Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

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Sustainable Cities and Society

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A hybrid domed roof and evaporative cooling system: thermal comfort and
building energy evaluation
Ali Mirzazade Akbarpoor a, Zoleikha Moghtader Gilvaei b, Amin Haghighi Poshtiri b,
Lexuan Zhong a, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 street NW, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1H9
b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran, P.O. Box 3756

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Domed roof and evaporative cooling channel as feasible passive cooling techniques have been investigated
Natural ventilation independently in numerous studies. In the present study, a novel system involving the two techniques simul­
domed roof taneously for meeting comfort conditions was proposed. To this end, 3D CFD simulations of airflow inside and
vaulted roof
around a 64-m2 test building with four domes were carried out. Subsequently, the thermal performance of the
passive cooling system
system was modeled with a computer code. Effects of both geometric and environmental parameters on the
system performance were assessed. The obtained results indicated that the dome’s diameter and the dimensions
of the cooling channel affect the performance of the system significantly. Also, the proposed system in the present
study could supply the required amount of air change per hour (ACH) when the wind velocity is between 0.8 to
3.2 m/s. Furthermore, considering ATCS (adaptive thermal comfort standard), the system provided thermal
comfort under a maximum cooling demand of about 112 W/m2. Finally, the energy metric and environmental
analyses were carried out to compare conventional cooling equipment with the introduced system and four
different hybrid systems of domed/vaulted roofs proposed in the literature in terms of the energy consumption
and the emission production.

1. Introduction
In the present day world, economic globalization has contributed to
an increase in the concentration of population in urban regions, espe­
cially in developing countries (Wei et al., 2021). Such a large-scale
migration to urban areas significantly affects energy consumption,
particularly in the residential sector (Qi, Ding and Lim, 2021). Gener­
ally, buildings are responsible for consuming 40% of energy-related
carbon emissions (Ran and Tang, 2018). Conventional HVAC (heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning) technologies were used to keep the
indoor air temperature within strictly defined ranges. However, the high
energy demands of these systems, especially during extreme weather
conditions, questioned their energy efficiency (Nematchoua, Sadeghi
and Reiter, 2021). Hence, the development and utilization of cooling
and heating technologies with reduced energy consumption is of great
importance. Natural ventilation systems have been proposed as the al­
ternatives for the mechanical air conditioning devices, in which venti­
lation is conducted by natural forces (i.e., wind or temperature gradient)
and the temperature is kept within the safe and comfortable ranges.
These systems are reliable, energy-efficient, and low-maintenance cost
systems (Wang and Malkawi, 2019). Therefore, whenever natural
ventilation systems can improve indoor air quality and lower energy
consumption, replacing the conventional mechanical systems with nat­
ural ventilators is highly recommended.
The application of the natural ventilation systems dates back to a
long time ago; wind catchers in Iran, Egypt, Pakistan, and also domed-
roof houses in the hot desert regions, especially in the Middle East,
can be mentioned as examples of ancient natural ventilation usage
(Khalili and Amindeldar, 2014). This study aims to investigate the
buildings with domed/vaulted roofs. Not only are domed/vaulted roofs
aesthetically pleasing, but they are also valuable for natural ventilation
and passive cooling (Mirzazade Akbarpoor, Haghighi Poshtiri and
Biglari, May 2021). Residents of hot and arid regions of the Middle East
have adapted themselves to the harsh climate conditions. In these re­
gions, the indoor air temperature will be non-tolerably high on sunny
summer days, mainly because of absorbing solar radiation by the walls
and roofs, the direct solar heat, and the direct glare from openings

* Corresponding author: Lexuan Zhong, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta
E-mail address: lexuan.zhong@ualberta.ca (L. Zhong).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103756
Received 11 September 2021; Received in revised form 19 December 2021; Accepted 2 February 2022
Available online 4 February 2022
2210-6707/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

Nomenclature Y∗ dimensionless wall coordinate

z Cartesian coordinate (m)
A heat transfer area, or, wetted area (m2 ) Z height of the inlet air vent (m)
ACH air change per hour (h− 1 )
Greek symbols
b width of the Cooling channel in y direction (m)
α thermal diffusivity (m2 /s)
CP specific heat capacity (J/kg K)
Γ diffusion coefficient
d height of the computational domain (m), or, the air gap
depth of the evaporative cooling channel (m) ε Turbulence dissipation rate (m2 /s3 )
Eannual total annual energy saving of the system compared to a μ dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
conventional system (kW h /yr) μCO2 emission conversion factor (kg/kW h)
e effectiveness μt turbulent viscosity (Pa s)
fi external body force in i-direction (N/m3 ) ν kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2 ) ρ density (kg/m3 )
H specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) ϕ scalar property (k or ε)
Hfg specific enthalpy of vaporization (kJ/kg) ω humidity ratio
ha convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) Dimensionless terms
hm mass transfer coefficient (kg/s m2 ) Le Lewis number (α/DAB )
k thermal conductivity (W/m K), or, turbulence kinetic Nu Nusselt number (ha Ly /ka )
energy (m2 /s2 ) Pr Prandtl number (CP μ/k)
Lx width of the cooled wall (m) Re Reynolds number (uLy /ν)
Ly height of the cooled wall (m)
m mass flow rate (kg/s) Subscripts
mtcer total quality of CO2 emission reduction (kg) a air
P pressure (Pa) amb ambient
Q heat transfer (W) in inlet
Qt buildings cooling demand (W) la latent
RH relative humidity m moist air
Sϕ user-defined source terms in Eq. (4) out outlet
T temperature (K) sat saturated
Tr average air temperature of the buildings (K) se sensible
u velocity (m/s) w water
U∗ dimensionless velocity wb wet bulb
W diameter of domed roof aperture (m) wf water film
x, y Cartesian coordinate (m) wv water vapor
Yp distance from point P to wall

