TAWI- TAWI REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

Nalil, Bongao, Tawi-Tawi

Computer Science Department

Learning module in
IS-103
IT Infrastructure
& Networking
Unit 3
Learning Objectives:
 Define packets and their importance to data communication
 Identify the functions of protocols in a network
 Have deep understanding about layered architecture of protocols
 Give the difference between routable and non-routable protocols
 Give the difference between connectionless and connection-oriented protocols
 Describe the common protocols found in various networks and their
implementation
UNDERSTANDING PACKETS
Packets and protocols are the basic elements of data transmission over the network. Without
them, networks will be useless. Packets (also known as datagram, frame or cell) and protocols allow
different applications to communicate with any device on the network. Packets contain information
about the source and destination of the data as well as other control information, while Protocols are
used to encapsulate those data and information. Different network configuration follow different
protocols. And one of the important considerations in setting up a network is choosing protocols that
best fulfill the needs of the environment.
 Packets carry data from one point to another with the help of protocols. During the process,
protocols require that packets contain information that will ensure successful transmission of data.
Protocol define structure of packet. This is very essential because if a packet is structured
incorrectly, it is considered corrupted and ignored by the receiving device. As we have learned, packets
may vary in size and structure, but generally, it includes a header followed by a payload (data) and an
optional trailer (footer).

The header section includes the following:

1. control information 6. Length of the header
2. sequence number 7. Type of service
3. source address 8. Length of the entire packet
4. destination address 9. Error-checking and other information
5. protocol version
The data is the actual information that is being transmitted over the network from application to
one another. Each protocol has a predefined maximum data size. If the data is larger than this maximum
data size, the data is broken into smaller pieces and transmitted in multiple packets.
The trailer section contains CRC (cyclic redundancy check) is a special algorithm designed to
generate a chick field used to guard against error during transmission.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
Network protocols may use one or more protocols depending on the requirement and need of
the devices in the network. In general, a protocol is a set of rules that define how machines on a
network communicate. In order to converse, devices must agree on a common protocol and understand
the rule in these protocols for a successful transmission.
Protocols may be grouped together to enhance their functionalities- that group is also known as
protocol suite. Most commonly known protocol suites are Internet Packet Exchange (IPX) and
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX), the Internet TCP/IP protocol suite, NetBeui (NetBIOS Extended User
Interface) and AppleTalk.
Functions of Protocols
Protocol function can be grouped into the following categories:
1. Segmentation and reassembly- the breaking up of message into Packet Data Units (PDU) at the
sender and putting them back into a message at the receiver end.
2. Encapsulation- the addition of control information such as addresses; error-detecting; and
protocol control.
3. Connection control- the management of connectionless and connection –oriented data
transfer.
4. Ordered delivery- ensured that PDUs will arrive at the receiver in the order as they left the
sender.
5. Flow control- a function performed by the receiving device to limit the amount or rate of data
that is sent by a transmitting device.
6. Error control- the techniques used to guard against loss or damage of data and control
information.
7. Synchronization- ensures that all of the process during communication happen in proper
timing.
 8. Addressing- allows devices in the network to identify one another.
9. Multiplexing- used to permit simultaneous connections using connection names and port
names.
10. Transmission services- provides priority assignment and security to devices during
transmission.

