Unit 4 THERMAL PHYSICS WITH PROBLEMS

Unit 4 THERMAL PHYSICS
Thermal Properties of Engineering Materials
By thermal properties of material, we mean those properties or characteristics of

materials which are the functions of temperature or heat. We are here concerned with
the thermal behaviour of solids i.e., the response of solid material to thermal change, i.e.,
increase or decrease of heat or temperature.
Thermal properties of engineering materials comprise the following:

1. Specific heat.
2. Thermal conductivity.
3. Thermal expansion.
4. Melting point.
5. Thermal shock resistance.
6. Thermal diffusivity.
7. Thermal elastic effect.
8. Thermal stability.
9. Thermal insulation.
10. Thermal capacity.
11. Thermal resistance.
These properties are important in applications like thermodynamics, heat transfer, and
melting of metals.
1. Specific Heat (Heat Capacity):

The heat capacity of a material is defined as the amount of heat required to raise its
temperature by 1°. The heat capacity per unit mass, of material is defined as its specific
heat. Heat capacity per mole is defined as its molar heat capacity.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Mathematically, specific heat of a solid is defined as-
Where, m = Mass,
T = Temperature,
Q = Energy content, and
dQ = Energy (heat) added or subtracted to produce the temperature change dT.
COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

- Dr. DEVI PRASADH P S, FACULTY OF PHYSICS, MCET, POLLACHI
For unit mass per degree change in temperature specific heat c = dQ, the quantity of heat
that must be added per unit mass of a solid to raise its temperature by one degree. The
specific heat of material is sometimes defined as the ratio of its heat capacity to that of
water. Specific heat in this becomes the dimensionless unit (as specific heat of water is
unity in MKS units).
For gases there are two specific heats i.e., specific heat at constant volume cv and specific
at constant pressure cp . cp is always greater than cv since any substance expands on
heating and extra heat is required to raise the temperature by 1 degree in order to
compensate for the energy required for expansion. For solids, difference between cp and
cv is negligible and only one specific heat is used (cp = cv = c). This is due to the fact that
in solids and liquids the expansion with heating is very small.
According to classical kinetic theory of heat, heat capacity of an atom in a solid (crystalline
element) is constant and is equal to 26 kJ/kg atoms (°C) at room temperature. This is to
be divided by molecular weight in order to get mass specific heat of a solid.
Specific heat increases slightly with increase in temperature and varies from metal to
metal. An increase of 5 percent for every 100°C temperature rise can be used as a general
approximation. The effect of raising temperature of metals and alloys is to raise the
amplitude of vibration of each atom and the heat energy so absorbed is the specific heat.
2. Thermal Conductivity:
It is defined as the amount of heat conducted in a unit time through a unit area normal to
the direction of heat flow. Heat conduction through isotropic solids is expressed by
Fourier’s law:

q = Rate of heat flow/unit area normal to the direction of flow,
T = Temperature,
x = Distance measured in the direction of flow, and
k = Thermal conductivity.
Heat flow through solids is due to elastic vibration of atoms or molecules or due to
transfer of energy by the free electrons. Metals have large supply of free electrons which
account for their thermal conductivity. Both types of conduction occurs in metals and
semiconductors. Insulators have lower conductivities as they depend entirely on the
lattice vibration of atoms and molecules. This is a slower process than electronic
conduction.
The theory of thermal conductivity through crystalline solids (metals) based on quantum
(solid state) theory can be explained by concept of phonons which represent the particles
(gas) characteristics of a thermal wave. It is a quantum of energy and vibration of a
thermoelastic (acoustic) wave.
In dielectrics (thermal insulators) thermal conductivity is caused alone by the atomic or

molecular vibration of the lattice (lattice is a geometrical array of lines or points in which
atoms are considered spheres) representing a certain type of crystal (say metal)
structure.
The progress of this elastic thermal wave (or phonons) through a crystal is akin to a gas
molecule through a gas. At a heated surface the motion is increased so that collision with
other phonons occurs at an increased rate and thus heat is transmitted to other parts of
the phonon gas. Thermal conductivity in solids is given by a formula similar to that
derived from the kinetic theory of gases.
Where, k = Thermal conductivity,

c = Specific heat per unit volume,
ν = Average particles velocity or velocity of the lattice wave (the velocity of sound), and
λ = Mean free path of lattice wave (phonon) of a given frequency.
In an ideal crystal, the atomic or molecular waves of vibration are harmonic, hence, X is
very large and it should have infinite thermal conductivity. In actual crystals mutual
scattering and lattice wave (phonons) may occur, due to in harmonicity of the vibration

and internal crystal imperfection. Phonons scattering and thus thermal conductivity
depends, on crystalline structure of metals and alloys.
A comparison of thermal and electrical conductivities is given below:
Some typical thermal conductivities are shown as follows:
The thermal conductivity of pure metals increases as temperature is lowered often to a

considerable degree. Copper has thermal conductivity about 35 times greater at – 269°C
than at 20°C.

