An IIMS Self Help Guide

What A Marine Surveyor Needs To Know About

paint failure,
corrosion and
rectification
by Roger Weatherhead and Peter Morgan
 International Institute
of Marine Surveying

Dedicated to excellence in marine surveying

www.iims.org.uk
 An IIMS Self Help Guide

What A Marine Surveyor Needs To Know About

Paint Failure,
Corrosion and
Rectification
by Roger Weatherhead and Peter Morgan

1st Edition

Published by the International Institute of Marine Surveying

 First published May 2019 by the
International Institute of Marine Surveying
Murrills House, 48 East Street, Portchester, Hampshire, PO16 9XS, UK

www.iims.org.uk

Copyright 2019 © International Institute of Marine Surveying

IIMS PUBLICATION

Item number: IIMS-20-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photographic,
recorded or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of the publisher, International Institute of Marine Surveying.

Although the author(s) and publisher have made every effort to

ensure that the information in this book was correct at the time of
going to press, the author and the publisher do not assume and
hereby disclaim any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or
disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors, or
omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause.
The author’s views are not necessarily those of the publisher.

Printed by Mixam UK
mixam.co.uk

Front cover photography by Mike Schwarz

About IIMS
The International Institute of Marine Surveying (IIMS) is
an independent, non-political organisation promoting
the professionalism, recognition and training of marine
surveyors worldwide.

The IIMS defines marine surveying as: “The service provided to

maritime and transport organisations in general and the production
of guidance reports for all other bodies connected with maritime operations
or maritime trade”.

The IIMS is the professional body for marine surveyors and has a worldwide
membership of around 1,000 individuals in over 100 countries. It is the largest
organisation of its kind and seeks to represent its industry to government and non
governmental organisations such as the International Marine Organisation (IMO),
Coastguards, insurance companies and ship owners.

The IIMS provides a range of services to its members, allied organisations and to
the wider shipping and boating world, including:

• Maintaining a comprehensive database of qualified marine surveyors

• Professional training courses for marine surveyors

• A distance learning education programme in marine surveying

• The Report, a quarterly publication highlighting key marine

surveying topics and news

• Conferences and meetings internationally providing a place for the

marine surveying industry to meet

• Acting as an MCA approved vessel coding authority duly authorised

by the Maritime & Coastguard Agency

• The Marine Surveyor Search App

www.iims.org.uk
5
 Contents
FOREWORD............................................................................................................................. 10

INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................... 13

Index of Marine Fouling........................................................................................................ 13

Part 1. MARINE FOULING.................................................................................................... 15

Marine Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Classification of Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Animal Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Barnacles - Acorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Barnacles - Gooseneck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Hydroids (typically tubularia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Molluscs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Polyzoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Tube Worms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Tunicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Plant - Weed or Algae Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Part 2. Coating Defects A-Z............................................................................................ 37

Section A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Alligatoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Aluminium Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Antifouling Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Application Faults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Section B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Bird fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Bittiness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Bleaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Bleeding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Blisters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Bloom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Bridging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Brittleness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Brush marks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Bubbles or Bubbling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Burn Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

6
Section C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Cathodic protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chalking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Cheesiness or Soft Coating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Cissing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Coating breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Cobwebbing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Cold flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Corrosion stress cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Corrosion under insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Cracked coating over welds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Cratering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Section D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Damage to uncured coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Decompression Blisters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Delamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Dryspray. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Section E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Edge Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Edge Peel Back. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Section F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Filliform (Corrosion). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Flaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Flocculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Flooding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Flotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fungal / Mildew / Algae Staining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Section G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Galvanising – Loss of coating adhesion to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Gas Bubbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Gloss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Grinning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Grit Inclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Growth on the surface of paint film. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
GRP – Glass Reinforced Plastic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Gelcoat Scratch repair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Painting GRP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Section I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Impact Damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Inclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Section M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Millscale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Misses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Mud Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Multiple Paint Coats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

7
 Section N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Nail and Rivet Head Rusting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Non-Slip Coating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Section O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Oil / Grease Contaminated Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Orange Peel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Osmotic Blisters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Overspray. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Section P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Paint Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Peeling and Peel Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Pinholes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Primer Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Section R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Rain Damage - Water Spotting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Rippled Coating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Rot (wood). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Runs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Rust Spotting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Rust Staining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Section S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Settlement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Solvent Blisters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Solvent Lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Solvent Popping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
SRB Corrosion (Sulphate Reducing Bacteria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Stainless Steel Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Stress Cracks in Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Stripe Coat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Surface Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Section T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Tackiness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Tannin Staining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Section U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Under Cured Coating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Undercutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Varnish (Wood). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Varnish Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Alligatoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Bitty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Blisters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Bloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Brittleness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Brush Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Crawling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Crazing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

8
 Discoloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Deadening. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Flaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Milky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Peeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Pinholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Runs and Sags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Scratches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Seedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Skinning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Sweating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Tacky. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
UV exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Water marks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Wrinkling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Voids in Coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Section W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Water Damage – Rain Spotting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Weld Seam Cracks and Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Wrinkling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Section Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Yellowing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Section Z. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Zinc Rich Primer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

ABOUT THE AUTHORS......................................................................................................... 221

9
 FOREWORD
Commercial Shipping, Cruise Liners, Shipping Containers, Oil and Gas Platforms, Pipes
and Leisure Craft whether constructed from steel, aluminium, wood or GRP are all
subjected to the ravages of the weather, storms and sea exposure. Unprotected steel
vessels and structures corrode fairly rapidly when exposed to the atmosphere and in
particular, salt spray from the ocean. This can lead to metal loss and loss of structural
integrity in the long term.

Similarly, aluminium surfaces generally need some form of corrosion protection. Whilst
timber vessels and structures can generally withstand exposure to sea water, in the
longer term, they can benefit from some form of protection. Similarly GRP vessels need
to be painted and repaired from time to time.

Thus all vessels and structures either need or can benefit from the application of
paint coatings. These coatings can be purely for corrosion protection of for decorative
purposes or both.

In this book we have attempted to illustrate the many and varied problems which can
arise with surface preparation, coating application and different service conditions,
generally but not exclusively in marine environments.

Because most vessels and structures are constructed from steel, many of the photographs
show problems with paint coatings and corrosion of steel vessels and structures.
However, aluminium is frequently used for superstructures on shipping, particularly
pleasure craft from cruise liners to yachts. Here, the paint coating is used for decorative
purposes as well as for corrosion protection. Appearance is often considered to be of
prime importance, hence colour, surface finish and gloss are upper most in the owner’s
mind. With the many super yachts, a “Rolls Royce” type finish is demanded by the owner.

With many of the wooden yachts the varnish finish is considered to be of vital
importance, hence our inclusion of a section on Varnishes, in part provided by
International Yacht Paint Division.

10
INTRODUCTION
Most metals found in nature exist in their stable oxidised form as oxides, carbonates,
silicates, sulphates, sulphides and chlorides. These are refined to produce the various
metals used today in the construction industry, however, since they are more stable in
their oxidised state they try to revert to this state. We try to prevent this corrosion process
by the application of coatings of many different types – organic, inorganic and metallic.
In this book we will give examples of some of these coating materials, how the finished
product should look and some of the faults and defects which may be encountered in
their use.

We also explain how different examination and analytical techniques, from simple
observation through to sophisticated analysis, are used to determine the causes of
coating failures. Techniques include coating thickness measurements, optical and
electron microscopy, EDX analysis and FTIR (Fourier Transform Infra Red Spectroscopy).
Ultrasonic techniques can be used to determine metal thicknesses and metal loss due
to corrosion.

Although protective coatings are widely used to protect steel and aluminium structures
from corrosion they are also used to provide decorative finishes.

COATINGS AND METAL CORROSION

For corrosion to occur a ready supply of oxygenated water is necessary. Any coating
system needs to exclude water, salts (ions) and oxygen from reaching the metal surface.
Any breaches in this coating system allow access of oxygenated water and dissolved
salts to the metal surface which then starts to corrode.

Factors which affect coating lifetime

Whilst the following list of factors are of prime importance with metal substrates most
also apply to brick, concrete and timber surfaces.

Surface preparation
Before any coating system is applied the surface needs to be clean and free from all
grease, dirt, dust, corrosion and other contaminants. The surface then needs to be suitably
prepared so that the coating adheres to the substrate. This is frequently achieved by
techniques such as abrasive blast cleaning, hand or mechanical abrasion, acid etching etc.

The precise technique to be used depends both on the metal type and thickness and
the coating to be applied. In all cases the coating supplier’s recommendations should
be followed.

11
 Surface profile
The surface profile differs from one coating system to another and depends in part on
the total coating thickness to be applied. Thicker coatings generally require deeper and
more pronounced profiles. Some examples of different surface profiles are illustrated.

Oxygen permeability
Most coating systems are generally relatively poor barriers to the diffusion of oxygen
through to the substrate. Barrier properties can be improved by the addition of flake
pigments to the coating such as glass and aluminium flakes. The effect of these pigments
is to increase the path which the oxygen has to take to get to the substrate and hence
delay the onset of corrosion.

Water vapour permeability

Water vapour, water in its gaseous state, can frequently permeate through a coating
with similar ease to oxygen. Once it reaches the substrate it can revert to the liquid state
where it can lead to osmotic blistering. This process is accelerated by the presence of
chloride ions on the surface of the metal substrate and leads to corrosion.

Water absorption
Water absorption often occurs with organic coatings causing them to swell, disbond
and/or leach soluble components from the substrate.

Ionic permeability
Coatings such as epoxy and polyurethane, which are cross-linked, are usually effective
barriers and prevent the passage of ions such as chloride and sulphate from reaching the
substrate except at breaches in the coating.

Coating porosity
Coatings can contain pores and other defects caused by air entrainment, solvent
evaporation, pigment agglomerates etc. These can affect the porosity of the coating to
moisture, oxygen and salts.

Coating thickness
The rate of penetration of oxygen and water through a coating system depends on
the thickness of the coating. The thinner the coating the more rapidly can penetration
occur. This affects both coating life and corrosion protection. The thicker the coating the
lower the number of defects which are likely to be present, however, this also depends
on the number of coats applied. However, if a single coat is applied too thickly other
problems can occur, such as mud cracking, embrittlement and internal stresses which
lead to premature failure.

Number of coats
Whilst one coat can contain pores, pinholes etc. it is rare for these to line up with a two
coat system. Three coats further reduces the likelihood of this from happening.

12
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are pleased to acknowledge the following organisations and people for their
contributions of information and photographs for inclusion in this publication.

Akzo Nobel (International Coatings Ltd.)

British Steel
Hempel UK Ltd.
Jotun-Henry Clark Ltd.
Peter Morgan
Roger Weatherhead
James Cleland
ERA
International Paints
International Paint Yacht Division
Rohm & Haas
Dow Chemical
PKN
Spies Hecker

Where photographs have been provided by others, this is indicated by “Courtesy of …”.

Where no such caption is included then the photographs are either from R G Weatherhead
or P G Morgan, both of whom own copyright.

Index of Marine Fouling

Marine Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Classification of Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Animal Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figures: Animal Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Barnacles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Barnacles - acorn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Barnacles - gooseneck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Hydroid - tubularia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Molluscs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Polyzoa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Tubeworms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Tunicate (sea squirt). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Plant - Weed or Algae Fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figures: Ectocarpus (brown algae - grass). . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Ectocarpus and enteromorpha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Enteromorpha (green grass). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Rhodophycea (red algae). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

13
14
 Part 1.
MARINE FOULING
Marine Fouling
Fouling is a natural phenomenon which occurs continuously in the marine environment.
On sea going vessels this leads to a significant increase in fuel consumption. The term
‘fouling’ describes the growth of marine plants and animals on structures in the sea. The
fouling organisms of concern are those we encounter on ships’ hulls. It is estimated that
the number of fouling species involved in fouling is in the region of 4500/5500 although
only a small number of these species are of great concern to ship Owners and Operators.
Classification of fouling can be demonstrated by the two main groups; Macrofouling and
Microfouling with further sub classification between animals, plants and slimes.

MACROFOULING MICROFOULING

Animal Plant Slimes

Barnacles Brown Algae Marine Bacteria

Hydroids (Ectocarpus) Diatoms (Plants)
Molluscs Green Algae
Polyzoa (Enteromorpha)
Tube Worms Red Algae
Tunicates (Rhodophycea)

Classification of Fouling
As can be seen above, plant fouling is an assemblage of different types of seaweed,
mainly green and brown varieties, while animal fouling comprises principally barnacles
(acorn and gooseneck), tube worms, polyzoa (hydroids and bryozoa), and mussels. The
slime consists of microscopic forms of both plants and (diatoms) and bacteria.

15
 Contrary to some beliefs, the adult forms of fouling such as mussels and barnacles are
not floating around in the water ready to be attached to structures, it is the larvae or sea
spores which float around in the top 100 feet or so of the waters. The moment a larvae
settles on a structure the metamorphosis begins. The length of time a larvae remains
freely swimming is variable and may range from about six weeks, in the case of barnacle
larvae, to a matter of hours in the case of larvae of some tube worms and hydroids. Such an
existence is hazardous and to ensure survival the animals produce large numbers of larvae.
A native barnacle, for example, will produce 10,000 in a season. Reproductive potential is
only one of several attributes that characterise the marine fouling forms found on ships. As
a consequence of the intertidal character of their natural environment they have the ability
to withstand extremes of temperature and salinity, also the ability to attach quickly and
firmly to surfaces; the capacity for rapid growth highlights the severe problem of marine
fouling to ships. Although it has been shown that seaweed spores and certain gooseneck
barnacles are capable of attaching in water flows up to 10 knots and other barnacle larvae
at water flow of up to 5 knots, it is still assumed that the bulk of settlement to ships’ hulls
occur while the vessels are stationary. Algae spores attach themselves within minutes of
contact with a surface, whereas animal larvae require considerably longer periods for firm
attachment. On ships’ hulls the settlement of plant fouling occurs where there is available
sunlight, i.e. around the waterline and a few meters below. Light is necessary for them to
survive, light energy being converted to chemical energy (food) by photosynthesis. Animal
organisms, however, do not require light and can therefore be found on any area.