Routable versus Non-routable Protocols

Routable protocol also called as routed protocol, is a network protocol that supports routing of
packets on an inter-network. Today, routable protocols are the best solution for a network of different
domain, but it requires that additional information be included in the packet header for routing
purposes.
The following are most commonly used routable network protocols:
a) The TCP/IP suite used on the internet
b) Novell’s IPX/SPX
c) Xerox Network Systems (XNS) used by Xerox Corp in early 80’s
d) DECnet released and used by Digital Equipment Corp in peer-to-peer network in 1975
e) Apple Computer Apple Computer’s AppleTalk suite but now obsolete in favor of TCP/IP
f) The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) suite
Non-routable protocols are protocols commonly found in older networks. They are faster than routable
protocols since they do not require additional overhead information. But this is inability to be routed
limits its operation in a single LAN.
Common network protocols that are not routable include the following:
a) NetBIOS Extend User Interface (NetBUI)
b) Data Link Control (DLC)
Connectionless versus Connection-Oriented Protocols
Connectionless Protocols- they are used to deliver small datagrams. Connectionless protocols
are faster than connection-oriented since they have fewer overhead. They are mainly used where there
is a need to send data to multiple computers at once, or in where speed is needed is such as in audio or
video. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) considered a connectionless protocol.
Connection-Oriented Protocols- connection-oriented protocols are used primarily for reliable delivery
of large packets of data since they guarantee the delivery of packets by making use of acknowledgments
and retransmission of data. Example of this is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

Protocols and the OSI Model

Again, protocols are a set of rules for sending information over a network. Protocols can include
rules concerning any or all of the following functions.
a) Data transmission mechanism
b) Communication session initialization and termination
c) Addressing and routing
d) Authentication and verification
e) Encryption and compression
f) Error correction
Protocols usually classified according to the layer they correspond to in the OSI reference model. Types
of protocols include the following:
 a) Data-links protocols- govern the framing of data, physical addressing of network nodes, and
media access control methods.
b) Network protocols- handle link services and are responsible for addressing, routing, and error
checking.
c) Transport protocol- enable the establishment of sessions and ensure reliable flow of data.
d) Application layer protocols- enable applications to access network services.

APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
SESSION
Application Protocols

TRANSPORT
Transport Protocols

NETWORK
Network Protocols

DATA LINK
PHYSICAL
Data Link Protocols

POPULAR PROTOCOL SUITES

Protocol suites are designed for a specific function or task to meet the needs of the user’s
application. There is no single protocol that can receive data from an application and put that data on
the network media. A suite may have more than one protocol to handle a task. One might be designed
for speed, whereas the other focused on reliable transmission. Some protocol suites are dependent on
the network equipment used like Digital Network Architecture. Other suites such as TCP/IP and IPX/PX
can be used with many types of equipment.
Microsoft Protocols
Microsoft together with IBM developed a protocol suite for OS/2 and LAN Manager. The suite
consists of three main components.
a) Network Basic Input/Output System (NetBIOS)
b) NetBIOS Extended User Interface (NetBEUI)
c) Server Message Block (SMB)
As shown the suite defines five components above the Data Link layer. This set up allows the
Microsoft protocols to run on any network card or physical medium.
As defined in previous chapter, the redirector interprets requests from the computer and
determines whether the request is local or remote. If the request is local, redirector passes the
request to the local operating system (OS). If the service being requested is a remote network
service the request is passed unto the protocol below, which is the SMB. The redirector, in this case
is responsible for repackaging SMB requests for transmission to other devices for processing.
 APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
SESSION REDIRECTOR
TRANSPORT SMB
NETWORK NetBIOS
DATA LINK NetBEUI
PHYSICAL NDIS
NIC Driver
PHYSICAL CONNECTION