Alloys, however, do not show this pronounced increase of thermal conductivity at lower
temperatures and only small percentages of alloying are required to suppress this change
in thermal characteristics.
At normal and elevated temperatures, pure metals and their alloys possess very low
temperature co-efficient of thermal conductivity and thus for all design purposes these
effects of higher temperature on thermal conductivity are usually ignored.
The thermal conductivity of amorphous solids such as glasses, and plastics increases with
a rise in temperature. They generally possess, low thermal conductivity at room
temperature. This is due to the fact that amorphous solids have excessive .scattering of
phonons by their disordered structure at lower temperatures.
The thermal conductivity of refractories (more complex solids) depends on their

chemical composition and crystalline structures. This is due to the presence of impurities
and comparatively smaller grain size and porosity which result in lower values of thermal
conductivity.
If structure is simple as in case of silicon carbide, thermal conductivity has higher value.
Fire clay bricks and fuel fused silica also show an increase in thermal conductivity with
increasing temperature. On the other hand in case of magnesite and alumina which are
more crystalline in nature, the thermal conductivity decreases with rising temperature.
3. Thermal Expansion:
Thermal expansion arises from the addition of heat energy in the atoms and their
subsequent movement away from their equilibrium positions as the temperature rises in
solid. This expansion or contraction resulting from increase or decrease in temperature
is three dimensional but in practice linear thermal expansion is used for simplicity
instead of volume expansion.
The increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temperature is called coefficient
of linear expansion. Thermal expansion does not necessarily vary uniformly with
temperature but it is sufficiently linear over narrow ranges of temperature.
If the bonds between the atoms are strong and highly directional as in ionic and covalent
solids, the thermal expansion will be relatively small. If on the other hand the atoms are
more loosely bound as in metals, a greater degree of expansion is there. In molecular

solid, where bonding least resists the movement of the molecules, the thermal expansion
will be the greatest.
The thermal expansion of solid is related to other thermal properties such as specific heat
and melting point as all these properties have their origin in lattice vibrations which
increase with the temperature. The atoms or molecules as earlier explained oscillate
(vibrate) with a certain amplitude about their equilibrium positions.
The amplitude of this vibration increases as the temperature rises resulting in moving
further away of atoms and molecules from their equilibrium position causing an increase
in volume (or linear expansion) of solid. In this way magnitude of the coefficient of
thermal expansion of solids will depend on their interatomic and intermolecular forms
and also on their structural arrangement.
It has been observed that between absolute zero temperature and the melting point, total
volume range of elements is approximately constant. This can be interpreted that
materials with lower softening (melting) points will have higher expansion coefficients.
This also means that thermal expansion will approach zero at the absolute zero
temperature.
Organic polymers such as plastics and rubber have many times higher expansion
coefficients than metals because of their relatively lower softening point. This may be
reduced by addition of filler materials (such as glass fibre, asbestos, alumina etc.)
possessing lower thermal expansion coefficients. Alloying of metals have a minor effect
on this property.
4. Melting Point:
Melting point or softening point is a significant temperature level as it represents
transition point between solid and liquid phases having different structural arrangement
of the atoms within the material. As heat is added to a solid, its thermal energy increases
until the atoms or molecules on the surface begin to break away from their equilibrium
positions.
There is a link between interatomic spacing at which the bonding force is maximum and
the amplitude of thermal vibration at which this breaking away occurs as if the atoms can
be separated at this point, no further increase in force is needed to separate them further.
After melting commences, any further heat is all used up in activating more particles of

solids which in turn collide with neighbouring particles transmitting their energy to
them.
The structure is therefore transformed from a solid having definite equilibrium positions
to a liquid having only short range order. During melting no further rise in temperature
occurs and solid and liquid phases exist at the same temperature. Melting temperature
depends upon the amount of thermal energy required.
This in turn depends on the nature of interatomic and intermolecular bonds. Therefore
higher melting point is exhibited by those materials possessing stronger bonds. Covalent,
ionic, metallic and molecular types of solids have decreasing order of bonding strength
and thus the melting points.
Crystalline solids have a sharp melting point at which there is sudden transformation
from solids to liquid states. Amorphous solids such as glasses, plastics and rubbers and
also clays do not have definite melting points but soften gradually over a certain
temperature range.
Relation between Thermal Expansion and Melting Point:

Both depend upon the bonds between atoms (or molecules) of the solid and so are
related. For each class of materials
α Tm = constant,
Where, α = Coefficient of thermal expansion, and
Tm = Melting temperature.
Therefore, any two materials of a given class possessing same coefficient of expansion
will therefore have approximately same melting point.
The value of this constant is as under:
There is an interesting conclusion that for a material to be coated to another material,

coating will have to be of different class than the base material if both must have same
thermal expansion.
Heat Resistance:

Melting point determines the heat resistance of a material as any material for high
temperature application should have its melting point above the service temperature.
Ceramic materials are known to have high melting points and good chemical stability but
they are difficult to fabricate and cannot take thermal or mechanical shock.
Following is the list of some materials possessing resistance to high temperatures:
5. Thermal Shock:
Thermal shock is the effect of a sudden change of temperature on a material whereas
thermal shock resistance can be defined as the ability of material to withstand thermal
stresses due to sudden and severe changes in the temperature at the surface of a solid
body.
If a solid structure is prevented so that it cannot expand or contract freely on heating or

cooling, excessive thermal stresses may result culminating in thermal shock and causing
failure of the body. Thermal shock resulting from cooling which results in tensile stresses
at the surface is much more dangerous than that from heating.
Thermal shock resistance of a solid is sometimes given by the equation:
Where, k = Thermal conductivity,

σt = Tensile strength,
E = Young’s modulus, and
α = Linear co-efficient of thermal expansion.
For maximum shock resistance:

(i) Thermal-conductivity should be high.
(ii) Thermal expansion should be low.
(iii) Material should have low elastic modulus and high tensile strength.
c. Brittle materials such as glass and ceramics are particularly prone to thermal shock
because they readily experience brittle failure instead of plastic yield.

6. Thermal Diffusivity:
Thermal diffusivity (h) is defined as:
cp ρ represent heat requirement per unit volume. A material having high heat
requirement per unit volume possesses a low thermal diffusivity because more heat must
be added to or removed from the material for affecting a temperature change. Thermal
diffusivity is therefore associated with the diffusion of thermal energy and may be taken
to represent an energy flux arising from the motion of phonons through a relatively
stationary atomic array. As phonons are in the nature of waveform, the atoms vibrate in
unison but are not physically transported.
7. Thermal Stresses:
When expansion or contraction of a body due to temperature change is wholly or partially
prevented, thermal stress will be developed in body. Thermal stress may arise from
external bodies connected to one under stress as for example, welded structure, railway
line shrink fit components. Or, it may be due to non-uniform expansion of the body itself,
for example bimetallic strips used in thermostatic controls. The value of thermal stress,
expansion or contraction can be calculated by applying simple stress calculation theory.
8. Thermo-Elastic Effect:
When a solid is subjected to a load, work is done on it and it changes in volume. If this
work is done at constant temperature, an adiabatic temperature rise (without transfer of
heat to or from the surroundings) occurs. This will appear in the form of rise of
temperature of solid when it is in stretched condition. Similarly when the solid is rapidly
relaxed, -it will feel cool. This warming or cooling phenomenon is called thermo-elastic
effect.
9. Thermal stability
Thermal stability of material is defined as the ability of the material to resist the action of
heat and to maintain its properties, such as strength, toughness, or elasticity at given
temperature.
10. Thermal insulation
Thermal insulation is the process of reduction of heat transfer between objects in thermal
contact or in range of radiative influence.
11. Thermal capacity

It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the whole body
through on degree Celsius.
Thermal capacity = Specific heat × mass of the substance
=c×m
Its unit is J K-1
12. Thermal resistance

Thermal resistance is a heat property and a measurement of a temperature difference by
which an object or material resists a heat flow. Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of
thermal conductivity.