(Mahmoud, Ghanem and Sodoudi, September 2020). Domed and
vaulted roofs are a solution to decline the solar heat absorption in these
regions. Curved roofs can also increase the air velocity thanks to their
specific geometry, elevating the convection heat transfer coefficient.
Moreover, the heat transfer of these roofs can be incremented as their
surfaces are more extensive than their flat counterparts. In an early
study by Bahadori and Haghighat (Bahadori and Haghighat, 1985), the
natural ventilation of domed roof buildings was studied. Using flow
network analysis, they reported an increase in airflow rate inside the
building by using the domed roof. Rahmatmand et al. (Rahmatmand,
Yaghoubi, Rad and Tavakol, 2014) experimentally and numerically
analyzed the airflow patterns of buildings with domed roofs. First, they
evaluated a domed-roof model with a roof aperture and six windows on
a scale of 1:54 within a wind tunnel. Then, the turbulent flow was
three-dimensionally simulated, demonstrating complex recirculation
flow formation in the vicinity of domed-roof buildings. They also re­
ported that the aperture had an acceptable coefficient of discharge,
providing thermal comfort and reducing energy consumption.
Gomez-Munoz et al. (Gómez-Muñoz, Porta-Gándara and Heard,
2003) developed a computer program to compare the energy perfor­
mance of a domed roof with that of a flat roof. It was observed that the
energy received by the domed roof between the equinoxes is about 35%
less compared to that of the flat roof. Furthermore, the domed roof
achieves a much better comfort condition by increasing the height of the
test room and, consequently, indoor air volume. The effect of solar ra­
diations and wind flows on the thermal performance of curved roof
buildings has been investigated by Hadavand and Yaghoubi (Hadavand,
Yaghoubi and Emdad, 2008). RNG k − ε method was used for modeling
the turbulence, and a suitable model was applied to hot arid regions of
Iran to determine the solar radiation distributions over the roofs.
Analyzing the heat transfer and airflow pattern over vaulted-roof and
flat-roof buildings revealed that vaulted roofs provide a more satisfac­
tory thermal condition compared to flat-roofed buildings during the
night and early morning, leading to the use of these types of roofs in hot
arid regions.
Asfour (Asfour, 2009) studied the impacts of architectural styles of
mosques on their thermal performance using the Ecotect software.
Comparing flat roofs and domed roofs in hot and dry climates, he
concluded that dome-roofed mosques are better choices in comparison
with flat-roofed mosques because of 30% fewer discomfort degree hours
(DDH) which is due to the reduced exposure to the incident solar radi­
ations as a result of the domed roof’s shades. Faghih and Bahadori
(Faghih and Bahadori, 2011) assessed the performance of domed-roof
buildings for reducing the room temperature in summer and
concluded the priority of domed roof buildings, especially with the
glazed tiles. Finally, deploying computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
Mahdavinejad and Javanroodi (Mahdavinejad and Javanroodi, 2016)
studied the impacts of various roof shapes, including domed roof,
vaulted roof, pitched, and flat roof, on pressure distribution, airflow
pattern, and indoor air temperature in residential buildings in Tehran,
Iran. The results indicated that the domed roof outperforms the two
other roof types in terms of energy performance.

2
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al.
Another advantage of deploying curved roofs is that they can easily
be coupled to other passive cooling and natural ventilation techniques to
supply superior comfort conditions. Asfour and Gadi (Asfour and Gadi,
2006) used CFD for exploring the integrated system of windcatcher
one-sided windcatchers with curved roofs. They concluded that no
matter the geometry of the roof was a dome or a vault, the integration of
windcatchers and curved roofs would be effective in ventilation
enhancement. Chel and Tiwari (Chel and Tiwari, Jan. 2009) numerically
and experimentally studied a hybrid system with an earth-to-air heat
exchanger (EAHE) and a vaulted roof to provide ventilation in a
six-room residential building in New Delhi, India. It was reported that
the hybrid system reduced the indoor temperature relative to the out­
door temperature by 5% in summer and by 15% in winter. Haghighi
et al. (Haghighi, Golshaahi and Abdinejad, 2015) numerically investi­
gated the hybrid system of a vaulted roof and a direct evaporative
Fig. 1. Schematic diagrams of (a) the domain, involving a one-story building with two rooms and four domes over the roof, and (b) the cooling channel connected to
the building.
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Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756
channel in one-story buildings. To this end, a number of environmental
variables, including wind speed, ambient relative humidity, and outdoor
temperature, were studied. Also, ATCS (adaptive thermal comfort
standard) was also employed to measure the system’s ability to provide
thermal comfort. Eventually, a number of Iranian provinces were
introduced as the best candidates for implementing the system. In
another study, Haghighi et al. (Poshtiri, Bahar and Jafari, 2016)
numerically studied the performance of a one-story test room with a
domed roof coupled to a solar absorption chiller. They explored the
contributions of some geometric variables, such as the vent diameter
and cooling channel height, to the air change per hour in a test room.
The ability of the system to provide thermal comfort was examined. The
vent size was alternated at the inlet and outlet to evaluate the air change
per hour adjustability. It was observed that the cooling system reduced
the consumption of electricity by 45% relative to a split air conditioner
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