SMB is a high-level file—sharing protocol jointly developed by Microsoft, IBM, and Intel for
passing data between computers on a network. Microsoft Windows and OS/2 use Server Management
Block (SMB). Many UNIX operating system also support it. SMB resides in the Presentation Layer of the
OSI model, and provides a transparent connection to shares resources for the user. SMB is used
between clients and servers to do the following:
a) Open and close connections between client redirections and shared network resources.
b) Locate, read, and write to files shared on a server.
c) Locate and print to print queues that are shared on a server
NetBIOS- is a distinct Session Layer specification that allows distributed applications to access each
others network services independent of the transport protocol used. It acts as an interface for
application on the network. Most file sharing and administration done on Microsoft networks use the
NetBIOS interface on top of TCP/IP or IPX/SPX.
NetBIOS provides peer-to-peer application support in a small LAN. Each computer in a NetBIOS
LAN is identified by 15-character name, which is being a broadcast periodically on the LAN. Each
computer keeps a list of the NetBIOS names and hardware addresses to assist in communication.
NetBEUI (pronounced net-buoy)- is a networking non-routable protocol used for workgroup-size
Microsoft area networks (LAN)s with up to 200 stations. NetBEUI is an extension of the NetBIOS
protocol. It is a fast and efficient protocol with low overhead that supports both connection-oriented
communication and connectionless communication. NetBEUI is self-tuning and implements flow control
and error detection. It defines a framing mechanism at the transport layer of the OSI.
The main advantages of NetBEUI are its speed and ease of configuration. NetBEUI is one of the
fastest protocols you can use to share files. Configuration is simple because all that is needed is a
computer name- no network or logical addresses are required. NetBEUI relies more heavily on broadcast
packets.
Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS)- provides a uniform programming interface between NIC
drivers and network protocols. NDIS was developed jointly by Microsoft and 3Com in 1989 and has gone
through a series of revisions. The most recent versions allow one NIC to be bound to many protocols
(which is ideal for heterogeneous networks) or allow one protocol to run on a system with multiple NICs
(which helps increase network bandwidth for heavily used servers).
The NIC and the driver provide the services corresponding to the data link layer. For the LLC
sublayer, the software provides the services while services for the MAC sublayer are furnished the NIC.
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)- is an industry standard protocol
suite designed for wide are networks (WANs). It was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense
(DoD) in the 1970s and 1980s to test the idea of keeping communications open even during the war. The
initial network was called ARPANet which is named after the project name- Advanced Research Project
Agency (ARPA). TCP/IP is a routable protocol that is suitable for connecting dissimilar systems (such as
Microsoft Windows and UNIX) in heterogeneous networks, and it is the protocol of the worldwide
network known as the internet.
TCP/IP has also become the protocol of choice for most companies for the following reasons:
a) It is non-proprietary
b) It is compatible to almost any network software or equipment
c) It enables connections of multiple LANs
d) It is highly extendible
TCP/IP and the OSI Model
The architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite has four layers that map loosely to the seven-layer
OSI. The TCP/IP model is sometimes called the DoD model because it was developed in connection with
the ARPANet Department of defense project.

The four layers can be loosely matched to the OSI model in the following ways:
a) Application layer protocols- they are responsible for application-level access to TCP/IP
networking services. These include:
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
b) Transport layer protocols- they establish communication through connection-oriented sessions
and connectionless broadcasts. Almost all devices on a TCP/IP network are considered hosts,
whether they’re workstation, servers, or network-attached printers. Protocols at this layer
include:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
c) Internet layer protocols- this layer nearly matches to the Network layer of the OSI model. They
are responsible for routing and encapsulation into IP packets Protocols at his layer include:
 Internet Protocol (IP)
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
  Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
d) Network layer protocols- this layer corresponds to the Physical and Data Links Layers of the OSI
model. They place frames on the network. These protocols include:
 LAN architectures
 Ethernet
 Token Ring
 WAN Telecommunication service technologies
 Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)
 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