Problems in Thermal Properties – Thermal conductivity:
A copper rod 0.19 meter long and 785x10-7 m2 area of cross section, which is thermally
insulated, is heated at one end through 100⁰C. calculate the amount of heat flow in 10
minutes along the way if the thermal conductivity of Cu is 380 Wm-1K-1.
Given data:
Length of Cu rod x = 0.19 m
Area of cross section A = 785 X 10-7m
Temperature of one end T1 = 100⁰C = 373K
Temperature of another end T2 = 30⁰C = 303K
Time t = 10 minutes = 600 s
Thermal conductivity of Cu = 380 Wm-1K-1
Solution
Quantity of heat flowing in t s,
𝐾𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑄= 𝑡
𝑥
380 × 785 × 10−7 × (373 − 303)
𝑄= × 600
0.19
Q = 6594 J
Quantity of heat flowing through the Cu rod in 10 minutes, Q = 6594 J

Problems in Thermal Properties – Specific heat capacity:
How much heat does it take to bring a 𝟓 𝒌𝒈 iron frypan from 𝟑𝟐℃ to 𝟏𝟏𝟎℃ ? (b) If
a 𝟑𝒌𝑾stovetop heats the pan, how long will this take? (𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝑱 𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 )
(a) Q = m c ∆T
m = 5 kg
c = 447 J kg −1 K −1
∆T = 78 K
Q = 5 × 447 × 78 = 0.174330 MJ
Energy
b) Power =
Time
Time = Energy/Power
Energy = 0.174330 MJ = 1.7433 × 105 J
Power = 3 kW = 3 × 103 W
1.7433 × 105
t= = 58.11 s
3 × 103

Problems on Thermal Properties – Thermal Expansion
Assuming a steel bridge, with an initial total length of 2000 m at -20 °C, calculate
the length difference at 40 °C and its total length. (given αiron = 12×10−61/°C)
Solution
Step 1. Write down the known parameters of the problem:
L0=2000 m T0=−20 °C T=40 °C α =12×10−6 1/°C
Step 2. Calculate the temperature difference
ΔT=T–T0=40–(−20)=40+20=60 °C
Step 3. Calculate the length difference
ΔL=α×L0×ΔT=12×10−6×2000×60=1.44 m
Step 4. Calculate the total final length
L=L0+ΔL=2000+1.44=2001.44 m
Assuming a football playing area is made of aluminium and has an initial total area
of 7240 m2 at -20 °C. Calculate the area difference at 40 °C and its total area. (given
αiron = 25×10−61/°C)
Solution
A0=7140 m2 ;T0 = −10 °C; T=30 °C; α =25⋅10−6 1/°C
ΔT=T–T0=40–(−20)=40+20=60 °C
Step 3. Calculate the area difference
ΔA=2×α×A0×ΔT=2×25×10−6×7240×60=21.72 m2
Step 4. Calculate the total final area
A=A0+ΔA=7240+21.72=7261.72 m2

Assuming that we have a 50 L steel tank full with gas at -20 °C. What is going to be
the volume difference for both tank and fuel at 40 °C? Is the fuel going to fit in the
fuel tank or not? (given αsteel = 12×10−61/°C; βsteel = 12×10−61/°C
Solution;
V0t =50 L; V0f =50 L; T0=−20°C; T =40°C α =12⋅10−6 1/°C β =950⋅10−6 1/°C
ΔT=T–T0=40–(−20)=40+20=60°C
Step 3. Calculate the volume difference of the fuel tank (assuming its solid steel)
ΔVt=3×α×V0t×ΔT=3×12×10−6×50×60=0.108 L
Step 4. Calculate the volume difference of the fuel (gas)
ΔVf=β×V0f×ΔT=950×10−6×50×60=2.85 L
Step 5. Calculate the excess volume of fuel
Vex=ΔVf–ΔVt=2.85–0.108=2.742 L