at an equal capacity within Bandar Abbas, Iran. Mirzazade Akbarpoor where Ta, out denotes the air temperature at the outlet vent of the pro­
et al. (Mirzazade Akbarpoor, Haghighi Poshtiri and Biglari, May 2021) vided cooling channel. It is noteworthy that (Qt ) for a specific building
numerically analyzed an integrated cooling system with a domed roof hinges on ambient conditions, building usage and specifications. How­
and EAHE. They sought to enhance thermal comfort and provide cooling ever, in the present study, so as to generalize the results, different values
within a test building. Their proposed system could provide comfort for are considered for cooling demand.
the domed room under the cooling loads of lower than 1 kW only by
three pipes with 0.4 m of diameter and 35 m of length and without the
need for electric energy. 3.1. Simulating air flow inside and around the buildings
Reviewing the available literature revealed that the natural venti­
lation capability of the domed roof integrated with the evaporative For simulation of airflow in the computational domain, a 3-D real­
cooling channel to meet thermal comfort conditions in the indoor izable k − ε turbulence model has been utilized, which can predict the
environment under different climatic conditions and in hot months of wind-induced airflow patterns accurately (Mu and Gao, 2018). The
the year had not been investigated independently up until now. Thus, to governing equations assuming incompressibility of the air due to the low
fill this gap, in the present study, a one-story building with a domed roof speed and steady-state conditions are defined as follows (Fluent, 2006):
is integrated with an evaporative cooling channel to evaluate the ther­ The continuity equation:
mal comfort and natural ventilation conditions aligned with ATCS (de
D. G.S. Brager, 2000) and thermal comfort standard ISO7730 (de D. G.S. ∂(ρui )
=0 (2)
Brager, 2000). ATCS determines the acceptable range of room temper­ ∂xi
ature when no mechanical devices or, in other words, no The conservation of momentum equation:
energy-consuming devices are used to provide air conditioning in the ( ) ( )
desired space. It should be noted that according to ATCS, when the mean ∂ ρui uj
=
∂P ∂ ∂ui ∂uj
+ + +
∂ ( )
− ρui ′ uj ′ + fi (3)
monthly outdoor air temperature is greater than 33.5◦ C, the maximum ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
allowable value for the room temperature is set approximately at 32◦ C
(de D. G.S. Brager, 2000). In addition, this study used the ISO7730 as a in which − ρui ′ uj ′ denotes the Reynolds stresses, which are dependent on
general standard for mechanical air conditioning to investigate comfort the average velocity. The turbulence kinetic energy, k, and turbulence
conditions. According to the standard, to create thermal comfort con­ dissipation rate, ε, are derived from the following equation:
ditions in summer, the room temperature and relative humidity must ( )
∂ ∂ ∂ϕ
vary between 23◦ C and 26◦ C and between 30% and 70%, respectively (ρϕui ) = Γ + Sϕ (4)
∂xi ∂xj ∂xj
(Fanger, 1984).
in which ϕ is a scalar that can be k or ε.
2. System description
In order to connect the solution parameters at the wall adjacent
nodes and the dependent variables on the wall, the standard wall
As shown in Fig. 1(a), in the present study, two connected rooms
function method proposed by Launder and Spalding is adopted. It is a
with the dimensions of 4 m × 4 m × 3.125 m are selected as the model.
default option in Fluent software and is as follows (I., 2006):
Each room possesses two domed roofs, which are considered hemi­
spheres with a radius of 1.95 m. According to Fig. 1, the wind direction is Ln(9.793Y ∗ )
U∗ = (5)
assumed to be unchanged and parallel to the x-axis of the coordinate 0.42
system. These rooms are coupled to an evaporative cooling channel as an
energy-efficient cooling strategy (Boukhanouf, Amer, Ibrahim and Cal­ where
autit, 2018). As the wind flow passes along the roof surface, the velocity ρ Cμ 1/4 kP 1/2 YP
increases at the top of the dome, and accordingly, the pressure de­ Y∗ = (6)
μ
creases. This pressure difference ventilates the air inside the room
through the apertures embedded in the roof. By exiting the warm air out The logarithmic law for mean velocity is known to be valid for Y ∗ >
of the domed roofs, fresh air is drawn from the evaporative cooling about 30 to 60. In FLUENT, the log-law is employed when Y ∗ >11.225.
channel into the rooms. As illustrated in Fig. 1(b), there is a water Otherwise (i.e., Y ∗ <11.225), FLUENT applies the laminar stress-strain
reservoir at the bottom of the cooling channel, and with installing a correlation at the wall-adjacent cells (i.e., U∗ = Y ∗ ).
pump for water circulation, a thin water film flows on the walls. As The current study assumes that wind blows in a direction perpen­
warm fresh air passes through this supplied channel, sensible and latent dicular to plane A (see Fig. 2). Therefore, the boundary condition at the
heat transfers occur because of a temperature difference between water inlet of the computational domain (plane A) is considered to be the wind
film and ambient air and evaporation. As a consequence, the cooled air velocity profile near the ground. This profile contributes to more accu­
enters the rooms, and thermal comfort conditions can be provided. rate and realistic results in comparison to the constant velocity profile.
The velocity profile of wind near the earth surface is as follows (Faghih
3. System modeling and Bahadori, 2011):
uy ( y )0.28
Modeling of the system comprises two parts in the present study. = (7)
ud d
First, the airflow in the computational domain is simulated utilizing the
ANSYS FLUENT software, and the air velocity in the cooling channel is where ud denotes the wind speed at the top of plane A (see Fig. 2). uy
computed. In the second section, a computer program developed in represents the wind velocity at an altitude of y. It is noteworthy that
MATLAB is utilized for estimating the air temperature at the outlet of the since the wind speed is measured at an altitude of 10 m in weather
evaporative cooling channel, which is equal to the temperature of the stations (Leroy, 2019), the wind velocity profile is defined so that u10 is
room inlet air. equal to a certain value. Additionally, the pressure outlet boundary
Considering the room cooling demand (Qt ), average room tempera­ condition has been adopted for the outlet (plane (B)). Planes C, D and F
ture (Tr ) is calculated from the following equation: are symmetrical, and the wall boundary condition (No-slip boundary
condition) is considered for plane E.
Qt
Tr = Ta,out + (1) For simulation of airflow inside and around the buildings, the
m a CP
computational domain was meshed in GAMBIT software. According to

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A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

Fig. 2. Schematic representation for the geometry of the computational domain.