SPECIALIZED PROTOCOLS UNDER TCP/IP SUITE

Internet Protocol (IP)- is a network layer protocol that provides source and destination
addressing and routing in the suite. It is a connectionless protocol that provides best-off delivery using
packet-switching services.
The structure of an IP packet is shown in table. Some of the more important header fields
include:
1. Source IP address. The IP address of the host transmitting the packet.
2. Destination of IP address. The IP address of the host to which the packet is being sent, a multicast
group address, or the broadcast IP address 255.255.255.255.
3. Header Checksum. A mathematical computation used for verifying that the packet was received
intact.
4. Time to Live (TTL). The number of route hops that the packet can make before being discarded.
5. Fragment offset. The position of the fragment if the original IP packet has been fragmented (for
example, by a router). This information enables the original packet to be reconstructed.
Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) is a standard developed by Novell and Apple for defining the
communication mechanism between NIC drivers and network protocols.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a TCP/IP network layer protocol used by routers
and TCP/IP hosts for building and maintaining routing table adjusting data flow rates, and reporting
errors and control messages for TCP/IP network communication.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is another network layer protocol responsible for resolving
IP address into MAC addresses. When a TCP/IP-aware application tries to access another TCP/IP host
using its IP (logical) address, the destination host’s IP address must first be resolved into a MAC
(physical) address so that the frame can be addressed and placed on the wire and then be recognized by
the destination host’s network interface card (NIC).
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol that guarantees data will be
successfully sent delivered to its destination. TCP first establishes a session by using a TCP three-way
handshake with TCP ports on each host. It then transmits the data in packets, each with a sequence
number to ensure that the packets are reassembled in the correct order. When packets are received at
their destination, TCP generates an acknowledgment to the sending host. If a packet in a sequence is not
received, TCP on the sending host retransmits the packet after a certain interval of time.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless Transport layer protocol. UDP is used by
applications and services that do not require acknowledgements. It can transmit only small portions of
data at a time because it is not capable of segmenting and reassembling frames and does not implement
sequence numbers. UDP is typically used for services that perform broadcasts.
Domain Name System (DNS) is a name-to-address resolution protocol that operates in the Transport
layer. Generally, it is a hierarchical system for identifying hosts on the internet or on a private, corporate
TCP/IP internetwork. The Domain Name System (DNS) provides:
 A method for identifying hosts with friendly names instead of IP addresses.
 A distributed mechanism for sorting and maintaining lists of names and IP addresses of
hosts.
 A method for locating hosts by resolving their names into their associated IP addresses
so that network communication can be initiated with the host.
The DNS namespace is hierarchical in structure, beginning with the root domain, which branches
to top-level domains, then second-level domains, and so on to the individual host name. For example,
the fully qualified domain name (FQDN) www.samplepage.yoursite.com can be broken down as follows:
1. Host name- www
2. Third-level domain- samplepage
3. Second-level domain- yoursite
4. Top-level domain- com (commercial domain)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a routing protocol that is used to exchange routing
information between dynamic routers. RIP has been implemented for both TCP/IP and IPX/SPX. RIP is
based on the distance vector routing algorithm that is used by routers to dynamically calculate the cost
or metric of each possible path through an internetwork. RIP routers do not consider other routing
parameters such as load, bandwidth, latency, or Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) in calculating
routing costs.
The routing table of a RIP router contains the cost in hops of every path to every destination
network in the internetwork. Routers broadcast their complete routing tables every 30 seconds over
User Datagram Protocol (UDP). RIP does not support multipath routing. If a routing table has multiple
routes for a single network ID, RIP stores the route with the lowest metric (number of hops to
destination). RIP support a maximum metric of 15; networks that are more than 15 hops away are
unreachable using RIP. This limits RIP implementation to small and mid-size internetworks.
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) e routing to determine the best path through a network. OSPF-
enabled routers create a map (or tree) called the link state database that describes the topology or
structure of the router’s specific network area. Network areas typically have no more than about 30 or
40 routers and are connected to each other through a designated high-speed backbone area using area
border routers (ABRs). With OSPF areas, each router need maintain only link state information about its
own area and other areas connected to it, which improves the scalability. OSPF uses multicasting to
update only routing information, not the entire routing table. These features substantially reduce inter-
router network traffic compared to RIP and make OSPF a more efficient protocol than RIP for large
internetworks.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is one of the earliest Internet protocols, and is still used for
uploading and downloading files between clients and servers. An FTP client is an application that can
issues FTP commands to an FTP server, while an FTP server is a service or domain running on a server
that responds to FTP commands from client.
FTP uses TCP for reliable network communication by establishing a session before initiating data
transfer. TCP port number 21 on the FTP server listen for connection attempts from an FTP client and is
used as a control port for establishing a command to the server, and for returning the server’s response
to the command. Once a control connection has been established, the server opens port number 20 to
form a new connection with the client for transferring the actual data during uploads and downloads.
 Telnet is a remote terminal emulation protocol, operating at all upper layers. A user running
telnet client software can interactively run command-line applications on a remote host that is running
the telnet service or daemon. The user enters information at the telnet client; this information is
processed on the telnet server and its output is returned to the user.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) provides a mechanism for forwarding e-mail from one
TCP/IP host to another using TCP port 25 over the internet. Feature of the SMTP include mailing lists,
return receipts and forwarding. The SMTP protocol does not specify which messages are to be created;
some local editing or native e-mail facility is required. SMTP is the basis for e-mail in the internet.
Network File System (NFS) allows seamless access to files that are stored on network disks as if
they were stored locally. In addition to file sharing, NFS also allows printer-sharing. NFS is widely
implemented in both Windows NT and Netware.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) keeps track of large numbers of IP addresses and
therefore maintains the uniqueness of each addresses in a network. DHCP is a regular service for
Windows NT/2000, and is run in servers. DHCP servers are assigned a block of addresses, which it leases
to computers requesting for it. The computer keeps the leased address until the lease expires, after
which the lease may be renewed. Another major benefit of DHCP is in the management of computers
that are not always on the network, such as laptops, notebooks, and remote computers. With DHCP,
these devices can be assigned a similar pool pf IP addresses, which will be assigned only as needed and
only for as long as they are needed.