Animal Fouling
Prior to the mid-sixties, commercial vessels tended to be comparatively small and lack
of port facilities determined that lengthy stationary periods were encountered in most
types of vessel operation. This predisposed shipping to fouling by marine animals,
especially barnacle fouling, and up to the mid-sixties biologists working on fouling
problems on barnacle fouling. The introduction of large ships and improved port
facilities resulted in considerably decreased stationary time during vessel operation
and the fouling emphasis in shipping changed from an animal dominated problem to
an algae dominated problem. However, if a ship does encounter a lengthy stationary
period it becomes vulnerable to animal fouling. Animal fouling problems are caused by
the larvae stages, the larvae being comparatively large (1mm), and as with all animal
fouling problems a period of time of around 2 to 3 days is required for the establishment
of the problem to allow the larval stage of metamorphosis to become the miniature
adult. Where light is the food for plants the microscopic ‘drifting life’, consisting of micro
organisms (planktonic), is the food for many types of animal fouling.

Barnacles - Acorn
The most commonly encountered fouling animals and in consequence much is known
about their biology. These animals live within hard calcareous shells and again have a
net of tentacles to trap planktonic food. Barnacle larvae are selective in choosing their
settlement sites and can actually recognise the presence of other barnacles. This results
in barnacles attaching close to other members of their own species which ensures close
enough proximity to allow cross fertilisation. Removal of accumulations of barnacle fouling

16
by underwater scrubbing results in a roughening of the surface and also in a spreading
around of a biologically attractive ‘flavour’. Rapid recolonisation by yet more barnacles is
the inevitable result! When the animals die, the shell remains on the ship’s hull.

Barnacles - Gooseneck
Specifically adapted for planktonic life attached to floating objects, gooseneck barnacles
are the exception to the rule that the shoreline plant and animal communities are the
source of all macroscopic fouling problems. They differ from acorn barnacles in having
long feathery stalks. When adult they are around 10cm in length. The ‘lepas’ barnacle is
commonly found attached to floating objects, but a more severe problem is caused by
‘conchoderma’ a gooseneck typically found attached to whales.

Hydroids (typically tubularia)

Although plant like in appearance, hydroid are typical animal fouling forms. The so
called ‘flower heads’ are actually batteries of stinging cells which are used to paralyse
and capture planktonic food. Hydroids are colonial forms. Each animal is placed in a little
cup, the body has a single opening which serves both as mouth and anus. They are often
found on the flats of vessels and are often misrepresented as algae forms. In general
there is insufficient light to allow algae fouling to grow on the flats of large vessels;
filamentitious growths found on these areas are generally types of hydroid.

Molluscs
Molluscs are paired shells and are similar to mussels and oysters. Although molluscs have
a hard shell the attachment threads are relatively weak which limits its ability to attach to
moving structures; growth is normally found on stationary objects.

Polyzoa
As the name suggests, these animals are composed of many cells. They have a hard
calcareous skeleton. Some forms are flat and encrusting while others have an erect
growth habit. In each case close observation reveals their lace like appearance. They use
a net of tentacles with which to catch their planktonic food.

Tube Worms
Easily recognised by their hard white calcareous tubes, these tube dwelling animals are again
plankton feeders and entrap their food using a net of adapted tentacles. Again, the larvae
can exercise a degree of selection over their attachment site and are capable of recognising
the presence of their own species often resulting in the build-up of large complex colonies.

Tunicates
Tunicates are sessile marine animals, some of which are important fouling organisms.
Tunicates live in a wide range of habitats, from the lower part of the seas down to waters
of great depth. Some species are attached to solid surfaces, such as ships, while others
are attached to loose substrata of sand and mud. Most species feed mainly on minute
plant cells of the plankton, which they filter from a stream of water down through the
oral opening into the perforated pharynx and expel through the atrial opening. This
current brings required oxygen and carries away waste products.

17
 Animal Fouling

Severe animal fouling to the underwater location of a ship. Fouling can add
considerable weight to a ship and increase fuel consumption dramatically.

Removal of the fouling by high pressure water washing.

Note damage to existing paintwork.

18
 Barnacles

A scattering of tiny barnacles with sporadic mussels attached to the side of a ship.

19
 Barnacles

A close-up shot of barnacles. Note the various sizes along with paint damage to the
surrounding areas.

20
 Barnacles - Acorn

A colony of acorn barnacles. The barnacle larvae can recognise the presence of other
barnacles which result in close contact and cross fertilisation.

21
 Barnacles - Acorn

Small acorn barnacles and mussel fouling on the underside of the bilge keel turn of
bilge. The shell of the barnacles remains attached to the substrate even when the life
of the animal has ended.

22
 Barnacles - Gooseneck

Gooseneck Barnacles - specially adapted for planktonic life. The fouling goosenecks are
all oceanic and prefer to settle on a substrate which is in motion i.e. a ship’s hull. Some
gooseneck barnacles even settle when the ship runs at a speed of 10 knots.

23
 Barnacles - Gooseneck

Gooseneck Barnacles - underwater exposure.

24
 Hydroid – Tubularia

Tubularia - a typical Hydroid. Although plant-like in appearance, hydroids are typical

animal fouling. Hydroids are, in fact, one of the most important animal fouling. They
can be distinguished from algae and some bryozoa, which they superficially resemble,
by the polyp which appears as enlargements to the ends of the branches.

25
 Molluscs

Molluscs - A close-up view of a colony of molluscs.

26
 Polyzoa

Polyzoa - colonial animals with a great variety of forms, which may at first result in
confusion with organisms such as hydroids, compound tunicates and even tufted
seaweed. Divided into two groups: encrusting and erect.

27
 Tubeworms

Tubeworms – Also called Serpulids. Settlement is heavier in warmer waters.

Feeding is conducted on the planktonic microscopic organisms carried past them
in the water currents.

28
 Tunicate (Sea Squirt)

Sea squirt fouling on the bottom of the ship.

Plant - Weed or Algae Fouling

Regularly encountered are the finely branched brown algae ‘Ectocarpus’ and the green
algae ‘Enteromorpha’, commonly known as ‘grass’ fouling because of the similarity in
appearance. There the resemblance ends. Algae are very simple plants, deriving their
nutrient requirements by uptakes directly into their body cells from the surrounding
seawater, the root structures being non-absorptive with use for anchorage only. When
divers have to remove algae growth by scrubbing, they leave the root structures
embedded on the surface. Because of the simplicity of the plant, rapid growth occurs
and further cleaning becomes necessary. Indeed the more a surface is scrubbed the
rougher and more attractive it becomes to further algae colonisation. Algae fouling is
caused by spores which are too small to be seen by the unaided eye and on a roughened
surface those spores are capable of attaching within seconds and becoming established
in a few hours.

Fouling by the brown algae ‘Ectocarpus’ is similar to that already described for
‘Enteromorpha’. The green algae tend to dominate in positions of higher light intensity
while ‘Ectocarpus’ dominate in conditions of lower light intensity. Since all algae require
light for growth they are not generally found on the flat bottoms of commercial ships.
With few exceptions all green algae are green grass colour owing to the predominance
of chlorophyll. Red algae is basically filamentitious, but compaction of cells may conceal
this feature. The life cycle is peculiar and complicated, and the reproductive products are
dispersed passively by the water currents.

29
 Ectocarpus (Brown Algae - Grass)

Ectocarpus (brown algae - grass) - underwater exposure. The colour is attributed to the
pigment fucoxanthin. The spores of the Ectocarpus are very small and can be planktonic
for one day before they settle. Ectocarpus dominates in conditions of lower light intensity.

30
 Ectocarpus (Brown Algae - Grass)

Ectocarpus (brown algae - grass) - underwater exposure. The colour is attributed to the
pigment fucoxanthin. The spores of the Ectocarpus are very small and can be planktonic
for one day before they settle. Ectocarpus dominates in conditions of lower light intensity.

31
 Ectocarpus and Enteromorpha

Ectocarpus and Enteromorpha. Most common forms of green and brown grass.

32
 Ectocarpus and Enteromorpha

Ectocarpus and Enteromorpha. Most common forms of green and brown grass.

33
 Enteromorpha (Green Grass)

Enteromorpha (green grass). Thicker and more continuous around the waterline where
the algae can obtain more sunlight and energy through photosyntheses.

Removal of green grass, exposing sound anti-fouling paint.

34
 Enteromorpha (Green Grass)

Severe forms of green grass.

All green algae are of green grass colour, owing to the predominance of chlorophyll.

Severe forms of green grass.

All green algae are of green grass colour, owing to the predominance of chlorophyll.

35
 Rhodophycea (Red Algae)

Rhodophycea - severe forms of red alga.

36
 Part 2.
Coating Defects A-Z
Section A

Alligatoring
also known as Crocodiling and Mud Cracking

Alligatoring describes the very large pattern of cracks or checks which resembles the
skin of an alligator or crocodile. Deep cracks may penetrate through the undercoat
down to the substrate.

This is usually caused by over application of a paint coat (excessive film thickness) where
the outer surface dries faster than the underside, resulting in a skin forming on the
surface. This causes internal stresses in the coating as the surface shrinks faster than the
bulk of the paint film. As the thinners (solvents) evaporate from the bulk causing it to
shrink, the outer skin has become too rigid to withstand the internal stresses and shrinks
into wrinkles and cracks. It is also found when paint films have a soft undercoat with a
hard topcoat. High application temperatures can exacerbate the problem.

Prevention: Use correct coating specification and materials. Avoid excessive

thickness. Avoid application at high ambient temperatures.

Repair: Repair will depend upon size and extent of the alligatoring and how
deep the cracks penetrate. Abrade to remove all affected coats and
apply suitable undercoat and topcoat. Follow recommended application
procedures and particularly coating thickness.

Source: Rohm & Haas Alligatoring.

37
 Aluminium Corrosion
When aluminium corrodes, particularly under a paint film, it produces a gelatinous white
oxide deposit. This can occur where coated aluminium or aluminium metal spray is
immersed or subjected to damp conditions. It can result from the use of a porous coating,
osmosis through the paint film and the use of zinc anodes for cathodic protection on an
aluminium hull.

Repair: Thoroughly abrade and wash the surface to remove all traces of corrosion
deposits and recoat using a non-porous coating; Apply a thicker paint
coating; Use magnesium anodes for cathodic protection.

Pattern of corrosion under a paint coating on the

aluminium hull of a vessel protected with zinc anodes.

38
Antifouling Coatings
See also Part 1. Marine Fouling

Anti-fouling paints are used to coat the bottoms of ships to prevent sealife such as algae
and molluscs attaching themselves to the hull – thereby slowing down the ship and
increasing fuel consumption. Typical examples of weed (algae) growth and tubeworms
are shown below.

Courtesy of International Weed Fouling.

Courtesy of International Tube worm.

39
 Barnacles

In the early days of sailing ships, lime and later arsenic were used to coat ships’ hulls.
Later, sheathing with thin copper or Muntz metal sheets nailed to the hull of wooden
ships was found the be effective but expensive. Copper antifouling systems have been
used for large ships, since copper creates a poisonous film when in contact with the
water, slowly dissolving. This prevents marine growths from attaching to it. Other
developments included antifouling paints formulated with toxic organotin compounds
and biocides, all aimed at impeding the growth and adhesion of marine organisms,
barnacles and algae. More recently antifouling paints which have come on the market
included ‘hard’ bottom paints which can be polished; self-polishing systems based
on hydrolysing polymer binders; self-polishing copolymer binder systems; smooth
coatings based on fluoropolymers and silicone polymers; coatings containing metallic
compounds (copper) which slowly “leach” into the sea water, killing barnacles and other
marine life attached to the ship.

One of the most effective anti-fouling paints, developed in the 1960s, contained the
organotin tributyltin (TBT), which has been proven to cause deformations in oysters and
sex changes in whelks. Studies have shown that compounds of this type persist in the
water, killing sealife, harming the environment and possibly entering the food chain. In
September 2008 the International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling
Systems on Ships came into force. This prohibits the use of harmful organotin in anti-
fouling paints used on ships.

40
The following photo shows a typical cross-section through a copper based antifouling
paint. The red coloured flakes are the copper dispersed in the resin binder.

100 µm
A three-coat copper based antifouling coating.

Silicone Antifouling paint peeling off due to low steel application temperature.
Courtesy of Hempel

41
 Grey antifouling paint peeling off during removal of marine growth.
Courtesy of Hempel

Acrylic copolymer self-polishing antifouling – adhesion failure in the grey primer coat.

42
Application Faults
Apart from such obvious faults such as overspray, dryspray, runs and sags which are
described under these headings, various other faults may be found. Some of these are
shown here. These are mostly caused by lack of care during application.

Repairs are often spcific to the type of fault and can include abrasion of the coating and
recoating to removal and completely relaying a floor.

Brush hairs left in a non-slip paint coating.

Roller marks and lumps on concrete floor.

43
 Pale brown overseal repair over a colourless overseal has resulted in brown ‘staining’.

Boot prints in the floor surface sealed in with the overseal.

44
Section B

Bird fouling
Coating systems are often subjected to unexpected wear and tear such as attack from
birds droppings. These can soften paint films and cause blistering etc.

Prevention is often difficult or impossible.