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is one of the forms of energy. It is transmitted from one place to another by three
different ways.
They are
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Thermal conduction
It is well known fact that is conducted through the material of the body. In conduction,
heat transfer takes place from one point to another through a material medium without
the actual movement of the particles in that medium.
The heat is transmitted from a body of higher temperature to that o lower temperature.
As an example, when a metal rod is heated at one end, the heat gradually lows along the
length o the rod and the other end o the rod also becomes hot after some time. This shows
that heat has travelled through the molecules of the rod from one end to other. The
molecules in the rod remain fixed in their mean positions.
On heating the energy molecules increases and they start vibrating about their mean
positions. They collide with the neighbouring molecules. Because of this collision, the
neighbouring molecules are set into vibration.
Each molecule thus transfers some of the heat it receives from its predecessor to its
successor. Thus the transmission of heat takes place by molecular vibration in case of
conduction.
DEFINITION
It is the process of transmission of heat from one point to another through substance (or
some medium) without the actual motion o the particles.
Conduction always requires some material medium. The material medium must be solid.
As it requires medium, the conduction process takes place over vacuum. In fluids (liquid
and gas), heat transmission is through the process of convection.
Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a substance to conduct heat energy is measured by thermal conductivity
EXPRESSION OR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Consider a slab of material of length x meter and area of cross section A as shown in the
figure.
One end of the slab is maintained at a higher temperature θ1 and the other end at a lower
temperature is θ1. Heat flows from the hot end to the cold end. It is found that the amount
of heat(Q) conducted from one end to another end is
Directly proportional to the area of cross-section (A)

Directly proportional to the temperature difference between the end θ1- θ2
Directly proportional to the time of conduction (t)
Directly proportional to the length of (x).
Where K is the proportionality constant. It is known as coefficient of thermal conductivity

or simple or thermal conductivity. Its value depends upon the natue of the material.
The condition define the coefficient of Thermal conductivity

Definition:
It is defined as the amount of heat conducted per second normally across unit area of
cross-section of the material per unit temperature difference per uint length.
The quantity (θ1- θ2) / x denote the rate of fall of temperature with respect to distance. It
is know as temperature gradient.
The negative sign indicates the fall of temperature with distance.

Unit:

Radial low of heat
In this method, heat flows from the inner side towards the other side along the radius of
the cylindrical shell.
This method is interesting because there is no loss of heat as in the other methods.
Cylindrical Shell method

Consider a cylindrical tube of length l, inner radius r1 and outer radius r2 as shown in the
figure. The tube carries steam or some hot liquid.
Heat is conducted radially across the wall of the tube. After the steady state is reached,
the temperature of the inner surface θ1 and on the outer surface θ2. This thick pipe is
imagined to consist of a large number of thin coaxial cylinders of increasing radius. Any
such thin imaginary cylinder of the material of thickness ‘dr’ at a distance r from the axis
of the pipe is taken.
Amount of heat flowing per second through this elementary cylinder
After steady state is reached, the amount of heat lowing (Q) through all imaginary
cylinders is same.
Rearranging, the equation 2, we get

Methods to determine Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material is determined by different methods.
1. Searle’s Method – or good conductor like Metallic rod
2. Forbe’s Method – for determining the absolute conductivity of metal
3. Lee’s Disc method – for bad conductors
4. Radial Flow method – or Bad conductors.
LEE’S DISC METHOD FOR BAD CONDUCTORS

The thermal conductivity o bad conductors like ebonite or card board is determined by
this methods.
Description:
The apparatus consists o circular metal disc or slab C(Lee’s Disc) by strings rom as stand.
The given bad conductor (such as glass, ebonite) is taken in the form of the disc (D).
This disc has the same diameter as that of the slab and is placed over it.
A cylindrical hollow steam chamber A having the same diameter as that of the slab is
placed over the bad conductor. There are holes in the steam chamber and the slab
through which thermometers T1 and T2 are inserted to record the respective
temperatures.
Working :
Steam is passed through the steam chamber until the temperatures o the chamber and
the slab are ready. When the thermometer show steady temperatures, there reading
θ1 and θ2 are noted. The radius(r) o the disc D and its thickness (d) are also noted.

Observation and Calculation
Thickness of the bad conductor = d meter
Radius of the bad conductor = r meter
Mass of the Slab (c) = M kg
Steady temperature in the steam chamber = θ1
Steady temperature in the bad conductor = θ2
Thermal conductivity o the bad conductor = K
Rate o cooling at θ1 = R
Specific heat capacity of the slab = S
Area o cross section A = πr2
Amount of heat conducted through the specimen per second
At this stage, all the heat conducted through the bad conductor is completely radiated by
the bottom flat surface and the curved surface of the Slab C.
Amount of heat lost per second by the Slab C
Q= Mass x Specific Heat Capacity x Rate of cooling
Q =MSR
Heat conducted through bad conductor per second = heat lost [per seond by the slab
Hence the equation (1) and (2) are equal
Determination of Rate of Cooling

The bad conductor is removed and the steam chamber is placed directly on the slab. The
slab is heated to a temperature of about 5oC higher than θ2.
The steam chamber is removed and the slab alone is allowed to cool.