THE IPX/SPX PROTOCOL SUITE NDIS

Internetwork Packet NIC Driver Exchange/ Sequenced Packet
Exchange (IPX/SPX) handles everything from files and disk sharing to message and application services.
Unlike TCP/IP which has many peer-to-peer functions, most of the IPX/SPX functionality is aimed toward
requesting and receiving services from a large server.
The main goal of this protocol suite is user-friendliness. The IPX/SPX protocols are developed to
provide a comfortable and convenient environment for the users. The IPX/SPX suite is also very
functional because it is modular. That is, pieces can be removed and replaced by protocols from other
suites. As an example, you could remove the main IPX/SPX protocols and replaced them with UDP and
TCP which is part of the TCP/IP protocol suite. Another important feature of the IPX/SPX protocol suite is
its ease of administration. Unlike TCP/IP, IPX/SPX needs no manual addressing for workstations to
function. The only real addressing needed is on the NetWare server, and that is just to pick a network
address not found on any other connected network. This information is the automatically passed on to
the NetWare client.
 Because IPX/SPX was created around the time the OSI was visualized, it could easily be mapped
to the model.

Lower-layer Protocols in the IPX/SPX Suite

There are no protocols in the Physical layer of the IPX/SPX suite because it can utilized any
popular physical network type, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, or Fiber Distributed Data Interfaced (FDDI).
The protocols that work at the Data Link layer are responsible for media access and interfacing to the
network card. There are two protocols on this layer:
a) Multiple Link Interface Driver (MLID) protocol
b) Link Support Layer (LSL) protocol
Corresponding to the MAC sublayer function of the Data Link layer, the Multiple Link Interface
Driver (MLID) protocol is concern with media access method used by network device to divide who can
transmit on the media. MLID is a network interface board driver specification-the piece of software that
make the network card in a computer work.
 The Link Support Lyer (LSL) software function as the interface between MLID and the upper-layer
protocols. The LSL is responsible for making sure data goes to the correct upper-layer protocols, should
multiple protocols stacks be loaded. Neither the MLID nor the LSL software is tied to a specific protocol.
MIDDLE IPX/SPX SUITE PROTOCOLS
The middle protocols in the IPX/SPX suite map to the network and transport layers of the OSI
model, and are responsible for transferring data between devices on the network, as well as carrying
some routing functionally. This includes:
a) Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX)
b) Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX)
c) Network Link Service Protocol (NLSP)
Internet Packet Exchange (IPX) is the basic protocol used on a NetWare network but can also be
used on a Window NT network. IPX is an extremely fast, streamlined connectionless protocol. The
primary responsibility of IPX is the handling of broadcast issues. IPX is a routable protocol that is
located in the Network Layer of the OSI model. IPX provides connectionless datagram services for
Ethernet, Token Ring, and other common data-link layer protocols. It handles the routing of data
across an interwork, as well as the logical network addressing.
The structure of IPX packet
IPX Packet Structure Size (Bytes) IPX Packet Structure Size (Bytes)
Checksum 2 Destination Socket 2
Length 2 Source Network 4
Transport Control (hop count) 1 Source Node 6
Packet Type 1 Source Socket 2
Destination Network 4 Data Varies
Destination Node 6