Repair: Initially, wash off the marks and polish the surface but if the paint is damaged,
abrade the surface to remove all damaged coating, apply a suitable filler
compound where necessary to level the surface and then recoat.

Bird dropping on paint surface which washed off with no damage to the paint
but can result in blistering and lifting of the paint film.

45
 Bittiness
also known as Peppery, Seedy or Seediness

Bittiness describes where the paint film is contaminated by particles of paint skin, gel,
flocculated material or foreign matter, which project above the surface of the paint
film to give a rough appearance. The term Peppery is used when the bits are small and
uniformly distributed. This can happen when a skin has formed on the surface of the
paint in the can and gets broken up and mixed into the liquid prior to application of the
paint. Dried paint on brushed and rollers can similarly contaminate the paint film.

Repair: Repair depends on the size and extent of the problem. Once the paint is
hard enough it can be abraded to flatten the surface and then repainted with
uncontaminated paint and brushes. Alternatively the whole coating may need
to be or completely removed and reapplied.

Dust, paint skin etc. embedded in the paint film.

Dust, paint skin etc. embedded in the paint film.

46
Bleaching
see also Fading

Bleaching described the loss of colour of a paint film. It can be caused by natural
weathering or chemical spillage and attack.

Repair: If it is just a surface effect, abrading the surface and reapplying the topcoat,
preferably with a more colour stable system can be sufficient. However, if the
coating has been attacked it may need to be removed completely and a new
resistant coating system applied. With a decorative floor coating, a simple patch
repair may not be practical unless there are well defined construction joints
where the repair can stop.

Bleaching of a self-smoothing resin floor coating through acid spillage.

47
 Bleeding
also called ‘bleed Through’

Bleeding is where the paint is stained by diffusion of a soluble coloured substance from
the underlying paint to give undesirable discolouration or staining. It can occur when
a red paint is overcoated with white. The white paint gradually takes on a pink hue. It
is also seen where bitumen or tar based products are over coated with alkyd based or
other conventional topcoats. It can also occur where emulsion paint is applied over
water staining, the stain migrates through often irrespective of how many additional
coats are applied.

It can be overcome with the application of an intermediate sealer barrier coat.

Repair: Remove all stained or contaminated paint and repaint. Abrade the surface and
apply a suitable sealer coat which will not dissolve soluble material e.g. apply an
aluminium pigmented coating as sealer coat then repaint. With emulsion paint
stains apply a non-water based sealer coat and repaint.

Water stain which migrated through several additional coats of emulsion paint.

48
Blisters
Various different types of blisters can be found, those resulting from loss of adhesion
to the substrate, those resulting from osmosis and those caused by corrosion of the
substrate. All appear as dome shaped projections of the dry paint film. They may contain
liquid, gas, crystals or corrosion products depending on the cause. Corrosion blisters are
a result of corrosion of the substrate pushing the paint film away from the surface and
are filled with corrosion products. Osmotic blistering can occur in immersed conditions
when blisters are filled with water.

Repair: Depending upon size and type of blistering, remove the coating from the blistered
areas, abrasive blast clean if appropriate or otherwise abrade the surface, then
apply the full coating system or repair system as per the specification.

Corrosion blisters under a paint coating.

49
 1 mm
Corrosion blisters on coated zinc plated steel.

Blisters under the coating on a cast iron test plate.

50
Dry solvent blisters under a coating system with steel corrosion where missing.

Dry solvent blisters with no corrosion.

51
 Courtesy of Hempel Heavy corrosion blisters.

Courtesy of Hempel Heavy blistering around a weld.

52
Bloom
A hazy deposit can appear on the surface of the paint film similar to the bloom seen on
a grape. This results in a loss of gloss and dulling of the colour. This can happen when
the paint film is exposed to condensation or moisture during curing, particularly at
lower than recommended temperature. It is a common phenomenon with some amine
cured epoxies (those cured with low molecular weight primary amine). It is caused by a
chemical reaction between the amine, carbon dioxide and moisture and can result in a
greasy film. Incorrect solvent blend can also contribute to blooming.

Repair: Bloom can sometimes be removed by wiping with a clean cloth or the use of
suitable solvent cleaners. It may be necessary to abrade the surface after first
washing with water or solvent to remove the bloom and then re-application of
the undercoat/topcoat following coating manufacturer’s recommendations.

Courtesy of Dow Chemicals Bloom on the surface of an epoxy paint.

53
 Bridging
Bridging is where a coating system is applied over unfilled gaps, such as cracks corners
and blow holes leaving a thin film of unsupported coating material. This causes a
weakness in the paint film which may crack, blister or flake off. This can occur with high
viscosity paint systems and can be due to the failure to brush paint into corners and over
welds. A properly applied stripe coat should prevent this from happening.

Repair: Remove all loose paint, abrade the surface, fill holes, cracks and apply a stripe
coat by brushed well in and then recoat.

A paint film bridging over a gap where subsequent filler shrinkage

has occurred leaving a weak suspended paint film.

Floor coating applied over a crack in the floor which

subsequently caused the coating to crack.

54
An attempt to bridge a moving crack between two sheets of plywood.
Shear failure and partial delamination of the coating has occurred.

55
 Brittleness
Brittle coating, brittle fracture or brittleness describes the situation where a coating
has lost its flexibility, generally through degradation. This can happen under extreme
sunlight (UV) exposure; by loss of any plasticisers through leaching; lack of adequate cure
of two-pack systems; thermal degradation through too high an operating temperature. It
normally becomes apparent when the coating cracks under stress and flexing or impact.

Brittle is also a term used to describe high temperature performance coating systems
which lack or have reduced flexibility. This may be an inherent property because of
the need to withstand high operating temperatures in service. This normally applies to
heavily cross-linked resin systems.

Lack of cure, sometimes, can be detected by solvent rub using a solvent such as acetone
or butanone or more particularly by measuring the glass transition temperature (Tg) by
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) in accordance with ASTM D-6580.

Repair: Depending on the extent of the problem, either abrade the coating to sound
material or remove the coating by abrasive blast cleaning, then apply the full
coating system using a more flexible coating, if possible.

1 mm
Brittle fracture surface from a completely uncured epoxy powder coating.

56
Brush marks
Brush marks show as a pattern of ridges and furrows in a paint film which remain present
after the paint dries. These occur when the paint fails to flow out to give a smooth
film. They can be particularly noticeable with rapid drying water based primers and
undercoats. The pattern is known as ‘Laddering’ when paint is applied to give a cross
hatch pattern. Poor brushing technique can accentuate any problems.

Reducing the system viscosity with thinners can improve application, also ensure a
brushing grade of paint is used and it is applied in sufficient thickness to allow brush
marks to flow out.

Repair: Thoroughly abrade the surface to remove all ridges and furrows and then recoat
with a brushing grade paint suitably thinned.

Vertical brush marks.

Brush marks in micaceous iron oxide coating. Also grit and dirt inclusions.

57
 Bubbles or Bubbling
See also Craters and Voids

Bubbles can appear within a paint film as small raised blisters caused by entrainment
of air, particularly with excessively thick paint films, which does not escape before the
surface dries. They may be intact or broken leaving a crater. Sometimes these bubbles
are not apparent until a cross-section through the coating is examined. These should not
be confused with blisters.

With spray application - use airless spray equipment; reduce viscosity with thinners; use
the correct mixing equipment to prevent air being stirred into the paint during mixing.
With emulsion paints addition of a defoaming agent can be beneficial.

Repair: Depending on extent and severity of bubbling, abrade or remove the offending
coat(s) and recoat.

100 µm
Cross-section through coating showing trapped air bubbles.

100 µm
Cross-section through coating showing many trapped air bubbles.
58
 100 µm
Cross-section through non-slip floor coating showing trapped air bubbles.

100 µm
Cross-section through intermediate coat showing trapped air bubbles.

100 µm
Cross-section through top coat showing trapped air bubbles.

59
 Burn Marks
Often, after a vessel or structure has been completed and the protective coating applied,
modifications are considered to be necessary. This can mean that additional brackets
or other components are welded to the steel structure, or surplus fixtures are cut off
causing burn marks to the coating system on the reverse side from the weld or cutting
operations. Some examples of these problems are shown below and on the next page.

Repair: Remove all damaged coating, preferably by spot blast cleaning to SA 2.5
but alternatively by wire brushing to ST3, apply an appropriate primer and
topcoat(s) to the original specification.

Courtesy of Hempel Welding burns.

60
Courtesy of Hempel Welding burns.

Courtesy of Hempel Welding burns.

61
 Courtesy of Hempel Arc strikes corroding.

Welding burn marks.

62
Section C

Cathodic protection
With steel vessels blisters can form under a coating where an impressed current cathodic
protection has been used, particularly if there has been an over potential applied by
impressed current system. These can develop as a random pattern under the coating.

Similarly, if zinc anodes are used on an aluminium hull this can result in aluminium
corrosion and a similar pattern of blisters.

To prevent this from happening, ensure the protection potential is applied at a safe
level. Where anodes are to be used with an aluminium hull these should be made from
magnesium and not zinc.

Repair: Abrade or blast clean the area affected and recoat with the full coating
system. reduce the impressed current potential or change the anodes to more
suitable ones.

Blisters under a coating on a steel hull caused by over

potential impressed current cathodic protection.

63
 Zinc anode fitted to an aluminium hull resulting in corrosion blisters under the coating.

Zinc anode fitted to an aluminium hull resulting in corrosion blisters under the coating.

64
Chalking
Chalking is where a powdery layer forms on the surface of a paint coating due to
degradation of the binder by weathering and UV exposure. This rubs off easily by hand.
It is a known characteristic of epoxy coating systems. In the worst instances chalk can run
down onto brick and other surfaces.

Repair: Abrade the surface or lightly sweep blast to remove all powdery deposits, wipe
or wash the surface and apply a chalk resistant topcoat

Chalking of paint film, right, left side wiped off.

100 µm
The white particles are a result of chalking of the coating system.

65
 Checking
(see also cracking)

Checking describes the presence of fine cracks in the paint film which do not penetrate
the topcoat. Some checking can be so minute that it is impossible to see without
magnification. It is typically a formulation and/or a specification problem. As with
cracking, stresses develop which cause the surface of the paint film to become brittle
and crack due to limited paint flexibility.

Repair: Abrade and clean surface then apply an undercoat/topcoat to suit.

A pattern of fine cracks on the paint which to not penetrate the surface.

66
Cheesiness or Soft Coating
Where a coating remains soft and crumbly, even after a prolonged curing or drying
period, this is often described as Cheesiness. It can occur if the wrong mixing ratio has
been used for a two-pack system; the cure temperature has been too low; excessive
solvent thinners remains in the coating or there has been a formulation/manufacturing
problem.

Repair: The only repair solution is to remove all the soft coating and recoat with the
correctly applied system.

Damage caused by impact abrasion to a soft coating.

Soft cheesy coating removed to show the hard primer coat.

67
 Cissing
also referred to as Crawling and Fisheyes

Cissing describes the receding of wet paint to expose the underlying substrate leaving a
break in the paint film. It is also known as Crawling and Fisheyes. It occurs when the paint
is unable to wet-out the surface usually through surface contamination by oil, grease,
silicone and sometimes moisture. Areas affected can be very large. The use of incorrect
thinners can also cause similar problems.

Repair: Abrade and thoroughly clean the contaminated surface with solvents or
detergents or remove the coating to achieve a clean surface. Reapply the
coating system to the coating manufacturer’s recommendations.

Cissing, Crawling, Fisheyes due to contaminated substrate.

68
Coating breakdown
When a coating starts to breakdown, particularly in the hold of a bulk carrier, this can
lead to general corrosion showing through the coating and result in contamination of
the cargo.

Repair: Fresh water wash to remove all soluble contaminants – particularly chlorides
and then either completely blast clean the surface or flash blast corroded areas
and recoat with an appropriate primer and topcoat. Application over rusty
and corroded surfaces will only result in premature coating breakdown of the
repaired areas.

Courtesy of Hempel Coating breakdown and rust staining in the hold of a bulk carrier.

69
 Courtesy of Hempel Coating breakdown and rust staining in the hold of a bulk carrier.

Courtesy of Hempel Coating breakdown and rust staining in the hold of a bulk carrier.

70
Cobwebbing
Cobwebbing describes the pattern of fine filaments which can occur when some
solutions of high molecular weight polymers are sprayed rather than the normal
atomised particles. This can result with some types of polymer solutions if the viscosity
of the solution is too high. It can be overcome by reducing the viscosity with the addition
of compatible thinners and a change to the spraying conditions.

Repair: Abrade to remove all affected material and recoat.

Cobwebbing spray pattern.

71
 Cold flow
Cold flow of an antifouling paint can occur where the ship gets under way before
sufficient time has been allowed for the paint to adequately harden. The greater the
applied thickness the longer it takes for the paint to adequately harden.

Repair: Removal or abrade the damaged area and reapply the antifouling paint allowing
adequate time for the paint to harden before the ship gets under way.

Courtesy of International Cold Flow of Antifouling.

Courtesy of International Closer view of Cold Flow.

72
Corrosion stress cracking
When corrosion products build up under a coating these can cause stresses to build up
within the coating system resulting in crack formation. This can be particularly severe in
a rigid coating system. Examples are shown below.

Repair: Thoroughly abrasive blast clean to remove all corrosion products from the
affected area, apply a stripe coat followed by the full coating system. It may
be necessary to apply a different improved coating system. If in doubt seek
coating supplier’s advice.

Rigid pipeline coating stress cracked by corrosion products.

Corrosion stress cracking in a rigid coating system.

73
 Corrosion under insulation
Where insulation, foam or fire insulation such as glassfibre is clad with metal sheathing
to protect it but moisture can penetrate the cladding and be retained against the metal
surface, this can lead to corrosion and eventual failure of the cladding. One specific
example with refrigerated containers serves to illustrate the problem.

