RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES 300 0.

03 9
300 0.04 12
PRINCIPLES OF IMAGING 300 0.05 15
300 0.06 18
DENSITY
300 0.07 21
• Amount of blackness on a given area of a radiograph
• kVp
• Also known as the logarithm of opacity or optical density (OD
• Directly controls the energy or quality of the x-rays produced
• Defined as the ratio of the amount of light incident on the
film to the amount of light transmitted through the film • Directly affects density though not in directly proportional
relationship
• Light incident may be bought as the light striking the
radiograph from the back, coming from the view box • Determines the penetrating ability of the x-ray beam

• Light transmitted may be thought of as the light that is seen
coming through the radiograph while being viewed either by
the human eye or a densitometer
• OD = log 10 Light Incident
• Penetrating ability of the x-rays also determines the number
of x-rays exiting the patient to strike the film
• As kvp increase, quality of the beam is increased, more x-rays
penetrate the anatomical part.

Light transmitted Distance

• A result of exit x-rays and light rays from intensifying screens • Density is inversely proportional to the square of the
striking the film’s emulsion distance

• Made visible when the crystals in the film’s emulsion are
converted to black metallic silver in the developer solution
• Density directly proportional to mAs
• Has a numeric value
• can be present in varying degrees, from completely black, in
which no light is transmitted through the radiograph, to
almost clear
• high OD – too dark caused by overexposure
• low OD – too light, little radiation caused by underexposure
• controlled by 2 major factors: mAs and SID
• Controlled by the following:
• The number of exit rays striking the film-screen combination
• The speed of the film-screen combination
• Processing
Factors Controlling and Influencing Density
mAs
• Controls the number of electrons passing from cathode to
anode in the x-ray tube
• Controls the quantity of x-rays produced at the anode
• Controls the amount of radiation exiting the x-ray tube
• Directly controls the number of x-ray photons that will
emerge from the patient as exit rays
• Directly controls the number of x-rays that eventually strike
the film-screen system as exit rays
• Directly proportional to density
• Governed by the reciprocity law
• Optical density remains the same no matter the length of
exposure
• If the mA is doubled, you need to half the the exposure time
• 100 mA x 1 sec = 100 mAs
200 mA x .5 sec = 100 mAs
• 400 mA x .25 sec = 100 mAs
500 mA x .2 sec = 100 mAs
• Applicable to direct screen exposure
mA Time mAs
• Governed by the inverse square law
• Old mAs = (New Distance) ² (mAso = Dn²)
New mAs (Old Distance) ² (mAsn Do²)
Film-screen combination
• Film is sensitive to green and blue
• Directly proportional relationship with density
• As speed (sensitivity) increases, density increases
• As speed (sensitivity) decreases, density decreases
Grids
• Decreases the amount of scatter radiation striking the film
• Used for thicker structure, 10 cm and above
• 75 kVp and up
• Increases scatter radiation
Beam Restriction
• Decreases density by limiting the size of x-ray beam unless
mAs is increased to compensate
• Limit patient exposure
• Reduces amount of scatter radiation
• Image quality is optimal because there is lesser radiation
• Reduces patient dose
Anatomy and pathology
• Anatomy affects density through its variation of atomic
number, tissue thickness and tissue density
Anode heel effect
• Concentrate to focus in thicker part and lesser to thin part
• A phenomenon in which the intensity of the x-ray beam is
greater towards the cathode side of the tube. The variation in
x-ray intensity along the longitudinal tube axis.
• Anode heel effect refers to the lower field intensity towards
the anode in comparison to the cathode due to lower x-ray
emissions from the target material at angles perpendicular to
the electron beam.
Filtration
• Negligible effect on density, largely a radiation protection
accessory
• Filter light energy photon and drop the lesser energy photon • Any misrepresentation of an anatomic structure on an image
receptor that alters its size and/ or shape

CONTRAST • Two types of distortion: size and shape

• Differences in adjacent densities on the radiograph Factors Controlling Distortion

• Primary function is to make the detail visible • Size

• High contrast: few gray tones, mainly black and white • Magnification

• Low contrast: many gray tones on image; may also be • Caused by excessive OID
referred to as long-scale contrast
• Caused by insufficient SID

Factors Controlling and Influencing Contrast • Causes anatomic structure to appear larger on film than in
reality
• kVp
• Shape
• Directly controls contrast
• Elongation
• Controls differentials absorption of the x-ray beam energy
• Causes anatomic structure to appear longer than in reality
Grids