Fig. 3. Mesh design for (a) the inside and (b) the surrounding of the test building.

Fig. 3, the meshing around and inside the buildings was unstructured,
while by moving away from the buildings, coarser and structured mesh
type was applied. Also, to enhance the accuracy, the mesh density near
the walls was increased. Then, in order to solve the governing equations,
an implicit solver in Fluent software is employed. In addition, the
SIMPLE algorithm is used to apply the pressure-velocity coupling. The
convergence criterion for the velocity components at different di­
rections, continuity, k and ε is assumed 10− 6. After simulations in Fluent
software, the velocity distribution in the computational domain is
obtained.

5
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

For the sake of verifying the simulation performed, the impact of two
parameters, including dimensions of the computational domain (Fig. 4)
and the number of cells (Fig. 5) on ACH, is investigated. As can be
observed in Fig. 4, four computational domains with the dimensions of
100 m × 100 m × 20 m, 120 m × 120 m × 25 m, 140 m × 140 m × 30 m,
and 160 m × 160 m × 35 m were modeled and meshed in the GAMBIT
software. Also, according to Fig.5, the number of cells for each
computational domain was changed from 200000 to 760000. It was
observed that when the dimensions of the domain increase from 140 m
× 140 m × 30 m to 160 m × 160 m × 35 m and the number of grid rise
from 750000 to 760000, the variations of ACH values are less than 1%.
Accordingly, the dimensions of 140m × 140m × 30m and 750000 cells
were considered for the computational domain.

3.2. Mathematical model of the cooling channel

The evaporative cooling channel connected to the building (see

Fig. 1) is the cooling part of the system. To this end, it composes of two
wet parallel plates. Due to the symmetrical geometry of the cooling
channel, only half of it is depicted in Fig. 6. According to Fig. 6, both the
airflow and thin water film flow in the same direction. As the warm
outdoor air passes through the cooling channel, its temperature de­
creases and its humidity increases due to water evaporation. In order to
investigate the impact of geometric and environmental parameters on
the performance of the proposed system, mathematical modeling of the
evaporative cooling channel is required. To simplify the heat and mass
transfer analysis of the system, the following assumptions are made in
the present study:
1 The walls are well insulated, and therefore, the heat exchange
through the walls to the surroundings is negligible.
2 The heat transfer by thermal radiation is neglected because of a low
temperature difference.
3 The airflow inside the cooling channel is hydrodynamically and
thermally fully developed.
4 Transport phenomena occur at a steady state.
5 The enthalpy of air is considered as a linear function of its wet-bulb
temperature.
6 Due to the slight temperature variation of water and air, their spe­
cific heats are considered to be constant.
Fig. 5. Effects of the number of cells on the ACH value at different
wind velocities.
7 The water film on the vertical surface is very thin, stable, and uni­
form without dropping of much water.
8 The Lewis number, a decisive factor in heat and mass transfer pro­
cesses, is considered as 1 in the present study. This assumption is
valid in most air-water systems (Kabeel and Bassuoni, 2017).
The governing equations of transport phenomena are obtained
through utilizing mass and energy balances for the element of the
cooling channel (see Fig. 6). The energy balance equation for the control
volume of airflow (the control volume A in Fig. 6) is defined as follows:
ma dHm = dQla + dQse (8)
in which ma is the mass flow rate of the air, and Qla and Qse denote latent
and sensible heat transfer between the water film and air, respectively.
Also, Hm is the specific enthalpy of the moist air, which can be estimated
as the sum of the enthalpy of dry air and water vapor (Gilani and
Poshtiri, 2014):
( )
Hm = Cp,a Ta + ωa Cp,wv Ta + Hfg (9)

The sensible heat exchange between the airflow and water falling
film can be written as follows:
( )
dQse = ha Twf − Ta Lx dy (10)

where ha is the convection heat transfer coefficient, which can be

calculated by the following relation:
Nua ka
ha = (11)
Ly

in which the Nusselt number can be calculated as follows (Bergman,

Lavine, Incropera and Dewitt, 2017):
3.66 Rea < 2300
Nua = { (12)
0.023 Re0.8
a Pr
0.3
Rea ≥ 2300

The latent heat transfer which is due to evaporation can be obtained

as follows:
dQla = dmwf Hwv (13)

Fig. 4. Effects of the dimensions of the computational domain on the ACH where Hwv is the specific enthalpy of water vapor. Considering a linear
value at different wind velocities.