Aluminium panels and refrigerated container floors are frequently insulated with insitu
injected polyurethane foam. Condensation and water penetration through construction
joints and damage can lead to corrosion of the aluminium and eventual penetration and
failure. This corrosion may not become apparent until holes appear in the aluminium.
Bacteria can breed on the wet foam and exacerbate the corrosion.

During construction the aluminium should be thoroughly degreased, lightly abraded

and an appropriate aluminium primer applied to the surface to come into contact with
the foam insulation.

Repair Generally the only repair is to replace the aluminium and foam ensuring that
the aluminium is first pre-primed.

This photograph shows the underside of a corroded aluminium container floor standing
vertically. The top of the foam (flat) is covered with aluminium corrosion product.

74
Cracked coating over welds
Poor surface preparation; coating too brittle; lack of stripe coat; pinholes in coating
allowing moisture penetration. Prior to application of any coating, ensure the weld
and surrounding area is thoroughly blast cleaned and free from welding debris, weld
spatter etc. Apply a stripe coat over the weld area by brush and work the coating into
the uneven weld surface.

Repair: Remove damaged and loose coating. Blast clean or thoroughly abrade the
surface to remove all corrosion product. Apply the original coating system or a
suitable repair coating system, including at least one stripe coat over the weld.

Weld corrosion under cracked coating.

75
 Cracked coating over poorly prepared weld.

Coating flaking off poorly prepared weld.

76
Cracking
(see also Alligatoring, and Checking)

Cracks which appear in the surface of a paint film is known as Cracking. These cracks can
be small and shallow or severe and deep and may penetrate through just the topcoat
or down to the substrate. They are a stress related failure caused by surface movement,
ageing, absorption and desorption of moisture and general lack of flexibility of the
coating. The thicker the paint film the greater the possibility it will crack. Prevention is
usually to apply a thinner paint coat or a more flexible coating system.

Repair: Abrade the surface to remove all cracked paint. Correctly reapply the coating
system or use a more flexible system and one less prone to cracking.

Fine cracks in the topcoat.

77
 Impact cracks in coating on hardboard.

Cracks and shrinkage splits in coating system.

78
 Crack in topcoat over soft primer.

200 µm
Crack in tank lining which allowed contents to penetrate
through to the steel and discolour the coating.

79
 Cratering
Craters are small bowl shaped depressions in the paint film caused by trapped air
bubbles which have burst to leave small craters in the coating as it dries. The coating
has insufficient time to flow into a uniform film after the bubbles have burst. This effect
should not to be confused with Cissing which is due to surface contamination.

Cratering can be overcome by using airless spray equipment, modifying spray technique
to avoid air entrainment and adding thinners as recommended by the paint supplier.

Repair: Abrade to remove all craters and clean the surface and recoat. In some cases
abrasion may expose air bubbles trapped within the paint film. These will also need to be
removed before reapplication of the paint coat.

Crater or Fish Eye with raised rim Craters

Topcoat

Undercoat
Primer

Craters formed when entrained air escaped.

80
 1 mm
Craters from bursting entrained air bubbles.

Trapped entrained air bubbles with one (arrow) which has burst to leave a crater.

81
 200 µm
A crater where an air bubble has burst through the surface.

200 µm
A crater where an air bubble has burst through the surface.

| 200 µm |
200 µm
Craters / Indentations and a ‘pinhole’ in the surface of a paint film.

82
Section D

Damage to uncured coatings

Problems can arise when a coating system, particularly a floor coating, is subjected to
premature use before the coating has had time to fully cure. Sometimes these problems
arise because workers ignore warnings and move barriers to gain access.

Repair: This can require complete removal of the damaged area and reapplication.
Patch repairs are often not acceptable.

Tyre prints in soft, undercured resin floor coating system.

83
 Boot prints in uncured floor.

Boot prints in resin floor sealed in with the overseal.

84
Decompression Blisters
Coatings are often applied to the inside of pressure vessels to protect the steel from
corrosion. In many cases these operate at elevated temperature, often near the maximum
operating temperature of the coating system. For operational reasons, rapid or explosive
decompression of the vessel may become necessary. This can cause blisters to form
within the coating system, resulting in coating failure.

The only solution is to use a coating system with a proven record of withstanding rapid
decompression. Repairs to the existing coating system are rarely possible.

Blisters highlighted by dust deposits.

85
 Broken decompression blisters.

Broken decompression blisters in manway.

86
Delamination
The loss of adhesion of a paint film between coats of paint. This can occur particularly
where incompatible paint coatings have been applied and where intercoat times have
been exceeded. Moisture condensation or contamination between coats can also lead
to delamination. Overcoating a glossy surface which has not been lightly roughened
can also result in delamination. Various different examples of coating delamination are
shown below and on the next five pages.

Repair: Depending on the extent of the delamination, abrade and recoat or completely
remove the delaminated coating and reapply. Ensure any overlaps with old paint are
feathered to a smooth finish before overcoating.

Glass flake polyester coating delaminated from steel surface due to undercure.

87
 Epoxy coal tar coating delaminated from steel piling.

Delamination of epoxy coating from red oxide primer – primer overcoating time exceeded.

88
Delamination of epoxy coating from red oxide primer – primer overcoating time exceeded.

Coating delamination from tank wall due to inadequate surface preparation.

89
 Coating delaminating due to inadequate surface preparation.

Coating delaminating due to inadequate surface preparation.

90
 Delamination of epoxy coating from aged and degraded primer.

Topcoat delaminating from red oxide primer near water line due to intercoat time exceeded.

91
 Peel back of undercoats from score mark.

Courtesy of Hempel Coating delamination from a galvanised surface.

92
Dryspray
see also Overspray

Rough and uneven finish to the surface of the paint film, where the particles are poorly
adhered. This occurs when the overspray particles have dried sufficiently to prevent
them from flowing together and to firmly adhere to the surface. Often, such particles are
sufficiently poorly adhered that they can be brushed off the surface. The effect is similar
in appearance to ‘Overspray’ but with overspray the paint particles are firmly adhered to
the surface and cannot be rubbed off.

Dryspray can occur with incorrect spray application i.e. gun distance, and is also
associated with rapid drying products and/or too high an application temperature.

Repair: Abrade the surface to remove any loose dryspray and re apply coating
or topcoat.

Source: PKN Dry spray.

93
 Section E

Edge Corrosion
Corrosion can occur along edges from general wear and tear as well as from impact
damage. This can lead to corrosion undercutting of the coating unless treated. It usually
arises when there has been a lack of stripe coat(s) applied during coating application.

To minimise edge corrosion, all edges should be ground to a radius of a minimum of 3

mm along all sharp edges. All edges should then be coated with one or two stripe coats
before application of the full coating system and protected from impact damage and
wear, if practical.

Impact damage on edges can result in the coating peeling back from the edge resulting
in corrosion undercutting of coating. This is particularly true where no stripe coat has
been applied along the edge. Application of a stripe coat applied with each coat of a
system, well brushed on to the previous coat can minimise but not entirely prevent this
problem from occurring. It can be further minimised by the application of a primer with
a proven track record of resistance to undercutting.

Repair: Thoroughly abrade or abrasive blast clean and re-apply the full coating system
with a stripe coat of each coat brush applied to all edges.

An example of edge corrosion where an additional coat had been applied along the edge.

94
Edge damage leading to corrosion undercutting of the coating.

Edge damage leading to corrosion.

95
 Edge corrosion due to lack of adequate stripe coat.

Edge corrosion through poor coating application.

96
Edge Peel Back
(see also Peel Back)

Coating peels back from an unsealed cut edge due to moisture penetration under the
coating. This can lead to substrate corrosion and metal loss.

Repair: Remove damaged and loose coating. Abrade surface to remove all corrosion
product. Apply a suitable repair coating system ensuring all exposed edges are
adequately sealed against further moisture penetration.

Coating peels back from an unsealed cut edge.

97
 Section F

Fading
see also Bleaching

The gradual discoloration or fading of the colour of a paint when exposed to sunlight/weather.
Such fading may also be accompanied by a loss of gloss which may resemble chalking but
without the powdery surface. Fading tends to accelerate in the presence of moisture.

The most likely causes are incorrect pigmentation; use of organic pigments; a porous
substrate; atmospheric contamination.

Repair: Abrade the surface until the original colour is exposed, remove all dust from
the surface and apply a light stable coating system of equivalent colour to the
original system.

Glossy red painted surface before outdoor exposure.

98
Fading of the red colour after exposure to bright sunlight.

99
 Filliform (Corrosion)
Filliform corrosion describes random threads of corrosion that develop beneath thin
lacquers and other coating films from a growing head or point. Often seen on old ‘tin’ food
cans, with thin electro plating but also seen on painted aluminium and other surfaces.
This can be caused by Contamination on the metal substrate or damage to the coating
which allows a corrosion cell to develop at the tip and advance under the coating. To
prevent filliform corrosion from occurring the substrate should be thoroughly cleaned
prior to application of any coating.

Repair: Remove all traces of corrosion products and non-adhering coatings. Abrade,
clean and coat to manufacturer’s recommendations.

Filiform corrosion under coating on mild steel.

100
Filiform corrosion under coating on mild steel.

Filiform corrosion under coating aluminium.

101
 Flaking
see also Delamination, Adhesion Failure and Peeling

Flaking is adhesion failure where paint flakes from the substrate. It frequently occurs
with wood and galvanised substrates when an inappropriate paint system has been
used. Flaking particularly occurs where no pre-treatment or the incorrect pre-treatment
has been used for galvanised steel or non-ferrous substrates. It has been attributed to
differential expansion and contraction of the paint and substrate. Flaking can also occur
as a result of ageing of the paint system.

Repair: Remove all flaking coating until a firm edge can be achieved. Abrade, sweep
blast and clean overall and apply suitable coating system and/or pre-treatment
to the coating manufacturer’s recommendations.

Lacquer coating flaking off due to lack of any surface preparation.

102
 Crazed and flaking coating due to lack of intercoat adhesion.

Crazed coating flaking off due to surface contamination and inadequate surface preparation.

103
 Courtesy of International Antifouling paint flaking from the hull of a ship.

Courtesy of International Closer view of antifouling paint flaking from the hull of a ship.

104
Flocculation
Flocculation describes the appearance of a paint film where loosely coherent pigment
agglomerates are visible to the eye. It can result from non-uniform pigment dispersion
where the pigments form agglomerates. The use of unsuitable thinners can cause
pigment particles to agglomerate. Ensure only properly formulated and mixed products
are used. Use recommended thinners.

Repair: Abrade the surface to remove all coating where flocculation is visible and recoat
with a correctly mixed and thinned coating system.

Loosely coherent agglomerates of pigments in a resin binder.

105
 Flooding
see also Flotation

Flooding can appear soon after application when pigment separation occurs in the paint
film resulting in a darkening in colour. The affected area dries to a deeper shade. It closely
resembles flotation. It can result from over application or the addition of excessive
thinners to the paint.

Repair: Abrade and clean overall and apply a suitable sealer or topcoat to the
recommended thickness.

Pigment separation caused by flooding (over application).

106
Flotation
see also Flooding

Flotation describes the mottled effect caused by separation of different coloured

pigments in a paint film. It can occur in coloured paints which contain a mixture of
different pigments. It closely resembles flooding. It can result from the addition of
excessive thinners to the paint.

Repair: Abrade and clean overall, then reapply the topcoat taking care to use the
recommended thinners plus a suitable sealer or topcoat if required. Ensure that
the correct film thickness is applied. Do not apply over thickness.

Metallic green pigment mixture where the different coloured pigments can be seen.

Incorrect thinners causing separation of agglomerates of coloured metallic pigments.

107
 Fungal / Mildew / Algae Staining
Black, grey or brown spots and areas which appear on the surface of a paint film in damp
and poorly ventilated conditions are caused by algae or fungus (mildew) growth. These
can appear in kitchens and bathrooms where the paint receives little or no direct sunlight.

This can be tested for by applying a few drops of household bleach; if the marks disappear
they are most probably caused by fungus or algae.

Repair: Scrub the surface with diluted household breach (1 part bleach to 3 parts water)
taking care to wear rubber or similar gloves and eye protection. Alternatively
scrub using a fungicidal wash following the suppliers recommendations for use
and safety precautions. In either case, rinse thoroughly with water.

If necessary, abrade the surface and repaint using a good quality paint.

Thereafter, regularly wipe the surface down with dilute bleach of fungicidal
solution taking appropriate safety precautions, as outlined above. Installation
of an extractor/exhaust fan can also be beneficial to provide better ventilation.

Black fungal growth.

108
Section G

Galvanising – Loss of coating adhesion to

Paint applied to galvanised steel such as railings has lost adhesion, flakes and peels off.
This occurs when the paint has been applied over weathered galvanising which has
white ‘rust’ on the surface. Incorrect or inadequate surface preparation will cause this.

An appropriate primer designed for use with galvanised steel should be applied to a
properly prepared surface. Suitable primers include oil-based or acrylic latex primers.

Repair: Remove any rust and loose coating using a wire brush, wipe clean and apply an
acrylic corrosion inhibitive primer followed by an oil-based, vinyl latex or similar
topcoat.

Gas Bubbles
Small discrete bubbles within a clear one-pack moisture cured polyurethane varnish
which form as a result of moisture reacting with the isocyanate component to liberate
carbon dioxide. High viscosity prevents these bubbles from escaping. This happens after
a can has been opened, partly used and resealed.

Repair: Abrade the surface until all bubbles are removed and then recoat with fresh
material from a new, previously unopened can.

Clear moisture cured one-pack polyurethane varnish showing bubbles of carbon

dioxide trapped within the paint film.