An entire IPX network address is thus 4+6=10 bytes long. IPX packets are assigned a 16-bit (2-
bytes) socket number to identify the networking service they are communicating with.
Example of networking services are Network Control Protocol (NCP), Service Advertising Protocol (SAP),
or Routing Information Protocol (RIP). Thus, the following 12-byte triple completely identifies the
networking service that a packet is communicating for.
{ network number, node address, socket number }
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) is mainly used when a connection is made across
internetwork device such as a router, or to a print server to service a printing request. SPX uses
acknowledgements to ensure delivery. SPX also established virtual circuits, called connection, between
devices.
Network Link Services Protocol (NLSP) is a more advanced routing protocol than RIP. Instead of
using a simple distance vector scheme, it uses a link state routing mechanism to choose the best route.
This protocol observes the same benefits and draw backs as the OSPF protocol of TCP/IP.
Upper-layer IPX/SPX Protocols
The two upper-layer protocols in the IPX/SPX suite for use with NetWare are:
a. NetWare Core Protocol (NCP)- corresponds to the Transport, Session, Presentation, and
Application layers of the OSI model.
b. Service Access Protocol (SAP)- corresponds to the Session and Application layers of the OSI
model.
Netware Core Protocol (NCP) is an upper-layer protocol that services requests from applications such as
the NetWare shell. NCP supports file and print services, management of network and host names, and
accounting and security functions. NCP functions at the following four layers of the OSI model:
1. Transport layer- connection services with segment sequencing, error control, and flow control.
2. Session layer- session control
3. Presentation layer- character translation
4. Application layer- application and service interface to end-user application.
Service Access Protocol (SAP) enables NetWare servers to advertise themselves as present on the
network and allows client to find and access resources. This is possible with the use of SAP packet that
contains information about the resource. The SAP packet is sent out to the network at a set interval
without configuration. This proves to be very useful but SAP packets can quickly overrun a large
network. Step must be taken to filter out the excessive SAP packets and keep them down to a
manageable level.
Other Protocol Suites
Apple Talk is a workgroup-level networking technology that supports up to 254 network nodes
per physical network. In the more recent Apple Talk Phase II, the data-link protocols supported include
Ether Talk, Token Ring, and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) networks.
Addresses of machines on AppleTalk networks are randomly self-assigned when the machine is
first attached to the network, and then broadcast to ensure they are not already being used. This
dynamic addressing feature is based on the AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol (AARP). AppleTalk
internetworks logically partitioned into zones whose main function is to make network resources easier
for users to access. A zone is a logical representation of AppleTalk network nodes that can span multiple
physical networks. The mapping between zones and network numbers is maintained by the Zone
Information Protocol (ZIP), which creates Zone Information Tables (ZITs) that are stored on AppleTalk
routers.
AppleTalk is a suite of networking protocols that work together to provide file and print sharing
services to Macintosh networks.
Digital Network Architecture Protocols
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) developed the Digital Network Architecture (DNA) in 1974. It is
used when connecting to DECs mainframe computers.
Ethernet Protocol
Was originally developed by DEC, Intel, and Xerox. It was updated later to version 2, which is the
standard Ethernet that other networks use. Characteristics of Ethernet version 2 include Manchester
encoding bandwidth of 10Mbps and CSMA/CD for media access. The later IEEE 802.3 standard was
developed from the Ethernet v2 standard but with one important format change, involving the packet
header information that made it in incompatible with the earlier standard.
Higher-level Data Link Control (HLDC)
It defines a method for encapsulating or formatting data into frame for synchronous
transmission over synchronous serial WAN links to remote sites. HDLC is a bit-stream protocol (bit
streams are not broken into individual characters) that uses a 32-bit checksum for error correction and
supports full-duplex communication. HDLC frames consist of a flag byte followed by address and control
information, data bits, and a CRC byte. A control field at the start of a frame is used for establishing and
terminating data link connections.
Digital Data Communications Message Protocol (DDCMP)
It is a protocol from the original DNA specifications that is responsible for transmitting data to
end stations. A frame in DDCMP is known a message. DDCMP was designed for WAN links and allows
synchronous or asynchronous transmission. The dialogs are either full or half-duplex, while connections
are either point-to-point or multipoint. DDCMP includes data link layer flow control and error checking.
IP ADDRESSING
Before two computers on a network can communicate, they need to know how to contact each
other. Just as every computer has MAC (physical) address that is encoded into the network card;
computers also have IP (logical) address. This is an address that is usually set by the administrator,
through the network protocol suite sometimes automatically sets in.
Every host on a TCP/IP network is given an IP address. This address is a unique 4-byte (32-bit)
address on dotted notation. Each byte or octet, is represented by a decimal number from 0 to 255 and
separated by period. Although 8 bits have 256 possible combinations, the numbers 0 and 255 are
reserved for broadcasts as stated earlier. Both networks and hosts (individual computers) can use the
umbers 1 through 254 only. Part of the IP address indicates which network the computer is located,
whereas the remainder of the address represent the hosts ID of that computer.
 Originally, IP addresses are divided into classes, which are used to segment the pool of
addresses into sizes corresponding to various organizations sizes. When an organization requests a
range of IP addresses, they receive a block from one of these classes:

Class A addresses have one byte for the network and three bytes for the host. It is intended for use by
extremely large corporations. The first byte of Class A network addresses is always between 1 and 126,
and is assigned by InterNIC. The Class A address 127 is a special address. It is interpreted by networks as
a loopback address. Any packet sent to an address beginning with 127 is treated as if the destination is
the address of the local device sending the packet.

Class B addresses have 2 bytes for the network address and the remaining two for the host address. The
first byte of Class B addresses is always between 128 and 191.
Class C addresses are the most common. They use the first 3 bytes of the address for the network
portion and the final byte for the host. This allows for a great number of network addresses to be given
out, with 254 hosts on each network. Class C addresses always have the first byte between 192 and 223.
The network addresses of 128 and 224 and up are used for special purpose and experimentation. Most
small business and organizations use this class.
Identify which part of an address denotes the network and which part is the host, IP uses the
addresses ‘subnet mask’. In subnet mask, the number 255 signifies the network section, while the host
section uses 0. For proper operation, all computers on a networks must have the same subnet mask. The
table below summarizes the subnet mask for each of the three classes.
Class Subnet Mask
A 255.0.0.0
B 255.255.0.0
C 255.255.255.0
The figure below show how to determine the network ID from the host ID using the subnet mask.
192. 168. 7. 14
Class C Network ID: 192.168.7
255. 255. 255. 0
Host ID: 14
IP addresses are handed out by a single organization, called Internet Network Information
Center (InterNIC), so each computer has its own unique address. However, organizations should request
their IP addresses from the provider to which they are connecting.
With the increasing popularity of the Internet and the over-growing number of networks
worldwide, a new method of addressing have been adopted by InterINC to manage all available
addresses efficiently. The method is called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). Today, when an
address is assigned, the network and host demarcation is no longer made along octet boundaries; but
rather, it is made a specific number of bits from the beginning of the address.
For example, with the old method, a class C network section is 24 bits. Using CIDR, InterNIC can
assign an address whose network section is 26 bits. This method provides for more networks but fewer
hosts on each network. With this case, we could make our network more manageable, more secured
and more less prone to traffic congestion. When classless addresses are assigned, the number of bits in
the network section is noted with a slash symbol (/8 for Class A address, /16 for Class B address, /24 for
Class C).

