm. the gear box is formed by gears which may
increase or decrease the speed and torque.

The standard servo motor uses the plastic gear whereas the high-power servo
motor uses the metal gear.

A control circuit allows for control over the motor’s motion by sending electric
pulses

Motor consists of three wires- a black wire connected to ground. A white/yellow

wire connected to control unit. And a red wire connected to power supply.

Advantages of Servo Motor

• If a heavy load places on the motor, the driver will increase the current to
the motor coil as it attempts to rotate the motor. Basically, there is no out-
of-step condition.
• High-speed operation is possible.

Disadvantages of Servo Motor

• Since the motor tries to rotate according to the command pulses, but lags
behind. it is not suitable for precision control of rotation.
• Higher cost.
• When stopped, the motor’s rotor continues to move back and forth one
pulse. So that, it is not suitable if you need to prevent vibration

Applications of Servo-Motor

It uses in the applications requiring rapid variations in speed without the motor
getting overheated.
• Industries, they use in the machine tools, packaging, factory automation,
material handling, printing converting, assembly lines. In many other
demanding applications robotics, CNC machinery or automated
manufacturing.
• uses in radio-controlled airplanes to control the positioning and movement
of elevators.
• In robots because of their smooth switching on and off and accurate
positioning.
• In the aerospace industry to maintain hydraulic fluid in their hydraulic
systems.
• uses in many radio-controlled toys.
• used in electronic devices such as DVDs or Blue ray Disc players to
extend or replay the disc trays.
• used in automobiles to maintain the speed of vehicles
Q9. RELAYS:

Think of a relay as an electronic light switch. To turn the light on, flick the
switch up. To turn the light off, flick the switch down. A light switch simply
closes (or completes) an electrical circuit to turn on a light and opens (or breaks)
a circuit to turn off the light. A relay does this same exact thing except that the
switch is powered not by hand but by a low-power signal. There are different
types of relays and they differ by the types of poles and throws, as explained in
the following two diagrams.

A device like an Arduino or Raspberry Pi cannot switch high-powered circuits

like lamps or lights. These devices typically have 5v or 3v connections and have
no other way to switch other circuits. Another use of relays is switching existing
circuity in your house without changing too much: such as a sprinkler system. All
the wiring is already run to a location for water sprinklers. Connect the existing
power to the solenoid valve wires and use the relay and an Arduino to control
your sprinklers. IoT Power Relay is a controllable power relay equipped with four
outputs that help to create an Internet of Things project with safe, reliable power
control. With the IoT Power Relay you can easily control the power going to a
device with an Arduino, Raspberry Pi or other single-board computer or
microcontroller. It provides an alternative to the Power Switch Tail.
The IoT Power Relay is designed to allow to safely control an outlet device
We use relays for a wide range of applications such as home automation, cars and
bikes (automobiles), industrial applications, DIY Projects, test and measurement
equipment, and many more.
A Relay is a simple electromechanical switch. While we use normal switches to
close or open a circuit manually, a Relay is also a switch that connects or
disconnects two circuits. But instead of a manual operation, a relay uses an
electrical signal to control an electromagnet, which in turn connects or
disconnects another circuit.

Relays can be of different types like electromechanical, solid state.

Electromechanical relays are frequently used. Let us see the internal parts of
this relay before knowing about it working. Although many different types of
relays were present, their working is same.

Every electromechanical relay consists of an consists of an

1. Electromagnet
2. Mechanically movable contact
3. Switching points and
4. Spring
Electromagnet is constructed by wounding a copper coil on a metal core. The
two ends of the coil are connected to two pins of the relay as shown. These two
are used as DC supply pins.
Generally, two more contacts will be present, called as switching points to
connect high ampere load. Another contact called common contact is present in
order to connect the switching points.

The following animation shows a simplified working of a relay.

• Relay works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

• When the electromagnet is applied with some current, it induces a
magnetic field around it.
 • Above image shows working of the relay. A switch is used to apply DC
current to the load.
• In the relay, Copper coil and the iron core acts as electromagnet.
• When the coil is applied with DC current, it starts attracting the contact as
shown. This is called energizing of relay.
• When the supply is removed it retrieves back to the original position.
This is called De energizing of relay.
There are also such relays, whose contacts are initially closed and opened when
there is supply i.e., exactly to opposite to the above shown relay.

Types of Relays

Relays can be classified into different types depending on their functionality,

structure, application etc. We listed out some of the common types of relays
here.

• Electromagnetic
• Latching
• Electronic
• Non-Latching
• Reed
• High-Voltage
• Small Signal
• Time Delay
• Multi-Dimensional
• Thermal
• Differential
• Distance
• Automotive
• Frequency
• Polarized
• Rotary
• Sequence
• Moving Coil
• Buchholz
• Safety
• Supervision
• Ground Fault