109
 A magnified view of the surface clearly showing the trapped bubbles. Mag. approx. x10

110
Gloss
High gloss (shiny) coatings are often required for decorative purposes, particularly on
cars and yachts. These require particular paint formulations designed to give a long
lasting gloss finish. Examples include but are not restricted to varnishes, lacquers,
acrylics and polyester urethane coating. To achieve such a high gloss finish the surface
must be smooth and free from irregularities, thus considerable care has to be taken with
surface preparation and application of undercoats. All sanding marks must be eliminated
to prevent these from showing through the final topcoat.

Various gloss meters are available to measure gloss, generally under specific conditions
and using a laser reflected off the surface at an angle of either 20° or more commonly 60°.
Results are expressed in gloss units (GU). The exact requirements need to be specified at
the start of the contract to ensure that the desired level of gloss is achieved e.g. a gloss
level of 90 GU minimum.

With careful choice of coating system, undercoats, surface preparation etc. this can be
achieved over large surface areas such as the hull and superstructure of a super yacht.

Gloss will be reduced by dust falling on the surface, bloom, condensation before the
coating has adequately dried and any blemishes in the underlying undercoat, and
orange peel or uneven surface due to spray application problems.

Whilst gloss is somewhat difficult to illustrate, the following photographs show examples
of high gloss finishes with gloss values of greater than 90 GU. Note the good reflections
and minimal orange peel effects.

High gloss cream test panel, 92 GU, showing good reflection of window frame and clouds.

111
 High gloss, >90 GU, on black and cream surfaces.
Note the reflection of the decking in the cream painted wall.

Compare high gloss black paint right, glass panel left.

112
Grinning
or ‘Grinning Through’

This is where the underlying surface is visible through the paint film due to inadequate
hiding power of the coating. This is sometimes referred to as ‘Grinning-Through’. It is
particularly seen when dark colours are overcoated with lighter colours. In such cases,
additional undercoats may be necessary to hide the underlying colour. This is not to be
confused with ‘Bleeding’ where a coloured dye or pigment migrates through the coating
system causing discoloration.

Repair: Abrade and clean the surface and apply additional compatible coats until the
pattern is adequately masked.

Black squares grinning through yellow paint.

113
 Grit Inclusions
When particles of grit or dust adhere to or become embedded in a coating system these
can lead to premature coating breakdown and corrosion, particularly when these result
in moisture penetration through the coating to the substrate. Where steel particles are
embedded these can themselves corrode and give rise to unsightly rust staining. These
particles can be blown onto a freshly painted surface when other works are carried out
in the vicinity.

Prevention: To prevent grit and dust contamination, thoroughly clean all surfaces with
a vacuum cleaner or similar and do not blast clean or abrade surfaces
adjacent to wet or uncured paint.

Repair: Abrade or abrasive blast clean the surface to remove all contamination,
thoroughly clean the surface to remove all dust particles and recoat in a
clean dust free atmosphere or preferably in a workshop.

Grit particles embedded in the surface of the paint on a handrail.

100 µm
Grit particles embedded in the blue topcoat.

114
 Corroding grit particles embedded in the white topcoat.

100 µm
Grit particles embedded in each of the three coats of a tank lining system.

115
 Growth on the surface of paint film
Growth and attachment of natural organisms such as moss and algae to paint coated
surfaces can cause the paint to blister and flake off. Algae etc. may also grow between
coats to cause delamination of the coating. On timber surfaces such growths will retain
water and lead to timer rot.

Use correct coating specification and products suitable for the environment can minimise
such growths. More importantly, where practical, surfaces should be cleaned regularly to
prevent build-up of moss and algae.

Repair: Clean and remove all growth, apply a suitable algaecide, abrade the surface and
apply a suitable coating system.

Moss growing on a painted wooden door frame.

Algae growing between coats of white paint.

116
GRP – Glass Reinforced Plastic
Repairs to GRP are outside the scope of this book and are best covered in such
publications as “The Manual of Glassfibre Maintenance published by International Paint
Yacht Division”.

However, sometimes GRP gelcoats require either repair to scratches in the gelcoat or
overall painting. A summary of the requirements for such repairs and painting GRP are
given below. As with any painting process faults with the coating can be many and
variable as described elsewhere in this book.

Specific requirements for painting GRP are:

Gelcoat Scratch repair

If the scratches are minor they may be removed by use of a rubbing compound.

Foe hairline cracks of more extensive crazing, these may need enlarging into V-shape
cracks, but only into the gelcoat and not the glass fibre laminate. Ensure the surface is
free from all grease, wax, dust and other contaminants and then apply new gelcoat using
a squeegee and immediately cover with cellophane of similar film, smoothing well to
eliminate all air bubbles. Once the gelcoat has cured, peel off the cellophane film,

Painting GRP

The gelcoat will need to be clean, dry, grease and wax free before attempting to apply any
paint. The surface should then be abraded or grit blasted to provide a suitable surface
for the paint to adhere to. Then apply one or two coats of an epoxy primer/filler followed
by one or two coats of a two-pack polyurethane topcoat. Smoothing between coats may
be necessary. To achieve success, always follow the paint supplier’s recommendations.

As with all painting operations, numerous faults can occur, such as runs, sags, dust
inclusions etc. These are dealt within the appropriate sections of this book.

Where lines are to be painted on the hull, these should first be marked out using an
appropriate masking tape to ensure sharp edges.

117
 Section I

Impact Damage
(including Star cracking)

Cracks in a coating which radiate from a point of impact to a relatively brittle or aged
coating. These can result from reverse impact when bolts or fixings are explosively
inserted into steel components during construction. Impact cracks can often be seen in
glass fibre reinforced plastic gelcoats.

Repair: Grind smooth any sharp points or protrusions. Repair any substrate damage as
necessary. Abrade or abrasive blast clean all damaged areas, thoroughly clean
and recoat.

Impact damage caused by an explosively inserted bolt through a steel beam.

118
 Impact damage caused to a coating system.

Courtesy of Hempel Reverse impact damage resulting in corrosion.

119
 Inclusions
See also Grit Inclusions and Paint Contamination

Inclusions can include particles introduced during paint manufacture, such as gelled
resin particles, or large filler agglomerates, but also stray particles falling onto wet paint
films during application. Foreign particles can also be stirred in during mixing.

These various different forms of contamination can have markedly different effects
on coating properties and coating life leading to rapid coating breakdown and steel
corrosion through to minor aesthetic problems. Each needs to be treated separately.

Repair: Depending on severity this can vary from light abrasion and reapplication of the
topcoat to complete coating removal and reapplication of the complete system.

Gelled resin particles – yellow.

120
 100 µm
Gelled resin particles – yellow.

1 mm
Metallic flakes in a zinc rich primer.

121
 1 mm
Inclusions found in a high gloss yacht finish.

100 µm
Grit/millscale found under a paint film embedded in the primer.

122
Section M

Millscale
Residual millscale can be found on the surface of new steel fresh from the rolling mill.
Once exposed to the weather this begins to corrode – see photographs below and on
the next page. When abrasive blasting is used to prepare steel, any residual millscale can
be seen as dark grey/black shading on the pale grey surface. Whilst this presents little
hazard under a well applied and intact paint coating, corrosion undercutting can arise
once the coating is breached and moisture allowed to access the steel surface. At this
point more rapid corrosion of the steel can occur.

Repair: Abrasive blast clean to Sa 2.5 minimum until all millscale is removed, then apply
the full coating system in accordance with the specification.

Slight residual millscale after abrasive blast cleaning – dark grey/black shading.

123
 1 mm
Millscale on the surface of steel straight from the rolling mill.

1 mm
Millscale staring to weather and corrode.

124
Following are five photomicrographs of cross-sections through millscale. The first three
show millscale on sheet steel as received from the steel mill and before weathering or
any other form of surface preparation. The millscale is 5 – 10 µm thick. The other two
photomicrographs show residual millscale on a steel pipeline under a powder coating.
All are shown at the same magnification.

100 µm
Cross-section through millscale on steel straight from the rolling mill.

100 µm
Cross-section through millscale on steel straight from the rolling mill.

100 µm

A cross-section through New Steel straight from the rolling mill, with a thin layer of
millscale present on the surface. Normally this would be allowed to weather and
corrode or be removed prior to sale of the steel.
125
 When surface preparation of a steel surface is inadequate, leaving residual millscale on
the surface, this can result in corrosion of the steel and premature coating breakdown.
The presence of millscale can be determined by examining cross-sections through the
steel / coating interface but only when samples can be cut from the steel. Two examples
are shown below.

Residual millscale under a powder coating.

100 µm
Residual millscale on a steel substrate under a powder coating.

126
Misses
Also know as Skips or Holidays

Misses and Skips generally relate to areas of substrate which remained uncoated when
the intention was to coat the entire area, but a miss or skip can also describe missing
topcoat leaving the undercoat exposed. Thus misses and skips can be the complete
paint system or confined to a single coat in a multi-coat paint system. Holidays can also
be the result of pinholes in the coating system. The most likely causes are poor lighting
and poor application techniques coupled with a lack of adequate quality control.

Corrosion of the steel or aluminium substrate can result from misses, skips and holidays
in the coating system.

Repair: Clean and abrade or blast clean the surface and re-apply the coating system
following the original specification and manufacturer’s repair procedures.
Ensure there is adequate lighting and proper quality control checks.

Missing topcoat leading to rash rusting and corrosion.

127
 Missing total coating system resulting in corrosion of the steel substrate.

128
Mud Cracking
Mud cracking is where the dried paint film has the appearance of a dried-out mud bath.
Cracks vary in size and amount but form a network of cracks. This generally results from
over application of heavily pigmented primers such as inorganic zinc silicates or water
based coatings, although can occur with other over thick systems.

Repair: Remove all cracked and flaking paint back to a sound base. Abrade and clean the
surface. Re apply the coating following the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Pattern of cracks caused by solvent evaporation and shrinkage of a thick paint coat.

129
 Multiple Paint Coats
Disputes can often arise over the number of paint coats which have been applied, their
thicknesses and whether or not they comply with the paint specification. Failure of the
system may or may not have occurred. Often the only way to resolve the issue is to
examine cross-sections through paint flakes chipped from the surface. Generally this
means examining the cross-sections at magnifications of up to x500.

Some examples are shown below and on the next page.

200 µm

The question – How many undercoats and topcoats had been applied during the
repainting of a yacht hull? Many of the layers were the earlier paint coats,
the new paint started with the thick band of mottled white undercoat.

130
 100 µm
How many blue topcoats had been applied? – four.

200 µm
Multiple white topcoats applied – only one specified.
Note the excessive air entrainment in the first topcoat.

131
 200 µm

How many coats of paint had been applied during a repaint and did these comply with
the specification for colour and thickness?

Specified was a grey undercoat and a black topcoat – both 50 µm thick.

The top and bottom bands are the mounting resin. The red, green yellow and cream
bands are previous paint coats. The grey and black bands are the new paint.

Whilst examination of a cross-section will allow an accurate measurement of the

thicknesses of each individual coat, a quick examination of flakes of paint chipped from
the substrate can give a broad indication of underlying paint coats.

200 µm

132
 200 µm
A primer, undercoat and topcoat were specified over a blast-cleaned surface.
Multiple previous coats were found which had not been removed.

133
 Section N

Nail and Rivet Head Rusting

Reddish brown rust spots causing rust staining, corrosion of the nail or rivet head and
blistering and loss of paint. This can occur when non-galvanised nails or rivets have been
used. Moisture passes through the paint film causing corrosion of the steel.. Galvanised
nails can also rust if the work has been sanded prior to application of the paint.

Nails whether galvanised or not should be countersunk sealed and spot primed.

Repair: Where rust staining had occurred, abrade the surface to remove all rust staining
and rust corrosion from the nail/screw head, spot prime with an acrylic sealant
and repaint.

Rusty nail head.

Two rusty nail heads, blistered paint and rust staining.

134
Non-Slip Coating Systems
Steel decks, walkways, floors and road surfaces present slip hazards when wet or subjected
to liquid spillage. To reduce and/or prevent this hazard, non-slip coating systems are
frequently applied. These can comprise single pack coating systems broadcast with
fine or course aggregate or more probably two-pack resin coating systems which both
contain relatively course aggregates and are further broadcast with aggregate. Each
type of system provides a rough non-slip finish. Sometimes similar resin systems are
used with a smoother, more rounded coloured aggregate purely for its decorative effect
rather than its non-slip properties. However, similar problems can arise with each of
these types of system. These problems can include loss of adhesion to the substrate –
steel or concrete and loss of aggregate – failure to adhere to the coating. These can relate
to inadequate substrate surface preparation giving an adequate key to the surface; a
weak coating or binder unable to hold the aggregate under conditions of use; coating
applied too thinly for the aggregate being used; aggregate applied after the resin system
has started to cure and so fails to stick; cracks appear in the resin because of incorrect
choice of coating system with the substrate to which it has been applied.

The cause(s) of failure can often be determined by visual examination of the area
involved and examination of samples of the materials used. When disbonding is the
cause, examination of a cross-section through the coating system under low of high
magnification can often provide additional information.

In the case of a corroded steel substrate adhesion of primer to steel corrosion product
can indicate inadequate surface preparation and/or application over a rusty steel
surface. With concrete, a smooth interface between the primer and concrete indicates
inadequate surface preparation, this may be confirmed by the presence of fine
concrete particles (laitence) adhering to the primer. Such details may be ascertained by
microscopic examination of cross-sections through samples.

Repair: Generally any repair requires appropriate preparation of the surface by abrasive
blast cleaning to produce an adequate key for bonding followed by reapplication
of the coating system and aggregate ensuring coating and application times
are followed. If the problem is one of incompatibility between substrate and
coating system then an alternative coating system needs to be applied.