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A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of heat and mass transfer in the evaporative cooling channel.

function of temperature for Hwv , it could be written as follows (Gilani

Hwf = Cp,wf Twf (21)
and Poshtiri, 2014):
By substitution of Eqs. (10), 13, (15) and (21) in Eq. (20) and rear­
Hwv = Cp,w Twf + Hfg (14)
ranging, the equation governing the temperature of water film can be
and dmwf is the mass flow rate of the water evaporation, which could be achieved as follows:
calculated by utilizing heat/mass analogy as below: dTwf Lx [ ( ) ( ( ))]
= ha Ta − Twf − hm (ωsat − ωa ) Hfg + Twf Cp,wv + Cp,wf
dmwf = hm (ωsat − ωa )Lx dy (15) dy mwf Cp,wf
(22)
in which ωsat denotes the humidity ratio of the saturated air at water film Considering that the airflow and water film move in the same di­
temperature, and hm represents the mass transfer coefficient calculated rection, the needed boundary conditions for solving the above-
according to the following equation (Bergman, Lavine, Incropera and mentioned differential equations are as follows:
Dewitt, 2017): ⎧
⎨ Ta (0) = Tamb
ha (23)
hm = (16) ⎩
ωa (0) = ωamb
ρa Cp,a Le2/3 Twf (0) = Twf ,in
In addition, the variations of humidity ratio can be found by appli­ The implicit form of finite difference scheme was utilized to solve the
cation of Eq. (15), taking into account that the mass flow rate of the equations, and a computer program was developed in MATLAB. Fig. 7
condensed water vapor can be estimated by the following as well: demonstrates the flow chart of the procedure. First, inlet air conditions
dmwf = ma dωa (17) are set, and the temperature of water film is guessed. Then, the set of
equations are solved, and the values are updated through iterations until
Therefore, it can be obtained from Eqs. (15) and (17) that: the convergence criterion (shown in Fig. 7) is fulfilled. In addition, four
dωa hm (ωsat − ωa )Lx different grid sizes, including 40 × 30, 80 × 60, 120 × 90 and 160 ×
= (18) 120, were considered, so as to assess the impact of grid size on the
dy ma
adopted numerical model. It was observed that as the grid size rises from
Substituting Eqs. (9), (10) and (13) in Eq. (8), the equation giving the 120 × 90 to 160 × 120, the air temperature at the outlet of the evapo­
air temperature can be obtained as follows: rative cooling channel varies in the order of 10− 3. Consequently, the grid
( ) size of 120 × 90 was selected in order to obtain accurate and grid-
dTa Lx Twf − Ta ( )
= hm Cp,wv (ωsat − ωa ) + ha (19) independent results. Furthermore, the evaporative cooling channel in
dy ma Cp,m
the present study can be deemed to work as a direct evaporative cooler.
in which Cp,m is the specific heat capacity of the moist air, and is defined Therefore, for verifying the adopted mathematical model in the present
as Cp,m = Cp,a + ωCp,wv . study, experimental and theoretical results of Ref. (Camargo, Ebinuma
and Silveira, 2005) under the same conditions have been utilized. The
The energy balance equation for the control volume of evaporated
characteristics of the direct evaporative cooler are provided in Table 1.
water (i.e., control volume B in Fig. 6) is as follows:
As shown in Fig. 8, the cooling effectiveness of evaporative cooler (e) in
mwf dHwf + Hwf dmwf = − dQla − dQse (20) various Reynolds numbers is the parameter used for verification of the
proposed numerical model of the present work. The effectiveness of a
where the enthalpy of water film is: direct evaporative cooler is the ratio of the actual temperature difference

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A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

Fig. 7. Flow chart of the computer program.

to the maximum theoretical temperature difference, which occurs when Ebinuma and Silveira, 2005):
the air temperature at the outlet of the evaporative cooler is equal to the
Ta,in − Ta,out
outdoor air wet-bulb temperature. The effectiveness of a direct evapo­ e= (24)
Ta,in − Twb
rative cooler can be calculated from the following relation (Camargo,

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A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