For example: a company with a small number of computers to attach to the internet can be provided
with an address of 195.211.178.39/26
Originally, the address 195.211.178.39 has a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, represented in
binary form as 1111 1111. 1111 1111. 1111 1111. 0000 0000. But because, of the indicated /26
notation, we have to allocate now 26 bits of “1” from the leftmost bit as our new Network ID instead of
the standard twenty-four (24) bits for this Class C address. The new Subnet Mask (CID) now is:
1111 1111. 1111 1111. 1111 1111. 1100 0000
Or
 255.255.255.192
We could say that we borrowed two (2) bits from our Host ID to be added to our Network ID.
These two bits can produces additional four (2)2 sets of IP addresses called as the subnet addresses.
From the changes is our network ID, these are the new sets of IP addresses we can derive from
CIDR implementation:
.1100 0000
0000 0000 -0
0100 0000 -64
1000 0000 -.128
1100 0000 -.192

First set: 195.211.178.0 to 63

Second set: 195.211.178.64 to 127
Third set: 195.211.178.128 to 191
Fourth set: 195.211.178.192 to 255

Note:
195.211.178.0, 195.211.178.64, 195.211.178.128 and 195. 178.211. 192 are reserved addresses
because they would be used as the network addresses.
195.211.178.63, 195.211.178.127, 195.211.178.191 and 195.178.211.255are also reserved
addresses because they would be used as the broadcast addresses.
As we can see, the original IP address 195.211.178.39 is just a part of the first set of addresses we
derived from CIDR implementation.

IP Address Class D and Multicast

Networking standard defines class D addresses as reserved for multicast. Multicast is a
mechanism for defining groups of nodes and sending IP message to that group rather than to every
node on the LAN (broadcast) or just one other node (unicast).
Multicast is mainly used on research networks. As with Class E, Class D addresses should not be
used by ordinary node on the internet.

IP Address Class E and Limited Broadcast

Class E addresses are reserved addresses, meaning they should not be used on IP networks.
Some research organizations use class E addresses for experimental purposes. However, nodes that try
to use these addresses on the Internet will be unable to communicate properly.
A special type of IP addresses is the limited broadcast address 255.255.255.255. A broadcast
involves delivering a message from one sender to many recipients. Senders direct an IP broadcast to
255.255.255.255 to indicate to all other nodes on the local network (LAN) should pick up that message.
This broadcast is “limited” it that it does not reach every node on the internet, only nodes on the LAN.
Technically, IP reserves the entire range of addresses from 255.0.0.0 through 255.255.255.255
for broadcast, and this range should not be considered part of the normal Class E range.
ACTIVITY 3
Write the question and answer at your activity notebook.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

1. 10010010 = ________________________________
2. 01110111 = ________________________________
3. 11111111 = ________________________________
4. 11000101 = ________________________________
5. 11100110 = ________________________________
6. 238 = _____________________________________
7. 34 = ______________________________________
8. 123 = _____________________________________
9. 50 = ______________________________________
10. 255 = _____________________________________

Address Class Identification

1. 10.250.1.1 = ________
2. 150.10.15.0 = _______
3. 192.14.2.0 = ________
4. 148.17.9.1 = ________
5. 193.42.1.1 = ________
6. 126.8.156.0 = _______
7. 220.200.45.58 = ______
8. 177.100.18.4 = _______
9. 119.18.45.0 = ________
10. 249.240.80.78 = ______