135
 The following photographs show different examples of failed non-slip coating systems
applied to steel, concrete, and asphalt and one of a decorative coating system applied to
asphalt where the aggregate failed to adequately adhere.

1 mm
Red primer firmly adhering to black steel corrosion product
suggests application to corroded steel.

1 mm
Non-slip coating system totally disbonded from steel substrate.

136
 1 mm
Non-slip flooring system disbonded from damp substrate.

137
 Section O

Oil / Grease Contaminated Surface

When a substrate has been contaminated with oil or grease and this is not removed
by solvent or detergent washing prior to surface preparation, residual oil or grease can
remain on the surface to cause poor adhesion.

A lead substrate had been wire brush cleaned but not degreased before the coating
had been applied. This resulted in residual metallic duct particles remaining trapped in
the brush marks along with process oil. The result was disbondment of the coating. In
addition, the oil was absorbed into the coating, acted as a plasticiser which softened
the coating and caused it to wrinkle. These effects were apparent when samples of
coating were examined at different magnifications by optical microscopy. The following
photographs show these effects.

Repair: Thoroughly detergent wash, abrade, check for residual dust particles and oil
and then recoat.

200 µm

Lead dust removed with adhesive tape from oil contaminated lead after wire brush cleaning.

138
 1 mm
Residual lead particles in the brush marks on the back of the disbonded coating.

1 mm
Wrinkled coating caused by oil plasticising the coating.

139
 Orange Peel
also known as Pock-marking

The uniform appearance of a sprayed paint film in which the surface of the paint film
resembles the skin of an orange. The overall result is that any reflection in the surface of
a glossy coating is distorted. It results from a failure of the paint film to adequately flow
out to a smooth film. With vertical spray painted surfaces an orange peel effect can be
greater than on similar horizontal spray painted surface. This is related to paint thickness
and flow characteristics of the paint.

Defining and measuring orange peel is complicated and outside the scope of this book.
Measure is by means of a ‘Wave Scan’ meter.

Repair: Where aesthetics are of concern, abrade overall, clean and recoat.

Orange peel distorting the reflections in car paint.

140
 A high gloss paint finish with negligible orange peel effect.

A similar paint coated panel with distinct orange peel finish causing reflections to be distorted.

141
 A black painted panel showing distorted reflections caused by orange peel.

A metallic paint showing very distorted reflections and a marked orange peel finish.

142
A vertical painted surface showing poor reflections due to orange peel.

143
 Osmotic Blisters
Osmosis is the physical process by which water is drawn through a semi-permeable
membrane into a stronger solution to dilute the stronger solution. With coating systems,
this results in water filled blisters being formed under the coating. The transfer of water
through a coating can also be driven by an impressed current cathodic protection system.

The process is frequently assisted by salt contamination of the substrate under the
coating system. Thus it is essential to ensure that the surface to be coated is clean and
salt free. ISO 8592-2. describes a test for measuring chloride contamination of a surface
prior to painting.

Repair: Depends upon the extent of the failure. Remove defective coating, suitably
prepare the surface and apply a coating system formulated for the service
conditions, following the manufacturer’s application recommendations.

Osmotic blisters formed in a steel swimming pool with impressed current cathodic protection.

144
Magnified view of steel swimming pool blisters.

Osmotic blisters caused by condensation.

145
 Water filled blisters caused by osmosis.

146
Overspray
see also Dryspray

Small particles of paint adhere to the surface of the previous dry coat, generally adjacent
to an area being sprayed. This often takes on the appearance of a pebbly surface. Whilst
the appearance is similar to dry spray, here the particles do not rub off. Microscopic
examination of the surface and a cross-section through the coating will show the
particles thoroughly adhered to the surface as dome shaped projections, whereas
dryspray appears as discrete more or less spherical particles poorly adhered to the
surface. Overspray can be minimised by adjusting the spray pattern and not spraying in
windy conditions.

Repair: Before the paint has dried or cured the overspray can often be remove by dry
brushing followed by solvent wipe. After cure it is necessary to abrade the
surface and apply another coat.

Overspray on the surface of a paint film.

147
 Oversprayed particles which form dome shaped blobs on the surface of a paint film.

Cross-section through a coating with a dome-shaped overspray particle on the surface.

148
Section P

Paint Contamination
Poor working practices can lead to paint contamination which results in premature
coating failure. With the first example shown below the primer coat showed slightly
browner than expected under a micaceous iron oxide topcoat. Delamination of the
primer was also apparent. Examination of cross-sections through some delaminated
paint flakes showed a few randomly distributed MIO particles present in the primer. It
turned out that the application brushes had all been cleaned in the same can of solvent
such that the primer brush became contaminated with MIO particles which were then
mixed into the primer.

Other examples on the next page include grit particles embedded in the topcoat, zinc
particles (white blobs) and coloured paint and grit particles embedded in other paint
coats. All result from poor working practices and poor cleanliness during paint application.

Repair: Remove all contaminated paint and reapply making sure that clean brushes
are used for each coat and that brushes for each coat are cleaned separately to
prevent cross-contamination.

1 mm
Black MIO flakes present in the ‘brown’ primer. The white bands top and bottom
are the mounting resin The black band is the MIO topcoat and the brown band the
contaminated primer.

149
 200 µm
Contaminating grit particles embedded in the blue topcoat.

100 µm
Cream Topcoat contaminated with zinc particles (white spheres);
the brown particles in the primer are filler particles.

100 µm
Various coloured paint and grit particles embedded in the cream coat.
150
Peeling and Peel Back
see also Flaking

Peeling is loss of adhesion of one or more coats of paint and is similar to flaking. It is more
typical of soft, flexible, pliable films of coating which pull away from or spontaneously
flake away from the substrate or previous coat due to loss of adhesion. It may be as a
result of contamination between coats or incompatibility of two coats.

Coating can also peel back from cut edges when moisture causes under cutting of
the coating.

Repair: Remove all soft and pliable coating back to a firm edge or totally remove all
coating. Abrade the surface, clean and apply suitable coating system to coating
manufacturer’s recommendations.

Bronze lacquer topcoat peeling off white undercoat.

151
 Coating peels back from an unsealed cut edge.

Coating peeling back from an unsealed edge.

152
Pinholes
Pinholes form as small holes in the wet paint film during application and drying, due to
air or gas bubbles which burst, giving rise to small craters or holes which fail to coalesce
before the film dries. They may or may not penetrate through the full depth of the
coating system to the substrate. They are mostly caused by air bubbles trapped within a
paint film as a result of incorrect spray application or air entrained during mixing. If the
paint coating is still sufficiently fluid enough to flow to fill them once they burst they may
only show as slight craters. When pinholes penetrate completely through the coating,
corrosion of a steel substrate can result in rust exudation around the pinhole and a
pattern of concentric corrosion rings in the underside of the coating. Several different
examples are illustrated below and on the next two pages.

Pinholes can also result from overcoating porous substrates such as zinc filled primers,
zinc silicates and metal sprayed coatings etc.

Repair: Abrade the surface to remove all pinholes, clean overall and apply suitable
tiecoat/undercoat and topcoat as necessary, ensuring no further pinholes
develop during spray application. Use airless spray equipment at the correct
spray distance to prevent air entrainment.

The pattern of concentric corrosion rings found around pinholes under a coating
applied to a steel substrate.

153
 Rust exudation surrounding a pinhole through the coating system.

Rust exudation surrounding a pinhole through a glassflake polyester coating system.

154
 Pinholes found in an epoxy coating.

Pinholes through a coating system showing slight discoloration surrounding them.

155
 Primer Degradation
When a primer is left exposed to the atmosphere for too long before application of the
next paint coat it can degrade. The result can be a powdery surface which rubs off either
by hand or when gently wiped or rubbed with a solvent wetted rag. The result – when
the next coat is applied the solvent softens the primer and the coating delaminates with
residual primer on the steel and the back of the coating flakes.

To prevent this from happening the primer should be overcoated within the
manufacturer’s specified time interval for the particular primer.

Repair: Abrasive blast clean or mechanically prepare the surface, reapply the primer
and then the complete coating system within the recommended overcoating
time intervals.

An example of degraded primer where the coal tar based system has delaminated.

156
Dry blisters form due to solvent attack of a weathered, degraded primer.

Primer rubs off with gentle pressure.

157
 Section R

Rain Damage - Water Spotting

see also Water Damage

Craters and water marks on the surface of the paint film caused by rain or heavy
condensation falling on a freshly painted surface before the paint has sufficiently hardened.

Repair: Abrade to remove all craters and surface damage, thoroughly clean and dry
all areas and apply overall an undercoat or topcoat once the likelihood or rain
has abated.

Rain damage on freshly applied coating.

158
Rain spotting on freshly applied paint.

159
 Rippled Coating
A severe rippled effect on the surface of the paint. This can be caused by a strong wind
blowing across the surface of the wet paint causing it to ripple. Where this is on the
underside of a structure the ripples can hang down in the form of small stalactites. This
can happen in the confined space under the bottom of a vessel in a dry dock where high
winds can blow in one direction only.

Repair: When mild ripples are seen, abrade the surface and recoat. Where this is a
major problem, blast clean and recoat.

Severely rippled coating forming ‘stalactite’ effect.

160
Rot (wood)
Paint coating exhibits splitting, flaking and cracking on damp and rotten wooden
surfaces. Generally as a result of poor maintenance or application over soft and rotten
wood. Ensure all wood surfaces are sound and free from rot before painting.

Repair: Replace all rotten wood, preferably with preservative treated wood.
Apply a suitable coating system formulated for wood surfaces.

Wood starting to rot and split resulting in paint flaking off.

161
 Runs
also known as Sags or described as Curtains

Runs and sags which appear on vertical surfaces when excessive thickness of paint or
over thinned paint has been applied. The paint drains downwards forming runs, tears
and sags. In severe cases these may be described as curtains.

The usual cause is over application of paint, use of excessive thinners, wrong (lack) of
curing agent or just poor workmanship. In extreme circumstances these could be caused
by a formulation problem.

Repair: While the paint is still wet, brush out runs and sags. When the paint has dried
and adequately hardened abrade and clean defective areas and apply an overall
coat or spot repair, as necessary.

Runs and sags due to paint applied excessively thick and not brushed out.

162
Runs, sags and wrinkles due to paint applied excessively thick and not brushed out.

Wrinkled paint and runs and drips.

163
 Runs caused by over application of paint.

Courtesy of Hempel Sags due to over thinning of top coat.

164
Rust Spotting
also referred to as Rash Rusting

Fine spots of rust which appear on a paint film, usually when the coating is below the
recommended thickness. Rust spotting can be found on a primed surface which has
been left for too long before overcoating. This frequently starts as localised spotting
but can rapidly spread all over the surface. The prime cause is low film thickness and
pinholes in the coating.

Too great a surface profile may cause penetration of peaks through a paint film and
cause rust spotting. Metallic dust from grinding and cutting processes which falls onto
the surface of a paint film and corrodes shows as rust spotting.

Repair: Surface contamination can be removed by light abrasion and reapplication of

the topcoat.

Where rust spotting or rash rusting is due to thin coating, that is corrosion of
the substrate is the cause rust spotting, then abrade or blast clean surface and
recoat. Spot repairs may be possible for small or localised areas.

Numerous rust spots on the surface of a thin paint film.

165
 Rust spotting through a thin coating on the underside of a deck caused by condensation.

Rust spotting through a somewhat porous polyester coating system.

166
Rust spotting and rash rusting on steel piles due to insufficient coating thickness.

Rash rusting and rust spotting through a thin coating system.

167
 Rust Staining
Brown staining and runs on the surface of the paint caused by the precipitation of
ferrous oxide. This may be purely a surface effect or staining may penetrate deeper into
the coating. Staining results from water run-off from a rusty surface above a soundly
coated surface. It is usually more of an eye sore than a defect. The coating itself may not
be defective, only surface stained.

Where the staining penetrates the coating, the depth of staining may only become
apparent when a cross-section through the coating is examined.

Repair: Remove surface staining by lightly abrading the surface and apply further
undercoats and topcoat, as necessary. Rust staining will reappear unless the
source of the corrosion is removed or treated.

Where the rust staining has penetrated the coating then the coating may
require removal or at least flash blast cleaning until a sound stain free surface is
reached. Then reapply the same or improved coating system.

Surface rust staining.

168
Courtesy of Hempel Rust staining from damaged coating on the hull of a ship.

200 µm
Rust staining penetrating the coating from both top and bottom.

169
 200 µm
Rust staining which has just penetrated into the topcoat.

200 µm
Rust staining from cargo contamination in a bulk carrier.

170
 Rust staining from edge damage.

Rust staining from different cargo lines.

171
 Section S

Settlement
Settlement is used to describe the situation where pigments and solid particulate extenders
sink to the bottom of the can forming a solid mass. This can happen during paint storage.
Settlement may also occur after mixing and during application where heavy pigments and
fillers are used. Settlement can result in different colours in different areas.

Old stock, heavily pigmented paint; wrong formulation or contamination of product;

addition of excessive thinners can all lead to this problem. It can be a particular problem
with zinc rich primers during storage. To overcome such problems the paint should
be used within its recommended shelf life, thoroughly mixed before use and only the
recommended amount of thinners added. It may also be necessary to keep the paint
mixed and recirculated during spray application.

If a patchy finished appearance occurs as a result of settlement the affected coating will
need to be removed and reapplied, taking precautions against settlement.

Both cans show where pigment has settled to leave a thin solution of binder relatively
free from pigment.

172
Settlement of the zinc pigment in a zinc primer in a 25 litre drum after a few weeks storage.
Very thorough mechanical mixing is necessary to re-disperse the pigment prior to the
addition of the hardener or curing agent. Note the clear binder solution above the pigment.