Table 1 4. Results and discussions

Characteristics of the direct evaporative cooler of Ref. (Camargo, Ebinuma and
Silveira, 2005).
Parameter Value
Dimensions of humid pad 0.152 (m) × 0.335 (m) × 0.61
Ratio of heat transfer area to volume of the (m)
pad 370 (m2/m3)
Inlet air temperature 303 (K)
Inlet air relative humidity 0.35
Air thermal conductivity 0.0263 (W/m K)
Specific heat capacity of the humid air 1033 (J/kg K)
Specific heat capacity of the dry air 1006 (J/kg K)
Specific heat capacity of the water vapor 1805 (J/kg K)
in which Ta,in and Ta,out are the air dry-bulb temperature at the inlet and
outlet of the direct evaporative cooler, respectively. Also, Twb represents
the outdoor air wet-bulb temperature.
According to Fig. 8, the maximum error between the results of the
present numerical model and experimental and theoretical data pro­
vided in Ref. (Camargo, Ebinuma and Silveira, 2005) was 2.19% and
7.87%, so the accuracy of the numerical solution can be deduced. The
difference between the results of the present numerical model and
experimental data of Ref. (Camargo, Ebinuma and Silveira, 2005) could
be attributed to the following factors:
1 The entrance region is not considered in the present model, and it is
assumed that the airflow is fully developed over the entire channel.
2 The Lewis number is taken as 1 in the present study.
In addition, as can be observed in Fig. 8, the average error of the
adopted numerical method in predicting experimental data is approxi­
mately 3% less than that of the theoretical method proposed in
Ref. (Camargo, Ebinuma and Silveira, 2005). In other words, the nu­
merical scheme deployed in this study is more accurate than the theo­
retical equation in terms of estimating the effectiveness of the direct
evaporative cooler. This is due to the fact that, unlike the theoretical
model of Ref. (Camargo, Ebinuma and Silveira, 2005), in the present
study, the differential equation for temperature variation of water fall­
ing film has been obtained and added to the governing equation, which
culminates in a discrepancy between the result of the current numerical
model and the theoretical study provided in Ref. (Camargo, Ebinuma
and Silveira, 2005).
In this section, the performance of the proposed system would be
assessed. To this end, both geometrical and environmental parameters
would be considered. Regarding the geometry of the introduced system,
five different dimensions of 4.0 m × 0.05 m and 4.0 m × 0.1 m, 4.0 m ×
0.2 m, 4.0 m × 0.3 m, 4.0 m × 0.4 m are chosen for the inlet vent of the
rooms. Also, three different diameters of 0.15 m, 0.30 m, 0.60 m are
considered for the domes’ aperture diameters. In order to evaluate the
impact of environmental conditions on the system performance,
different values are considered for wind velocity (0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, 3.2
m/s), outdoor temperature (35, 40 and 45◦ C), and ambient relative
humidity (10, 40 and 70%). Furthermore, the potential of the hybrid
system in terms of providing comfort conditions would be evaluated.
Finally, the energy metric and environmental analyses would be carried
out to compare the proposed system with data provided through the
literature review.
4.1. Impact of geometric parameters on the system performance
Dome’s aperture diameter (W), air gap depth (d) in an evaporative
cooling channel as well as inlet air-vent height (Z) can be considered as
the effective geometric parameters on the system’s performance. It is
worth noting that the parameters d and W are usually considered to be
constant in the calculations due to the difficulty in changing their value
by the occupants. However, the effect of these parameters (d and W) on
the performance of the system is provided in Table 2. As represented in
Table 2, increasing the air gap depth results in an increase in ACH due to
reducing the pressure drop along the cooling channel. As a result of this
increase in the ACH value (i.e., rise in the air velocity), the available
time for transferring the heat and mass between the water falling film
and airflow within the evaporative cooling channel decreases, and
therefore, the air temperature at the inlet of the room rises. According to
Table 2, a similar trend can be seen for the effect of aperture diameter on
the inlet vent temperature and ACH values. Furthermore, in Table 3, the
effect of the inlet air vent (Z) height on ACH is represented. According to
this table, it can be deduced that the ACH value is controllable through
adjusting the height of the inlet vent. By increasing this height, the
pressure drop reduces along the cooling channel and hence, the mass
flow rate of cooling air increases.

Fig. 8. Comparison between the result of the adopted numerical model and that of the experimental and theoretical works provided in Ref. (Camargo, Ebinuma and
Silveira, 2005).

9
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

Table 2
Impacts of the air gap depth of the cooling channel and aperture diameter of the domed roof on the system performance when RH = 10 %, Tamb = 35 (∘ C).
W = 0.3(m), Z = 0.2(m)
Wind velocity*(m/s) Air gap depthof cooling channel (m) ACH(h-1) Inlet vent temperature(◦ C)

0.4 0.05 0.56 18.20

0.1 0.96 19.44
0.2 2.00 20.70
0.3 2.10 21.14
0.4 3.60 22.31
1.6 0.05 6.64 22.31
0.1 7.70 23.40
0.2 10.30 25.20
0.3 11.20 25.65
0.4 14.40 26.23
d = 0.4 (m), Z = 0.2 (m)
Wind velocity* Diameter of ACH Inlet vent temperature
(m/s) the aperture (m) (h− 1) (◦ C)
3.2 0.15 13.0 23.51
0.30 17.4 24.11
0.60 20.0 26.60

*Note: The constant value of wind velocity means the wind velocity profile is defined so that u10 is equal to a certain value.