• Reduce the amount of scatter reaching the film

• Foreshortening
• Less scatter fog results in fewer gray tones, which increase
contrast • Causes anatomic structure to appear shorter than reality
Beam restriction
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
• Limits area being irradiated
Base
• Filtration
• Made of polyester
• As filtration is increased, beam becomes harder (average
photon striking the patient has shorter wavelength) • Approximately 0.008 inches thick

• Contrast decreases as filtration increases • Blue dye added

• Anatomy and pathology Emulsion

• Also known as subject contrast
• Control contrast with variations in the following:
RECORDED DETAIL
• Sharpness with which anatomic structures are displayed
• B. May be described as the geometric representation of part
being radiographed
• Double emulsion film (also called duplitized film): coated on
both sides of base
• Single emulsion film: coated on one side of base
• Consists of silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin
Film Characteristics
Speed ( sensitivity )

• C. May also be referred to as detail sharpness, definition or • Determined by the size and/or number of the silver
image resolution halide crystals and the thickness of the emulsion

Factors Controlling and Influencing Recorded Detail Contrast

Object-image distance (OID) • Determined by the size of the silver halide crystals and the

• Distance from the anatomic part being imaged to the image Thickness of the emulsion
receptor (usually film)
Latitude
Source-image distance (SID)
• Determined by the inherent contrast of the film
• Distance from the source of radiation (usually anode in the x-
ray tube) to the image receptor (usually film) Exposure latitude

Focal spot size • Wider exposure latitude at higher kVp levels

• Use small focal spot whenever possible Sensitometry

Film-screen combination P & D curves

Also called sensitometric curves, characteristics curves, and

• Use of slower speed film-screen system results in increased
sharpness of recorded detail D log E curves Curve always assurance some form of S or
sigmoid shape
Motion
Toe Portion of curve representing low exposure and density;
• Any motion results in image blur and subsequent loss of
base plus fog
recorded detail
Body
• Motion may be caused by the following:
a. Also called straight line portion, gamma, or slope
DISTORTION
b. Portion of curve from 0.25 to 2.5 density
 Shoulder • Linears

• Portion of curve from 2.5 to maximum density (also called D- • Focused grids
max)
• Crossed grids
• Measures unusable densities on the radiograph (blackest
portion) • Grid characteristics

Use of H & D curves • Contrast improvement factor

• May be used to determine the characteristics of a • Measure of grid’s ability to enhance contrast
certain film
• Grid selectivity
• May be used to compare the characteristics of
several films • Expressed as the ratio of primary radiation transmitted
through the grid to secondary radiation transmitted through
Film characteristics as plotted on H & D curves
the grid
• Speed (sensitivity): the closer the curve to the y-axis
• Grid conversion factor
the faster the film
• Also called Bucky factor
FILM STORAGE
• Amount of exposure increase necessary to compensate for
• Storage
the absorption of image-forming rays and scatter in the
• Temperature no greater than 68º to 70° F cleanup Grid motion

• Humidity from 40% to 60% • Stationary grids

• Handling • Do not move during the exposure

• Pressure marks • Moving grids

• Static • Reciprocate (move back and forth) during exposure

• Crinkle or half-moon marks • Grid errors: focused grids

• Bending film over fingernail during handling • Upside down

• Other rough handling • Off-level

INTENSIFYING SCREENS • Lateral decentering

• Base or backing • Air gap technique

• Made of polyester • Uses increased OID

• Reflective layer • Increased OID allows scatter (which travels in widely

divergent paths) to exit the patient and miss the film
• Between base and active layer
• Example: lateral cervical spine
• Reflects light from crystals toward film, increasing the speed
of the system • Radiographic quality and grids

• Active layer • Produce higher contrast by absorbing Compton’s scatter rays,

which produce fog if they strike the film
• Also called the phosphor layer
• Decrease recorded detail if used in a Potter-Bucky diaphragm
• Adheres to the base because of increased OID
• Protective layer
TECHNIQUE CHARTS
• Thin coating placed on top of active layer to provide
protection from scratching or other damage • Measurements
• Screen speed (sensitivity) • Part thickness should always be measured using calipers
• Primarily controlled by the following: • Types of technique charts
• Film-screen combination summary (speed primarily 1. Fixed kVp-variable mAs
controlled by screens; contrast primarily controlled by Kvp)
• Assumes optimum kVp for the part being radiographed

GRIDS 2. Variable kVp

• Use • kVp is varied according to part thickness as measured with

the calipers
• Reduces the amount of scatter radiation reaching the film
• Based on the assumption that thicker parts require a beam
• Construction with shorter wavelength rays that are more penetrating
• Lead strips separated by aluminum interspaces 3. Variable technique

• Grid ratio • Provides for alteration of routine techniques because of

pathology, patient age, ability to cooperate, casts, contrast
• Grid frequency media
• Grid types