As the slab cools, the temperatures of the slab are noted at regular intervals of half a
minute until the temperature o the slab falls to about 5oC below θ2. The time temperature
graph is drawn as shown in the figure and the rate of cooling dθ/dt at the steady
temperature θ2 is determined.
During the first part of the experiment, the top surface of the slab is covered by the bad
conductor. Radiation is taking place only from the bottom surface area and curved surface
area.
In the second part o the experiment, heat is radiated from the top surface aream the
bottom surface area and the curved sides i.e. over an area

Problem in Lee’s Disc Method:
In an experiment performed to find the thermal conductivity of cardboard by Lee’s disc

method, the following observations are made.
Mass of the disc = 800 g
Steady state temperature of the upper disc = 99.5⁰C
Steady state temperature of the lower disc = 83.5⁰C
Time taken for the upper disc to cool from 86⁰C to 81⁰C = 4 min
Thickness of the cardboard disc = 4.8 mm
Thickness of the upper disc = 1 cm
Radius of the disc = 6 cm
Material of the disc is copper. Find the thermal conductivity of cardboard.
Given data:
Mass of the disc = 800 g = 0.8 kg
Steady state temperature of the upper disc = 99.5⁰C = 372.5 K
Steady state temperature of the lower disc = 83.5⁰C = 356.5 K
Time taken for the upper disc to cool from 86⁰C to 81⁰C = 4 min
Rate of cooling (359-354)/(4 x 60) = 0.0208 Ks-1
Thickness of the cardboard disc = 4.8 mm = 4.8 x 10-3m
Thickness of the upper disc = 1 cm = 1 x 10-2m
Radius of the disc = 6 cm = 6 x 10-2m
Solution
(6×10−2 )+(2×1×10−2 ) 4.8×10−3 1

𝐾 = 0.8 × 385 × 0.0208 × (2×6×10−2 )+(2×1×10−2 ) × 𝜋×(6×10−2 ) × 372.5−356.5
K = 0.0971 W m-1K-1

HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOUND MEDIA OF TWO LAYERS BODIES IN
SERIES
Let us consider a composite slab (or compound wall) of two different materials A and B
with thermal conductivities K1 and K2 and of thickness x1 and x2. The temperature of the
outer aces of A and B are θ1 and θ2 respectively. The temperature of the surface in contact
is θ.
Amount of heat flowing through the material (A) per second

‘Q’ is the value of heat lowing through the compound wall of the two materials
The method can be extended to composite slab with more than two slabs.
In general for any number of walls or slabs, the amount of heat conducted is
Bodies in Parallel
Let us consider a composite slab (or Compound wall) of two different materials A and B
with thermal conductivities K1 and K2 and of thickness x1 and x2. They are arranged in
parallel as shown in the figure.
Let the faces of the material be at temperature θ1 and the respective other end aces be at
θ2 temperature.
A1 and A2 be the areas of cross section of the materials
Amount of heat flowing through the first material (A) in one second

The above equation gives the rate of heat flow through the bodies (i.e., compound wall or
slab) arranged in parallel, whenever the heat flow takes place in a similar condition.

Problems on heat conduction through a compound media of two layers bodies in
series
Equal bars of Cu and Al are welded end to end and logged. If the free ends of Cu and
Al are maintained at 100⁰C & 0⁰C respectively. Find the temperature of the welded
interface. Assume the thermal conductivities of Cu & Al to be 386 Wm-1K-1 & 220
Wm-1K-1 respectively.
Given data:
Temperature of the one end of Cu θ1 = 100⁰C = 373K
Temperature of the one end of Al θ2 = 0⁰C = 273K
Thermal conductivity of copper K1 = 386 Wm-1K-1
Thermal conductivity of aluminium K2 = 220 Wm-1K-1
Solution:
Temperature of the interface
𝐾1 𝜃1 𝐾2 𝜃2
+
𝑑1 𝑑2
𝜃=
𝐾1 𝐾2
+
𝑑1 𝑑2
Given, the lengths of the Cu bar and Al bar is equal. Therefore, d1 = d2
𝐾1 𝜃1 + 𝐾2 𝜃2
𝜽=
𝐾1 + 𝐾2
Substituting the values of K1, K2, θ1 and θ2 we get
(386 × 373) + (220 × 273)