between 0.8 to 3.2 m/s, the natural ventilator can provide the appro­
Table 3
priate ACH range (i.e., which should be 3-20 (Wang and Wang, 2000)).
ACH value of the test building for different wind velocities.
The impact of ambient air relative humidity on the inlet air tem­
Wind velocity at 10 m(m/s) Height of inlet air vent, Z (m) ACH(h-1) perature of the room is depicted in Figs. 10a to 10e for different tem­
0.05 0.30 peratures of the outdoor air. As it is evident, an increase in the ambient
0.2 0.1 0.36 air relative humidity is followed by a reduction of the system’s cooling
0.2 0.40 capability due to lower latent heat transfer between air and water film
0.3 0.54
0.4 0.70
and the subsequent higher room inlet air temperature.
0.05 0.56
0.4 0.1 0.96
0.2 2.06 4.3. Meeting thermal comfort criteria
0.3 2.10
0.4 3.62 In this section, the conditions associated with the climate required to
0.05 3.90
provide thermal comfort conditions are determined according to ATCS
0.8 0.1 4.50
0.2 5.50 and ISO 7730. To calculate the maximum room cooling demand (Qt )
0.3 7.10 under which comfort conditions are met, first, the ACH value of the test
0.4 7.84 room and the inlet vent temperature (Ta, out ) should be ascertained.
0.05 6.64 Then, by setting the average room temperature (Tr ) at the maximum
1.6 0.1 7.70
0.2 10.30
allowable value (e.g., 26 ∘ C and 32 ∘ C for ISO 7730 and ATCS, respec­
0.3 11.24 tively), one can easily determine the maximum room cooling demand
0.4 14.46 (Qt ) according to Eq. (1). Table 4 provides the maximum cooling de­
0.05 16.42 mand under which ATCS conditions (i.e., Tr ≤ 32 ∘ C) are met for the
3.2 0.1 17.72
wind velocity equal to 0.8, 1.6, and 3.2 m/s, Tamb = 35 ∘ C and RH=10,
0.2 20.0
0.3 21.0 40, and 70%. According to Table 4, the system can guarantee thermal
0.4 25 comfort for a maximum cooling load of 3571 W (i.e., 112 W/m2) for
each test room when the wind velocity is 3.2 m/s, and the ambient
Note: d = 0.4 (m), W = 0.6 (m)
relative humidity is 10%. As is evident, an increase in ambient relative
humidity leads to a reduction in the cooling capability of the system.
4.2. Impacts of environmental parameters on the performance of the
Therefore, installing dehumidifiers before the cooling channel to
system
maintain the ambient relative humidity at low levels proves to be
essential. Furthermore, regarding ISO 7730 standard, the proposed
The velocity of wind, ambient air temperature, and relative humidity
system is capable of providing the permissible temperature range (i.e.,
of outdoor air are the primary climatic conditions affecting the thermal
Tr ≤ 26 ∘ C) when the maximum cooling demand is less than 500 W or 16
performance of the hybrid system of the domed roof and evaporative
W/m2 (i.e., Eq. (1)) and the ambient relative humidity is less than 10%.
cooling channel. Fig. 9 illustrates the corresponding streamlines and air
Figs. 10(a) to 10(e) demonstrate the proposed system’s capability in
velocity contours for the wind velocity profile of 3.2 m/s at the height of
providing comfort conditions according to ATCS and ISO standards
10 m above the ground. As shown in Fig. 9, a lower air velocity is
under different environmental conditions. To this end, two horizontal
observed for the rear of the test building, and consequently, inside the
lines named ATCS and ISO lines define the maximum acceptable tem­
cooling channel compared to the free-stream air velocity. In calculations
perature regarding these standards. The intersection of these horizontal
for ACH, the volumetric flow rate of the entering air is required. Table 3
lines with indoor temperature determines the maximum allowable
represents the ACH values in each room for different wind velocities. As
ambient relative humidity. As the wind velocity increases, the system
can be observed, when the wind velocity rises, the value of ACH in­
needs drier air with a lower relative humidity to supply the required
creases within the test rooms. When the wind blows more strongly over
cooling load. Moreover, the suggested hybrid system loses its efficiency
the domes, its velocity on the top of the domes increases bringing about
in warm and humid climates.
a higher air suction through the aperture, followed by an increase in
Fig. 11 compares the cooling potential of the proposed system (i.e.,
ACH value. As can be observed in Table 3, when the wind velocity is
112 W/m2) in meeting thermal comfort conditions according to ATCS

10
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al.
Fig. 9. Air velocity countors and streamlines inside and outside the test building for the wind velocity profile of 3.2 m/s at the height of 10 m above the ground.
with different hybrid systems suggested in the literature. To this end, a
comprehensive data analysis was carried out. Four different hybrid
systems encompassing the integrated system of EAHE and domed roof
(Mirzazade Akbarpoor, Haghighi Poshtiri and Biglari, May 2021), EAHE
and vaulted roof (Chel and Tiwari, Jan. 2009), evaporative cooling and
vaulted roof (Haghighi, Golshaahi and Abdinejad, 2015), and solar
absorber chiller and domed roof (Poshtiri, Bahar and Jafari, 2016) have
been compared with the results of the present study. As can be observed,
the integrated system of the vaulted roof and evaporative cooling
channel can bring about the most cooling potential, mre than 120 W/m2,
compared to the other passive systems. The superiority of
Ref. (Haghighi, Golshaahi and Abdinejad, 2015) to this study is due to
the fact that in (Chel and Tiwari, Jan. 2009) the test room is smaller in
size and the curved roof covers the whole test room; however, in the
present work, only a part of the roof is covered with the domes.
4.4. Energy consumption
This section compares the developed system to a split inverter air
conditioner in terms of power consumption. The proposed system could
provide thermal comfort in the two buildings with an area of 64 m2 at
the maximum cooling load of ~7kW (i.e., 3571 W for each room). Given
a 3.125 m distance between the spraying nozzles and the water tank, it is
required to employ a water pump with a 3.125 mH2O head. Hence, this
work applied two pumps with a parallel configuration, 40 W of power
consumption, 10 L/min of maximum capacity, and 2.2 mH2O of the
maximum head (Weiku, 2019). Therefore, comfort is provided by the
system at a power consumption rate of 0.08 kW. Moreover, it should be
noticed that to supply this cooling load (i.e., 112 W/m2), approximately
11 kg/h of the fresh water in each evaporative cooling channel should be
consumed. However, a split inverter air conditioner with a nominal
capacity of 7.7 kW and an energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 3.25 would
consume 2.2 kW of power to supply the cooling demand of the building
(Xpower Platinum High wall splits-product data, 2015). Therefore, the
proposed system may diminish cooling power consumption by approx­
imately 2 kW (i.e., 33 W h/m2 ) relative to the split inverter, respectively.
Following the same procedure through data analysis for the mentioned
hybrid systems of previous works, it would be possible to compare the
proposed system with other passive systems from an energy metric point
11
Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756
of view. As can be observed in Fig. 12, the integrated systems of evap­
orative cooling technique with the domed roof (present study) and
vaulted roof (Ref. (Haghighi, Golshaahi and Abdinejad, 2015)) in warm
arid climates can reduce the electric power consumption more signifi­
cantly (i.e., more than 30 W h/m2 ) due to the high capacity of latent
heat of the evaporation. However, in humid climates, where the evap­
orative cooling channel loses its efficiency, the application of solar en­
ergy as solar chillers (Ref. (Poshtiri, Bahar and Jafari, 2016)) or
geothermal energy as EAHE (i.e., Ref. (Mirzazade Akbarpoor, Haghighi
Poshtiri and Biglari, May 2021)) could be effective alternatives.
4.5. Environmental analysis
Increased power consumption has added to CO2 emissions and
worsened environmental impacts (Lizana et al., 2021). As a result, it is
crucial to employ solutions to reduce the production of CO2 (Nabat et al.,
2021). As it has desirably low power consumption, the passive cooling
solution could help reduce the emission of CO2. The CO2 production
reduction of a system is obtained as (Sanaye, Emadi and Refahi, 2019):
mtcer = μCO2 × Eannual (25)
where mtcer is the total CO2 reduction per year, μCO2 is the emission
conversion factor (0.968 kg/kW) (Wang, Zhai, Jing and Zhang, Dec.
2010), and Eannual denotes the total saved energy per year (relative to
conventional split inverter systems). Assuming the considered hybrid
systems in sections 4.3 and 4.4 are employed solely in summer months
for 12 h per day, one can easily calculate the total amount of CO2
reduction per year for each of the integrated systems by utilizing Eq.
(25). For instance, the proposed system in the present study can save
2365 kW of energy per year relative to the split inverter system. Hence, a
total of 2290 kg of CO2 would be reduced every year (i.e., approximately
36 kg/m2 in a year) by deploying the suggested hybrid system instead of
the conventional cooling equipment. Fig. 12 compares different passive
systems of the literature with the present study in terms of the system
capability in emission reduction per area of the test building. As is
evident, the evaporative cooling technique, whether coupled to a dome
or a vault, especially in arid climates, can considerably lessen emission
production. Moreover, while Ref. (Mirzazade Akbarpoor, Haghighi
Poshtiri and Biglari, May 2021) and Ref. (Chel and Tiwari, Jan. 2009)
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