173
 Solvent Blisters
Repair: Remove all blistered and defective coating and thoroughly degrease. This
may mean completely stripping back to the substrate. If the existing coating
can be abraded back to a sound surface then an appropriate tie-coat can be
applied followed by the full coating system. However, it is essential to check any
additional paint coats for complete compatibility with the old paint system

Solvent blistering and lifting caused by application of a modern polyurethane coating

over a traditional Alkyd paint film.

174
Solvent Lifting
see also Wrinkling

Wrinkling and blistering of a paint coating resulting in a weak surface and ultimately
breakdown of the coating. Can be caused by the use of incompatible paint systems
and topcoats with a strong solvent blend which attacks the previous coat. Overcoating
before the previous coat has adequately hardened will produce this effect.

This effect is used with paint strippers to soften and swell the coating and make it easier
to remove.

Repair: Remove all wrinkled, blistered and defective coating. Abrade, clean and recoat
with correct coating system, following the recommended overcoating times.

Solvent wrinkling and lifting of an Alkyd paint film.

175
 Solvent Popping
Solvent (clear) bubbles on the surface of the paint film soon after application. This can
result from the use of incorrect solvent blends (thinners), porous surfaces and wrong
environmental conditions. Incorrect gun setting, spraying too fast allowing excessive
film build trapping solvents which then cause popping as solvent escapes.

Another cause can be poor surface cleanliness and preparation. Ensure the surface is
degreased.

Repair: Once the coating is hard and dry, lightly abrade the surface to remove
all marks, indentations etc., clean the surface and re-apply the specified
undercoat/topcoat.

Solvent popping.

176
SRB Corrosion (Sulphate Reducing Bacteria)
Sulphate reducing bacteria can attack a coating exposing the steel substrate with
the resulting corrosion of the steel. This can show as clean ‘silvery’ steel surface and
substantial corrosion pitting.

Repair: Abrasive blast clean to remove all damaged coating and recoat with a more
resistant system.

Corrosion pitting of barge hull caysed by SRB attack.

Extensive SRB pitting corrosion through 6 mm thick steel plate.

177
 The same pitted steel plate after coating.

178
Stainless Steel Corrosion
Stainless steel exposed to the atmosphere is normally considered to be resistant to
corrosion but when coated with a poorly adherent coating system corrosion under
the coating can occur. This is because the poorly adherent coating allows a moisture
film to be retained under the coating resulting in corrosion of the stainless steel by a
mechanism similar to ‘crevice’ or ‘poltice’ corrosion. Once the coating flakes off, corrosion
generally stops.

Repair: Stainless steel is always difficult to achieve good adhesion of paint films therefore
the surface needs to be very thorough degreased and preferably lightly abraded,
before application of a suitable coating and one with proven success.

Corrosion on stainless steel under a paint coating.

179
 Stress Cracks in Coating
Coatings applied both externally and internally to pipelines and pressure vessels can
fail by cracking if the coating is insufficiently elastic to withstand the stresses imposed
on the coating. These cracks may be radially on dish ends or longitudinally on pipes and
vessel walls. Similar cracks may be found on flat steel sheet where the coating is too
rigid to withstand the flexing of the steel. The cause is that the coating system is too
rigid (inflexible) to withstand the stresses applied during pressure testing or in service.

All coating systems should be tested for performance under the known conditions of
pressure and temperature prior to application, and in particular for tensile strength and
percentage elongation at break (strain) before use. Coatings with elevated temperature
performance are inevitably rigid and somewhat brittle. To prevent failure a more flexible
coating system and one which has greater elongation (strain) under stress needs to be
applied. Also, apply the coating system after the pressure vessel / pipeline has been
pressure tested – if practical. This can reduce but not eliminate the likelihood of failure of
the coating under test but not necessarily in use.

Repair: Remove the cracked coating and replace with a more suitable system. This may
present problems where high temperature performance is required.

Stress cracks in glass flake coating.

180
Stress cracks in an external pipeline coating highlighted with dye penetrant.

Stress cracks in glass flake coating highlighted with red dye penetrant.

181
 Stripe Coat
It is normally recommended that all sharp edges are radiused and welds and heavily
pitted areas are brush coated with a stripe coat before application of the complete
system to ensure full wetting of the surface by the coating system. Without a stripe
coat, the coating system can creep back from edges, leave pinholes etc. These areas
can then show as holidays when checked later for coating integrity. The photograph
shows a black stripe coat applied to welds and pitted areas on the hull of a ship. Often
it is recommended that a stripe coat is applied with each coat of a paint coating system.

Repair: If welds, edges and pitted areas show holidays after the full coating system has
been applied, apply a further stripe coat and top coat, provided the overcoating
time has not been exceeded, otherwise lightly flash blast to roughen the topcoat
to ensure good adhesion of the stripe coat and subsequent coats. More than
one stripe coat may be necessary to ensure adequate coverage.

Black stripe coat brush applied to welds and pitted areas.

182
A red stripe coat applied to the primer steel surface.

183
 Surface Profile
Examination of the underside of coating samples and top surface of steel coupons under
low magnification e.g. x30 to x50 can reveal the surface profile to which the coating has
been applied.

With steel coupons the coating can be removed by high pressure water blasting or
solvent stripping. Where corrosion has caused coating failure, treatment of the corroded
underside of paint flakes with hydrochloric acid can dissolve the corrosion product to
reveal a mirror image of the surface profile to which the coating was applied. Various
examples are shown below and on the next three pages.

1 mm
Coating mostly stripped off a steel substrate by solvent. This shows a well prepared
steel surface and good coating adhesion.

184
 1 mm
Coating removed from a corroded substrate. No primer was present. Low surface profile.

1 mm
Coating removed from a corroded substrate. Green coloured primer – good surface profile.

185
 1 mm
Coating removed from a corroded substrate. Red coloured primer – good surface profile.

1 mm
Coating removed from a repair area showing a wire brushed surface.

186
 1 mm
Coating removed from a repair area showing a wire brushed surface.

1 mm
Cursory surface preparation.

187
 Section T

Tackiness
Sometimes a paint film remains soft and tacky or slightly sticky after it is apparently ‘dry’
or fully cured. This may only be apparent on touching the surface. Fibres from clothing
and dust particles will adhere to this tacky surface. Reasons for this include over thickness;
excessive thinners; wrong (lack of ) curing agent; low drying/curing temperature; use of
coating beyond its pot life or shelf life.

The photograph included below shows fibres picked up and adhering to a tacky paint
surface before the paint had fully dried.

Repair: Remove defective coating. Abrade, clean and recoat ensuring the paint is
correctly mixed and applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

Fibres adhering to a tacky paint film.

188
Tannin Staining
Brownish or Tan staining can occur when certain types of wood such as redwood, cedar
and mahogany are painted with light colours. Similarly staining can occur where knots
in other wood species are painted without application of an appropriate sealer such as
shellac or knotting compound. This is due to migration of tannins from the wood into
and through the paint film.

Repair: Strip the existing stained paint off and apply an appropriate sealer coat prior
to repainting.

Suitable sealer coats are oil-based or acrylic latex primers. In the worst cases
two coats of primer may be needed.

Knots can be treated with a shellac based knotting compound.

Tannins and resins exuding from a knot, staining and causing cracks in the paint.

189
 Section U

Under Cured Coating

Distortion and tearing of the coating caused by assembly of the flange faces while the
coating was under cured and still too soft. Ensure the coating system is fully dry, hard and
fully cured in the case of a 2-pack system, before any pressure is applied to the coating.

Repair: Carefully abrade the raised and damaged areas and recoat as necessary.

Torn and distorted epoxy coating where the flange assembly was
bolted together while the coating was undercured and soft.

190
Undercutting
Undercutting of a coating occurs when moisture and hence corrosion creeps under a
paint film causing it to lift from the substrate. In severe cases this can show as blistering,
flaking, cracks and rust along edges etc. Any damage to a coating, including pinholes
through a coating, can provide access for moisture to penetrate under a coating,
particularly at edges and where a coating is applied to an already corroded substrate.
Undercutting can also occur in areas of poor design or poor access where inadequate
surface preparation and coating thickness has been applied. Rust creep can also result
from a lack of maintenance.

Examination of the back surface of paint flakes which have peeled off often shows a
pattern of different coloured lines reflecting the gradual penetration of moisture under
the coating. As corrosion product builds up it expands and pushes further coating off
causing greater disbonding.

Some examples are shown below and on the next page.

Repair: Spot repair localised areas. Clean areas back to sound uncorroded substrate
and then apply a suitable repair coating following the coating manufacturer’s
recommendations.

Pattern of corrosion on the back of a paint flake

showing how corrosion creep has progressed.

191
 Circular corrosion undercut pattern surrounding a pinhole in the coating.

Corrosion undercutting with a pipeline coating.

192
Varnish (Wood)
Can be described as a transparent, hard protective coating mainly used for wood finishing
and protection but also used on other materials. Traditional varnishes are based on a
solution of natural resin and drying oils in a solvent. Modern varnishes, whilst some are
still based on traditional materials, also now include phenolic, epoxy, polyurethane and
acrylic resin systems.

Varnishes are available with a high gloss finish, satin finish and a matt finish, and clear or
coloured, mostly to simulate or enhance natural wood colours although blue, green and
other colours are available.

Traditional drying oils include linseed oil, tung oil and walnut oil, all of which contain
high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids to enable them to ‘dry’ or cross-link. These
have been combined with natural resins such as copal, rosin, balsam and other natural
tree resins and also shellac. Turpentine was frequently used as the solvent and thinner
although alcohol was used for some resins. More modern solvents are frequently
petroleum based and include white spirit, a turpentine substitute and water but still
include alcohol, natural turpentine.

Numerous varnish formulations exist based on combinations of resins, drying oils, gums,
waxes etc. depending on the required properties of the varnish and whether it is for
interior or exterior use. Likewise, drying times can vary from about 20 minutes up to
several days for the more traditional varnishes.

Although formulations have been developed over many years to improve performance
and stability of varnishes, defects still occur from time-to-time. Here we detail some of
the defects which may be encountered with varnishes in general. Whilst some defects
are specific to varnishes, some are similar to defects found with paint coatings.

Varnish Defects

Whilst some common defects are illustrated here, this is by no means an exhaustive list
of possible defects. Those discussed here are:-

Alligatoring, Bitty, Blisters, Bloom, Brittleness, Brush Marks, Cracking, Crawling, Crazing,
Discoloration, Deadening, Flaking, Milky, Peeling, Pinholes, Runs and Sags, Scratches,
Seedy, Shrivelling, Skinning, Spotting, Sweating-up, Tacky, Water marks, Wrinkling.

193
 Alligatoring

The wrinkled finish which resembles the skin of a crocodile or alligator – see also
wrinkling.

Bitty

Dust, lumps of broken ‘skin’ and other foreign particles which contaminate the varnish
film and protrude from the surface. This can include particles of dried varnish on brush
hairs which break off and remain embedded in the varnish film.

Always use a fresh, thoroughly clean or new brush; avoid application in a dusty
atmosphere; ensure that any skin on the surface of the varnish in the can is carefully
removed and strain the varnish before use.

Varnish skin embedded in clear varnish coat. Mag. approx. x10

194
 Gelled varnish particle embedded in a clear varnish coat. Mag. approx. x10

Blisters

Blisters can arise under varnish applied to timber which has not thoroughly dried out before
being varnished, particularly if this is subsequently exposed to sunlight. The heat from the
sun causes the moisture in the wood to evaporate and cause blistering of the varnish.

Similarly, isocyanate cured one or two pack varnishes can blister if applied to wood
which has not been completely dried.

Single pack varnish over wood with a high moisture content. When exposed to sunlight
the wood has heated up and ‘pushed’ the varnish off the surface.
Courtesy of Akzo Nobel

195
 Isocyanate based polyurethane varnish applied over wood with a high moisture content.
Courtesy of Akzo Nobel

Bloom

This appears as a white foggy appearance on the surface of the varnish under cold damp
conditions, often as a result of poor ventilation and air movement.

Brittleness
see Brittleness P54

Brush Marks

Parallel lines which show up on the surface when the varnish dries resulting from brush
application. These can occur if the varnish is too cold or too old to flow out properly.

Cracking

Cracks occur when the varnish breaks due to over thickness; a rapid change in
temperature; an inelastic varnish; a cheap first coat. Cracked varnishes generally need to
be stripped off and reapplied.

196
Crawling

The varnish fails to flow out and wet the surface. This can occur if the surface is too
cold, too glossy, has a moisture or grease film on the surface, and, if the previous varnish
surface has sweated. Oil present in the wood can cause varnish to crawl over the surface
rather than thoroughly wetting the surface. Finger marks on the surface can also cause
this problem.

Crazing

A pattern of fine cracks which appear to be within the varnish film rather than on the
surface. This can result from a sudden change in temperature overnight. This can often
occur with cars left overnight in a cold garage or driven in freezing weather causing the
metal surface to contract more than the varnish – the result crazing of the varnish.

Discoloration

The gradual darkening and yellowing which can occur with some clear, colourless
varnishes. An alcoholic solution of shellac if stored for too long in a tin can turn black or
greenish black.

Deadening

This described a glossy varnish which has lost its gloss, often through absorption of the
varnish into underlying coats such as black Japan or colour coats. Reds, greens and blues
used as undercoats can cause the varnish topcoat to lose its gloss. It can also occur if
varnish is applied to unseasoned wood where it sinks in.

Flaking

Degreasing between coats (after sanding) with non-recommended cleaners can lead to
detachment as shown.

Courtesy of Akzo Nobel Varnish film flaking off.