𝜃=
(386 + 220)
θ = 336.696 K
Temperature of the interface θ = 336.696 K

Heat is conducted through a compound plate composed of two parallel plates of
different materials A and B of thermal conductivities 0.32 Wm-1K-1 & 0.11 Wm-1K-1
and each of thickness 3.6cm and 4.2cm respectively. If the temperature of the outer
faces of the A and B are found to be steady at 96⁰C and 0⁰C respectively. Find the
temperature of interface A/B. Assume the area of cross section of the materials A
and B is same.
Given data:
The conductivity of the material A K1 = 0.32 Wm-1K-1
The conductivity of the material B K2 = 0.11 Wm-1K-1
Thickness of the material A x1 = 3.6 cm = 3.6 x 10-2 m
Thickness of the material B x2 = 4.2 cm = 4.2 x 10-2 m
Temperature of the end A θ1 = 960⁰C = 369K
Temperature of the end B θ2 = 0⁰C = 273K
Solution:
Let θ be the temperature of the interface. Then heat conducted through A in one second
is:
𝜃1 − 𝜃
𝑄1 = 𝐾1 𝐴1
𝑥1
369 − 𝜃
𝑄1 = 0.32 × 𝐴 ×
0.036
Heat conducted through B in one second
𝜃 − 𝜃2
𝑄2 = 𝐾2 𝐴2
𝑥2
𝜃 − 273
𝑄2 = 0.11 × 𝐴 ×
0.042
As both are same, we have Q1 = Q2
369 − 𝜃 𝜃 − 273
0.32 × 𝐴 × = 0.11 × 𝐴 ×
0.036 0.042
369 − 𝜃 0.11 × 0.036

=
𝜃 − 273 0.32 × 0.042
θ = 347.15K
Temperature of the interface = 347.15 K

ADDITIONAL TOPICS
Newton's Law of Cooling

Statement:
It state that the rate at which a body loses heat is directly proportional to the temperature
difference between the body and that of the surrounding.
The amount of heat radiated depends upon the area and nature of the radiating surface.
If ‘θ’ is the temperature of the body at any instant and ‘θo’ the temperature of the
surroundings, then according to Newton’s law of cooling, heat lost is proportional to the
difference of temperature between the body and surroundings i.e.( θ1- θo)
If dQ is the quantity of heat lost in a small time dt, then
Where k is the constant depending upon the area and the nature o the radiating surface.
The negative sign indicates that there is decrease of heat with time.
Expression when a heat body cools from θ1oC to θ2oC in time t

Consider a body of mass m, specific heat capacity S and at temperature θ. Suppose the
temperature falls by a small amount dθ in time dt.
Thus, the amount of heat lost

Where c is the constant of integration this equation is of the form
y=mx+c and it represents a Straight line.
If the cooling takes place rom θ1o C to θ2oC in time t then taking the limits, we have

4. VERIICTION O NEWTON’S LAW O COOLING
The given empty spherical calorimeter is filled with boiling water and a thermometer is
kept in the orifice as shown in the figure. When the temperature reaches 800C, a stop
clock is started. The time taken for every 2oC fall in temperature is noted, till the
temperature reaches 60oC.
The rate of cooling at various temperature is determined. A graph is drawn with rate of
cooling along y-axis and the excess of temperature of the calorimeter over the
surrounding along the x-axis.
The graph is found to be a straight line, thereby, showing that the rate of cooling is
proportional to the excess of temperature.
Limitations
The temperature difference between the hot body and surrounding should be low.
The heat loss is only by radiation and convection.
The temperature of hot body should be Uniform throughout.
Applications
The specific heat capacity of the liquid is determined by using this law.
5 RECTILINEAR FLOW OF HEAT THROUGH A ROD

Consider a long rod AB of Uniform cross section heated at one end A as shown in the
figure. Then there is low of heat along the length o the bar and heat is also radiated from
its surface. B is the cold end.