Fig. 10. Impact of the ambient relative humidity on the inlet vent temperature for Z = 0.2 m at three different outdoor temperatures of 35∘ C, 40∘ C, and 45∘ C, when
wind velocity profile at the height of 10 m above the ground is (a) 0.2 (m /s), (b) 0.4 (m /s), (c) 0.8 (m /s), (d) 1.6 (m /s), and (e) 3.2 (m /s).

both employed EAHE as a supplementary passive cooling, the higher

Table 4
energy consumption and therefore, the higher emission production of
The maximum cooling load according to ATCS for 35 ◦
C ambient air
the latter is due to the application of an auxiliary fan in Ref. (Chel and
temperature.
Tiwari, Jan. 2009); however, the proposed system of Ref. (Mirzazade
Wind velocity(m/s) R.H of ambient air(%) Maximum cooling load(W)
Akbarpoor, Haghighi Poshtiri and Biglari, May 2021) works naturally.
10 1507
0.8 40 964 5. Limitations
70 (− )
10 2361
1.6 40 1158 In the present study, due to the lack of proper facilities and equip­
70 (− ) ment, the experimental setup of the hybrid system was not constructed.
10 3571 Instead, the validation/verification of each component of the proposed
3.2 40 1653
system was carried out individually. Furthermore, it was assumed that
70 (− )
the building was in the direction of the prevailing wind. In future works,
the impacts of the wind direction and the interaction between the wind
and buoyancy effects on the performance of the hybrid system will be

12
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 80 (2022) 103756

Fig. 11. Comparing the cooling potential of the different hybrid systems.

Fig. 12. Energy metric and environmental analyses.

investigated. Also, the primary aim of this work was to conduct a
feasibility study as well as a performance evaluation of the proposed
system in different climatic conditions. In future studies, the system will
be evaluated economically and technically.
6. Conclusion
In the present study, the performance analysis of the hybrid system of
the domed roof and the evaporative cooling channel was investigated
numerically. By conducting 3-D CFD simulations and thermodynamic
modeling, the impact of different geometric and environmental pa­
rameters on the performance of the hybrid system was assessed. In the
following, through data analysis, the capability of the novel proposed
system in providing thermal comfort conditions was compared with that
of previous works. Furthermore, the hybrid systems of domed/vaulted
roofs were compared with conventional domestic cooling equipment in
terms of energy and environmental issues. The obtained results could be
listed as follows:
• Aperture diameter of the domed roof (W), air gap depth (d) in an
evaporative cooling channel as well as inlet air-vent height (Z) are
the geometric parameters affecting the performance of the proposed
hybrid system. Increasing the aperture diameter, air gap depth, and
inlet height raise the ACH value within the test building.
• The velocity of wind, ambient air temperature, and the relative hu­
midity of outdoor air are the primary climatic conditions affecting
the thermal performance of the hybrid system of domed roof and
evaporative cooling channel.

13
A. Mirzazade Akbarpoor et al.
• When the wind velocity is between 0.8 to 3.2 m/s, the proposed
natural ventilator can provide the appropriate ACH range in the
present study.
• According to the ATCS standard, the system can guarantee thermal
comfort for a maximum cooling load of 112 W/m2 when the wind
velocity is 3.2 m/s, and the ambient temperature and relative hu­
midity are less than 35∘ C and 10%, respectively. However, consid­
ering ISO 7730 standard for a similar climatic condition, the
proposed system is capable of providing the permissible temperature
range when the maximum cooling demand is less than 16 W/m2.
• The metric energy analysis showed that the integrated systems of
evaporative cooling technique with the domed roof could decrease
the electric energy consumption by about 33 W h/m2 relative to the
split inverter system. Hence, roughly 36 kg/m2 of CO2 would be
reduced every year by deploying the suggested hybrid system instead
of the conventional cooling equipment.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)
Discovery program and Canada First Research Excellence Fund (CFREF)
Future Energy Systems program.
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