197
 Milky

Varnish has a milky opaque appearance due to moisture adsorption during application
under high humidity conditions or application to damp wood.

Peeling

This is where one coat of varnish disbonds from the underlying coat through lack
of adequate surface preparation and/or contamination of the surface with non-
recommended cleaners – See also flaking.

Pinholes

Pinholes form in the varnish film when trapped air bubbles burst and the varnish film
fails to flow and coalesce around them. Can be caused by air entrained into the varnish
when mixed, particularly if the varnish is too cold when mixed and applied.

Runs and Sags

Runs and sags appear when the varnish has been applied over thickness on vertical
surfaces. The excess varnish runs down the surface in an uneven pattern and can lead to
a shrivelled or wrinkled surface as the varnish dries.

Courtesy of Akzo Nobel Runs and sags.

Scratches

Uneven rubbing down between coats followed by poor application of the next coat of
varnish can result in scratches showing through the final coat.

198
Courtesy of Akzo Nobel Poorly polished 2 pack varnish – sand scratches are still visible.

Seedy

An effect caused when a varnish has been kept too cold, applied in too cold an
atmosphere or become chilled after application. See also Bitty where particles of varnish
skin become embedded in the surface.

Skinning

Skinning occurs when the varnish top surface dries and hardens too rapidly leaving
solvents present in the bulk of the coat. Then as the solvent continues to evaporate from
the bulk it shrinks causing the top skin to wrinkle. Skinning also occurs on the surface of
varnish in the tin after it has been opened and subsequently sealed and stored. Breaking
the skin up and stirring it into the varnish can then give rise to a bitty surface.

199
 Sweating

Sweating or Sweating-up of a vanish can result when a gloss varnish is rubbed down to
a dull finish. This can change back into a greasy gloss – sweating. This can occur when
the underlying coats of varnish have not sufficiently dried, particularly with varnishes
which contain a high proportion of oil. It can also occur if the topcoat gloss varnish has
not sufficiently hardened before being rubbed down.

Tacky

If a varnish is applied at too low a temperature, under high humidity or poor ventilation
conditions is can dry too slowly, or even fail to dry, leaving a tacky surface.

UV exposure

Excessive UV exposure on poorly polished surface.

(note the area normally under the hatch is still glossy)
Courtesy of Akzo Nobel

200
Water marks

Marks left on the surface of a varnish which do not wash off. These can be caused by wet
objects, such as flower vases, standing on the surface which will not wash off. It can also
apply to varnish which has been exposed to water splashes too soon after application.
With single pack varnishes, marks can sometimes be removed by rubbing over the spots
with linseed oil and allowing to stand for 24 hours. This may need repeating several
times to be effective.

Wrinkling

Wrinkling can be caused by over application of a varnish coat when the outer surface
dries faster than the underside, resulting in a skin forming on the surface. Then as the
thinners evaporate from the bulk causing it to shrink, the outer skin has become too
rigid and shrinks into wrinkles.

Wrinkled varnish.

201
 Yellowing of clear varnish exposed to sunlight.

202
Voids in Coatings
When a coating system is applied over thickness this can result in air entrainment and
excessive voids in the coating. Examples are shown below and on the next two pages.
The presence of voids can sometimes lead to greater water permeability and premature
coating failure.

Repair: Abrasive blast clean or abrade the coating to remove all suspect coating and
recoat taking care to avoid air entrainment.

1 mm
Numerous voids in an over thick white topcoat.

100 µm
Numerous voids found in a swimming pool coating topcoat.
The primer was a zinc epoxy coating (shown below the blue coat).
The white circular particles are zinc particles.
203
 100 µm
Voids in a red topcoat. The black roughly circular marks are where voids have burst.

200 µm
Voids found in the top two coats of a three coat epoxy glassflake coating system.

204
Glassflake polyester paint flake with numerous interconnected voids giving a
porous coating.

205
 Section W

Water Damage – Rain Spotting

With all exterior painting and coating operations there is always the risk of rain falling
onto the paint before it has fully hardened. This can cause a variety of different effects
depending on the hardness of the paint at the time, the duration and intensity of the
rainfall. Each can result in a different effect on the paint.

In each case the only means of effective rectification or repair is to abrade or remove the
damaged paintwork and recoat.

A heavy thunderstorm caused water to flow down the side of the ship shortly after
application of the black paint coat causing the effect shown.

206
Repairs: In most cases the damage surface needs to be abraded to a sound, undamaged
surface and the system reapplied. With flooring it may be necessary to reapply
a full top sealcoat.

Rain falling onto the wet paint caused it to flake off.

Rain falling onto the wet paint caused it to flake off.

207
 Rain spotting caused by rain falling on wet, an uncured paint surface. These marks
remain visible after the water has evaporated and the paint fully dried or cured.

Damage can also be caused by leaks in a roof falling onto freshly laid resin floor or
through a ceiling causing staining to emulsion paint.

Repairs: Any patch repair to the floor will undoubtedly be visible, therefore a complete
application of a seal coat may be necessary.

With water staining of emulsion paint on a ceiling, application of a non-water

based seal coat will be necessary prior to reapplication of the emulsion paint.

208
Weld Seam Cracks and Corrosion
When welds are not prepared sufficiently to provide an adequate surface profile the
coating can crack and flake off resulting in corrosion along the weld. Cracks can also
result from over thickness of the paint coating which is then not sufficiently flexible to
withstand flexing.

Repair: Remove all loose and damaged coating, abrasive blast clean to provide a
suitable blast profile and recoat ensuring the weld is adequately stripe coated.

Cracked coating along a weld seam due to inadequate surface profile.

Courtesy of Hempel

209
 Inadequate surface preparation resulting in weld seam crack of the coating and corrosion.
Courtesy of Hempel

Glass flake coating cracked and disbonded over a weld seam.

210
Wrinkling
also Rivelling (see also Crow’s foot)

The development of wrinkles in the paint film during drying usually due to the initial
formation of a surface skin with solvent based paints. This happens where the paint
is applied over the recommended thickness. As the solvent evaporates from the bulk
coating causing it to shrink the skin wrinkles to accommodate this shrinkage. Too rapid
application of the next coat before the first coat has adequately hardened can result in
one or both coats developing wrinkles. In this case solvent attack causes swelling and
subsequent wrinkling of the coating.

Repair: Once the coating has adequately hardened it can be rubbed down and recoated.
Alternatively, remove the wrinkled coating and reapply.

Wrinkled coating.

211
 Wrinkled coating.

212
Section Y

Yellowing
Yellowing of clear and white coloured paint finishes can occur due to weathering, UV
degradation or wrong choice of hardener or activator with two-pack paints. It can be found
with clearcoat car finishes when the wrong or contaminated hardener has been used.

Repair: Once the finish coat has sufficiently dried and hardened, lightly sand or abrade
the surface and reapply the finish coat using a correctly formulated product.

Yellowing of white paint protected from sunlight.

Yellowing of a clear Overseal exposed to daylight.

213
 Section Z

Zinc Rich Primer

Zinc rich primers are used as alternative to hot dipped galvanising in many applications.
When corrosion of the steel substrate occurs under a zinc rich primer the cause of failure
frequently needs to be determined. Examination of a cross-section through coating
samples at high magnification will give such information as primer thickness, surface
preparation and depletion of zinc. The latter will indicate whether or not the primer has
performed as expected.

Repair: Blast clean the surface to remove all coating and corrosion products, ensure the
surface is free from all debris dust and other contamination and reapply the full
coating system.

200 µm

A multicoat system showing an intact zinc rich primer with a corrosion layer
under it. The primer layer is more or less flat showing that there was no detectable
surface preparation.

214
 100 µm
A zinc rich primer layer (pink) showing substantial depletion of zinc where the primer
has performed as expected.

215
 100 µm
A zinc rich primer with corrosion product adhering to the underside.
Here some depletion of zinc is apparent at the steel primer interface.

200 µm
A fracture through the coating showing rust staining penetration between the topcoat
layers. The zinc rich primer had failed in shear leaving some intact primer on the steel
surface. No depletion of zinc is apparent.

216
 200 µm
Negligible surface preparation, a very thin zinc primer layer and heavy rust corrosion
under the primer. No depletion of zinc is apparent.

False colour (cameo) image of a zinc rich primer showing Zinc particles coloured orange
(1); Magnesium silicate dark green/brown (6).
Courtesy of ERA Ltd.

217
 False colour (cameo) image of a zinc rich primer showing Zinc particles coloured – orange
(1); Zinc oxide/chloride – Light green (2); Silica – dark green (3); Steel (iron) – Blue.
Courtesy of ERA Ltd.

False colour (cameo) image of a zinc rich primer showing oxidation – corrosion of the zinc
particles protecting the steel substrate. Zinc particles are coloured – orange (4); Zinc oxide/
chloride – Light green (1); Zinc oxide (no chlorine) – dull orange (2); Silica – dark green (3).
Courtesy of ERA Ltd.

218
False colour SEM cameo image – Cross-section through a zinc rich primer sample showing:

a) silica particles – Red

b) Iron phosphide – Blue
c) Barium sulphate – Green

219
 Cross-section through a coating sample showing: Courtesy of ERA Ltd.

a) silica particles – Red

b) Iron phosphide – Blue
c) Barium sulphate – Green

220
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Roger G Weatherhead BSc, MRSC, MIMMM, ACS
Roger graduated from Queen Mary College, University of London in
Chemistry in 1962 and joined Yarsley Research Laboratories Limited,
a company carrying out sponsored research on all aspects of plastic
technology. His prime task was mainly epoxy resin technology. He
later joined Laminor Limited, a company specialising in the application
of epoxy and polyester resin GRP laminated for the repair water
reservoirs, crude and refined oil storage tanks, application of coating
systems for corrosion protection to a wide variety of structures. He
subsequently joined Shell Research Ltd on technical service dealing
with epoxy resin technology including the use of these resins for GRP,
carbon fibre and electrical laminated and many other applications.

When Shell Research decided to transfer to the Netherlands, he decided to launch himself as a resin
Consultant. Here he rapidly became involved with major epoxy and polyester resin coating failures
on North Sea gas platforms, and pipeline, and super tankers for crude oil. This gradually developed
into investigation into the causes of coating failure on both large and small structures, including
leisure craft of various sizes. Many of these projects have involved litigation, although most have
been settled out of court.

Part of this work has been as an associate with Lithgow Associates, Corrosion Consultants. Over
the years he has amassed a large quantity of photographs of coating failures. Because of this it was
decided, in collaboration with Peter Morgan to write this book.

Peter G Morgan
For over 50 years Peter has experienced a wide and varied career.
Having left school at fifteen and a half to join the British Merchant Navy
initially with the Shipping Federation and then with Esso Petroleum as
a marine engineer, he left the sea to go back to College in Cardiff to
study English Law and Economics.

He then went to Germany to live for a period of 8 years working for

Flexibox. Camrex Torpedo Marine Paints and Texaco, primarily involved
in Paint Inspection on shipbuilding and ship repair, progressing into
technical service, trouble shooting and failure analysis. His specialisation
areas are marine coatings, tank linings, paint failures and inspection.

He returned to the UK to join Solus Schall to head up their Paint Inspection and Consultancy
Department supporting some 36 overseas offices, their 150+ paint inspection personnel, together
with their subsequent diverse paint/corrosion operations.

He was one of the founder Trainers and Peer of the Internationally recognised NACE USA - Coating
Inspection and Certification Programme. He subsequently joined Lithgow Associates in 1986 and
is currently their Managing Partner. He administers on behalf of the UK Department of Trade &
Industry “National Corrosion Advisory Service Helpline”.

During his career he has undertaken work in some 79 different countries. Has acted to give an
Independent determination/Adjudication on a 300million US$ Superyacht Coating Dispute. Has
been involved with the development of new ISO standards as UK Expert on following committees –
ISO/CD 11347, ISO-TC35/SC1 and TC 32 and SC8.

Peter was elected President of the International Institute of Marine Surveying from 2010-2012.

221
“What a MARINE SURVEYOR
NEEDS TO know ABOUT...”
The growing series of IIMS self help handy guides

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Small Craft, Ship & Boat-Building Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jeffrey Casciani-Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . £30.00 . . . . . . 978-1-911058-01-4
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Small Craft Engine Surveys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elliott Berry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . £27.00 . . . . . . 978-1-911058-11-3
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Surveying Sails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ian Nicolson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . £20.00 . . . . . . 978-1-911058-16-8
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Protective coatings...
Most metals found in nature exist in their stable
oxidised form as oxides, carbonates, silicates,
sulphates, sulphides and chlorides. These are refined to
produce the various metals used today; however, since
they are more stable in their oxidised form they try to
revert to this state. We try to prevent this corrosion process
by the application of coatings of many different types – organic, inorganic
and metallic.
In this handy guide, the authors take readers through an
A-Z of specific words, phrases and jargon giving clear
advice on how to spot and rectify issues. There are
also examples of coating materials, how the finished
product should look and photographs to illustrate
some of the faults and defects which may be
encountered in their use.

Roger and Peter mention some of the different

examination and analytical techniques,
from simple observation through to
sophisticated analysis that is used to
determine the causes of coating failures. Techniques
include coating thickness measurements, optical and
electron microscopy, EDX analysis and FTIR (Fourier
Transform Infra Red Spectroscopy). Ultrasonic techniques
can be used to determine metal thicknesses and metal
loss due to corrosion.

What A Marine Surveyor Needs To Know About Paint

Failure, Corrosion And Rectification by Peter Morgan and Roger
Weatherhead is an essential companion that any surveyor should have as part
of their reference collection.

Published by the
International Institute
of Marine Surveying
Murrills House,
48 East Street,
Portchester,
Hampshire,
PO16 9XS, UK iims.org.uk