Consider the low of heat between the section P and Q at distance x and x+δx rom the hot
end. Excess temperature at Section P above the surroundings=θ

6 BEORE THE STEADY STATE REACHED
Before the steady state is reached, the amount of heat Q is used in two ways. A part of the
heat is used in raising the temperature of the rod and the remaining heat is lost by
radiation from the surface o the element.
Heat absorbed per second to raise the temperature of the rod

The equation 8 is the standard differential equation for the flow of heat through the rod.
SPECIAL CASE
The thermal conductivity of any material is determined using equation 8 by considering

the actual condition of the material.
Case 1: When heat is lost by radiation is negligible
If the rod is completely covered by some insulating materials, then there is no loss of heat
due to radiation. Hence, the heat lost by radiation Epδxθ is zero.
In that case, the total heat gained by the rod is completely used to raise the temperature
of the rod.
From equation 8

Case 2: After the steady state is reached
After the steady state is reached, there is no raise of temperature.
Here A and B are two unknown constants which can be determined from the boundary
conditions of the problem.
Suppose the bar is of infinite length
Excess o temperature above the surroundings of the hot end = θo
Temperature of the other end (cold end) = 0
This equation 12 represents the excess of temperature of a point at distance x from the
hot end after the steady state is reached and it represents an exponential curve.
The temperature falls exponentially from the hot end as shown in the figure.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF RUBBER
Principle:
It is based on the principle of radial low of heat through a cylindrical shell.
Procedure:
A big empty calorimeter with stirrer is weighted (W1). It is then filled with two thirds of
water and again weighted (W2). A known length (l) of a rubber tube is immersed in water
in the calorimeter as shown in the figure.
The calorimeter is stirred dwell and the initial temperature θ1oC is noted. Now one end
of the rubber tube is connected to a steam generator and steam is passed through it. The
steam is passed continuously till there is rise of 10oC in temperature. The time taken (t
second) or this rise in temperature is noted. The initial temperature of the water θ2oC in
the calorimeter is also noted.
Observation
Mass of the empty calorimeter with stirrer = W1 kg
Mass of the calorimeter with water = w2 kg
Mass of the water = (W2-W1) kg
Initial temperature of the water = θ1oC
Final temperature of the water = θ2oC
Rise in temperature of the water = (θ1 -θ2)
Time for which steam is passed = t seconds
Length o the rubber tube immersed in water = l
Inner radius of the rubber tube = r1
Outer radius of the rubber tube = r2
Specific heat capacity of Calorimeter = S1
Specific heat capacity of Water = S2
Heat gained by the calorimeter = Mass x Specific heat capacity x change in temperature

The expression for the thermal conductivity (K) in the case o cylindrical shell method is
given by


Unit 4 THERMAL PHYSICS WITH PROBLEMS

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit 4 THERMAL PHYSICS WITH PROBLEMS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit 4 THERMAL PHYSICS

Thermal Properties of Engineering Materials

By thermal properties of material, we mean those properties or characteristics of

Thermal properties of engineering materials comprise the following:

1. Specific Heat (Heat Capacity):

Mathematically, specific heat of a solid is defined as-

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

In dielectrics (thermal insulators) thermal conductivity is caused alone by the atomic or

Where, k = Thermal conductivity,

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

A comparison of thermal and electrical conductivities is given below:

Some typical thermal conductivities are shown as follows:

The thermal conductivity of pure metals increases as temperature is lowered often to a

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

The thermal conductivity of refractories (more complex solids) depends on their

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Relation between Thermal Expansion and Melting Point:

The value of this constant is as under:

There is an interesting conclusion that for a material to be coated to another material,

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Following is the list of some materials possessing resistance to high temperatures:

If a solid structure is prevented so that it cannot expand or contract freely on heating or

Thermal shock resistance of a solid is sometimes given by the equation:

Where, k = Thermal conductivity,

For maximum shock resistance:

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

12. Thermal resistance

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Energy = 0.174330 MJ = 1.7433 × 105 J

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Where K is the proportionality constant. It is known as coefficient of thermal conductivity

The condition define the coefficient of Thermal conductivity

The negative sign indicates the fall of temperature with distance.

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Cylindrical Shell method

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

LEE’S DISC METHOD FOR BAD CONDUCTORS

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Determination of Rate of Cooling

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

In an experiment performed to find the thermal conductivity of cardboard by Lee’s disc

(6×10−2 )+(2×1×10−2 ) 4.8×10−3 1

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Amount of heat flowing through the material (A) per second

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

A1 and A2 be the areas of cross section of the materials

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Given, the lengths of the Cu bar and Al bar is equal. Therefore, d1 = d2

Substituting the values of K1, K2, θ1 and θ2 we get

(386 × 373) + (220 × 273)

Temperature of the interface θ = 336.696 K

COURSE CODE & TITLE: 19PHBC2101 PHYSICS FOR MCECHANICAL SCIENCES

Heat conducted through B in one second